0428

Installing the DTA The DTA (Figure 16.14) for a wind turbine is typically installed in the base of the tower, and is prepared and placed before the tower base section is erected. To install the DTA, hoist and set it onto the foundation according to manufacturer instruc- tions, which typically include the following steps: 1. Verify that the utility cables come out of the foundation far enough to terminate inside the cabinet. 2. Attach the slings to the console using the correct shackles. 3. Place softeners where required and attach tag lines. 4. Instruct the crane operator to center the crane hook over the console and hoist the console onto the foundation. 5. Place the console in the correct position. The electrical contractor will then do the following: 1. Feed the cables through the console opening and cut to length. 2. Cut heat shrink for the cables, install the lugs, and then slide the heat shrink over the lugs. 3. Connect the lugs to the correct terminals and verify the correct phase sequence of the cables. Figure 16.14 DTA/Control Console Caution! Be careful not to step on fiber optic cables. They are fragile and easily damaged. Unit 16 — Erecting Wind Turbines 16.11 UNIT 16

After the DTA is set and immediately before the tower base section is set, place a mark across the leveling nuts or shims and anchor bolts to ensure that the nuts do not get moved accidentally. Installing the Tower Base Section When the DTA is in place and the foundation is prepared, the next phase of the erection process is to prepare and install the tower base section. The first step in this installation is for the electrical contractor to prepare the electri- cal cables that run through the tower base section. Once this is done, Ironworkers inspect and rig the tower base section. To do this, follow these procedures: Note: Depending on the makeup of the crews, Ironworkers may be asked to assist with the some of the tasks involved in installing the tower cables (e.g., lowering of the power, control, and communica- tion cables). Figure 16.15 shows some of the cables inside a tower. Figure 16.15 Tower Cables • • • Inspect the tower interior and exterior for exposed metal, corrosion, and burrs. Remove all corrosion and burrs. If directed to make a repair by the Ironworker foreman, do so, and wash the tower section after the repair. Paint any exposed metal surfaces per manufacturer instructions. 16.12 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 16

• Instruct the crane operator to center the crane hook over the load, attach the rigging, remove the slack, and hold the load (Figure 16.16). • Attach the tag lines. • Instruct the main crane operator to hoist the tower base section into the upright position and to detach the tail crane hoist. • Prepare the foundation for the application of grout according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Figure 16.16 Installing the Tower Base Section • Place four wood blocks on the foundation spaced every 90 degrees between the anchor bolts as a safety precaution. • Lower the tower base section until the entry door is aligned relative to the control console and the bolt holes in the bottom flange are aligned with the anchor bolts. The crew members holding the tag lines should guide the tower base section down over the control console, paying close attention to pinch points between the bottom tower flange and the foundation so as to avoid them. • Remove the wood blocks. • Lower the tower base section onto the leveling nuts. Install nuts onto the leveling studs on the outside of the tower only, and turn the nuts two full turns. • Check the level of the top flange by having one crew member climb the tower base section to check the level while the ground crew members make adjustments to the leveling nuts or shims as required to bring the top flange into level. • Ensure that the crew member who has climbed the tower base section has returned to the bottom of the tower, and then tighten the top nuts (see Figure 16.17) with an impact wrench according to specifications. • Install all of the washers and nuts onto the inside and outside anchor bolts. • Place pieces of plywood across the tops of the cabinets to protect against damage from falling materials. • Apply grout according to manufacturer specifications. Figure 16.17 Top Nuts Ready to Be Tightened with an Impact Wrench • Once the grout has cured, perform final tensioning based on manufacturer instructions. This must be completed before the installation of the upper mid and top sections of the tower, and before the rotor is installed. Unit 16 — Erecting Wind Turbines 16.13 UNIT 16

Note: When finishing the grout application at the leveling nut pock- ets from inside the tower, use caution as power may be present at the incoming electrical lines for the cabinets. Figure 16.18 shows the final grouting process. Figure 16.18 Finishing the Foundation At this point in the process, the electrical contractor will install the temporary wir- ing of the power outlets and tower lighting. Installing the Mid Section As with the installation of the tower base section, the first step in installing the tower mid section is for the electrical contractor to prepare the electrical cables that run through it. Once this is done, the Ironworkers inspect, rig, and install the tower mid section using procedures similar to those used to install the base section. Figures 16.19– 16.23 illustrate these procedures. Once the mid section and base section bolt holes are aligned, check for ladder alignment (Figure 16.24) or that the zero degree mark on the base and mid sections provided by the manufacturer align with one another. Ensure that there are no electrical cables in pinch points, and then lower the section onto the base section. Insert the number of nuts, washers, and bolts required by the manufacturer to make the section safely connected before the load is released, and then hand-tighten them. At this point, the rigging can be removed. Figure 16.19 Lifting the Mid Section 16.14 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 16

Figure 16.20 Rigging Properly Figure 16.21 Tripping the Mid Section Attached to the Top of the Mid Section Figure 16.22 Erection Figure 16.23 Installing the Crane Swinging the Mid Section into Position Mid Section Figure 16.24 Properly Aligned Ladder Unit 16 — Erecting Wind Turbines 16.15 UNIT 16

Install the ladder splice plates. The hardware and instructions for their installation will be provided by the manufacturer. Caution! Aluminum tower ladder sections usually surpass fixed ladder codes, and are suitable for a 300-pound load. Check the manufacturer’s installation manual to be certain, however. Never free climb a wind turbine’s tower ladder or attach a carabineer to the rungs of the aluminum tower ladder’s side rails only. Always use a rope grab and safety cable. The Ironworkers will then install the remaining nuts, washers, and bolts, and ten- sion the safety cables (these may be preinstalled by the tower section manufacturer) according to manufacturer specifications. The final tension will be determined by the tower manufacturer recommendations. Note: Some towers will have four sections, making the next section the upper mid section. When this is the case, the process for install- ing the upper mid section is essentially the same as that for install- ing the mid section. Installing the Upper Top Section The top section of the tower supports the nacelle and rotor. The process of rigging and installing the top section (Figure 16.25) is similar to that used for the lower sections; however, according to some manufacturers, the tower top section should not be installed until the grout has cured and all of the anchor bolts have been tensioned. Refer to the foundation drawings for the tension values and sequence. Figure 16.25 Installing the Top Section Note: Although this varies by manufacturer, the final tensioning of the top tower section is typically performed after installation of the nacelle. Do not use an impact wrench for final tensioning. 16.16 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 16

Installing the Nacelle The nacelle is the shell or casing of a propeller-type wind turbine, covering the gearbox, generator, hub, and other parts. As such, extreme care must be taken in preparing, rigging, and lifting the nacelle into place at the top of the tower. A nacelle installation is shown in Figures 16.26–16.28. The general steps to prepare, rig, and hoist the nacelle, however, include the following: Note: Always refer to the manufacturer’s directions for detailed instructions regarding the installation of the nacelle. 1. Secure all power cables to protect them from pinching. 2. Install the slings at the specified lift points. 3. Disengage and/or open the nacelle latches according to manufacturer guidelines. 4. Hoist the nacelle cover and set it onto straw bales (if applicable). Leave the rigging attached to the nacelle cover for later use. 5. Hoist the lifting beam over the nacelle and guide the rigging to the lift points. 6. Perform the mechanical tasks as required by the manufacturer (e.g., turn the piston, release the brake, disengage the lock on the brake disc rotor, verify that all mounting bolts are present, etc.). Figure 16.27 Swinging the Nacelle into Place Unit 16 — Erecting Wind Turbines Figure 16.26 Hoisting the Nacelle Figure 16.28 Installing the Nacelle 16.17 UNIT 16

7. 8. 9. 10. Attach rigging to the nacelle. Inspect the nacelle for damage and missing paint. Clean the nacelle and touch up paint as required. Use a hydraulic torque wrench or hammer wrench to loosen and remove the mounting bolts. Hoist the nacelle into position on top of the tower top section. To do this successfully, the crane operator, the installation crew on the ground, and the installation crew at the top of the tower must remain in constant communication. Caution! Never allow the nacelle to make contact with the tower of the crane. Monitor the weather conditions at all times to ensure a safe lift of the nacelle. Beware of lightning and gusty winds. The tag lines must be attached to a suitable point (e.g., a vehicle tie-off point) at all times. Align the nacelle and tower flange bolt holes. Install the specified number of bolts at the locations identified by the manufacturer. When all bolts are installed, lower the nacelle onto the tower flange. Tighten all bolts in the sequence required by the manufacturer. Remove the nacelle rigging. Hoist and install the nacelle cover onto the nacelle. Engage all latches and install the ground straps, ducts, and other pieces as required by the manufacturer. The electrical contractor will finish installing any nacelle lighting as required. Tension the nacelle mounting bolts as required by the manufacturer. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Tension tower flange bolts (top-to-mid and mid-to-bottom flanges) as required by the manufacturer. Perform a bolt inspection and mark inspected bolts according to manufacturer specifications. Install the tower door entry steps (see Figure 16.29). Figure 16.29 Tower Door Entry and Steps 16.18 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 16

Installing the Rotor The wind turbine rotor includes the blades mounted on the hub of the nacelle gearbox (Figure 16.30) and generator. Given the size of these blades (see, for example, Figure 16.31), extreme caution must be used when assembling, rigging, hoisting, and installing the rotor. Figure 16.31 Turbine Blades Figure 16.30 Nacelle Gearbox Note: To make the installation easier, assemble the blades to the rotor on the ground, as shown in Figures 16.32 and 16.33 (the only other option is a single-blade erection after hanging the rotor). Do not mismatch blade sets. Always refer to the nameplate on each blade for the serial number. Figure 16.32 Connecting the Blades Figure 16.33 Blades Connected to to the Rotor the Rotor Unit 16 — Erecting Wind Turbines 16.19 UNIT 16

Note: When lifting or storing the blades, be certain to follow all manufacturer specifications (see Figure 16.34). Figure 16.34 Example of Manufacturer Specifications Follow 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. these procedures to install a wind turbine rotor: Verify that the foundation bolts have been tensioned and that all tower section bolts have been tensioned to the values listed in the bolt tension specifications. Install the slings onto the turbine rotor, using caution so as not to damage the nose cone. Offload the rotor onto cribbing and position it for final assembly. Install studs into the open rotor holes. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for final preparation of the turbine rotor. Offload and stage the blades. This process is rather detailed and typically requires two cranes, a number of mechanical procedures, very specific tension requirements, verification of blade alignment and pitch, and final cleaning and preparation for installation. Install the rotor assembly onto the main shaft (typically using two cranes). This process should be described in detail in the manufacturer’s installation guide, and will include positioning the blades; attaching the shackles, slings, and tag lines; hoisting the rotor; guiding the rotor onto the main shaft; and tightening and torquing the bolts as specified. Caution! Never allow the rotor to swing and thereby make contact with the tower or cranes. Never allow the blades to touch the ground (they should always be on dunnage or cribbing). 16.20 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 16

Figures 16.35-16.38 show a rotor being lifted and installed. Figure 16.35 Preparing to Trip Rotor and Blades Figure 16.37 Rotor Being Lifted Figure 16.38 Ironworker Preparing to Connect the Rotor and Blades Figure 16.36 Hoisting of the Rotor and Blades Unit 16 — Erecting Wind Turbines 16.21 UNIT 16

▶▶OBJECTIVE 5: WIND TURBINE MAINTENANCE New wind turbines are designed to work for some 120,000 hours of operation throughout their design lifetime of twenty years. That is far more than an automo- bile engine, which will generally last from 4,000 to 6,000 hours. Experience shows that maintenance costs are generally low while a wind turbine is new, but increase as it ages. Some wind turbine components in particular, such as rotor blades and generators, are also subject to more wear and tear than others. Because the price of a new set of rotor blades, a generator, or a gearbox is usually about fifteen to twenty percent of the price of a new wind turbine, when a wind turbine is near the end of its technical design lifetime, its owners may find it advan- tageous to increase that lifetime through a major overhaul of the turbine (e.g., by replacing the turbine’s rotor blades). Many bearings in the gearbox are also lubricated with an automatic greasing sys- tem that requires regular oil draining at intervals between eight, twelve, or sixteen months. A special gearbox oil filter, separate from the normal oil cooling system, ensures high oil cleanliness (which is particularly important in desert or arid condi- tions where airborne dust can get into the gearbox, act as an abrasive, and eventually lead to contact fatigue failure), but this filter requires regular oil draining. Ironworkers performing maintenance on wind turbines, then, typically work with their contractor to do the following: • Remove and replace the generator. • Remove and replace the gear box. • Remove and replace the blades (Figure 16.39). • Perform alignments of newly installed components. • Run the automated lubrication system. Figure 16.39 Replacing a Blade All of these maintenance skills require Ironworkers to follow manufacturer speci- fications, perform extensive rigging, and follow all safety rules and regulations at all times. 16.22 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 16

▶ ERECTING CLEAR SPAN AND MODULAR STRUCTURES UNIT 17 ▶ OBJECTIVES After completion of this unit, you should be able to describe the general process of erecting clear span and modular structures. This knowledge will be evidenced by correctly completing the assignment sheet and by scoring a minimum of 70% on the unit test. Specifically, you should be able to: 1. Describe how to erect clear span structures 2. Describe how to erect modular structures Each of these objectives is covered in the pages that follow. Unit 17 — Erecting Clear Span and Modular Structures 17.1 UNIT 17

▶▶OBJECTIVE 1: CLEAR SPAN STRUCTURES Clear Span is a term used to describe any structure that has columns at each end but no intermediate supporting columns. Technically, any girder, beam, or other hori- zontal piece that is only supported at each end is a clear span piece. Clear spans are highly desirable for structures where a large open area is wanted or needed, such as in sta- diums, arenas, convention centers, some large training centers, and air- plane hangars (Figures 17.1–17.5). Figure 17.2 Hockey Arena Figure 17.4 International Masonry Institute’s National Training Center Figure 17.1 Sports Stadium Figure 17.3 Convention Center 17.2 Structural Steel Erection Figure 17.5 Airplane Hangar UNIT 17

Some structures may have a clear span area within the building itself, as opposed to the entire structure being clear span. When these areas of a building extend vertically for several floors, the area is generally referred to as an atrium (Figure 17.6). Like other areas of a structure, atriums are framed with girders. However, to support the longer span needed to make the atrium, these girders are almost always larger than those used in other areas. Erecting Clear Span Structures An erection sequence (see Unit 1, Objective 5) should be followed when erecting clear span structures. While the erection of most structures involves following an erection sequence planned by the Ironworker foreman, erecting clear span structures involves fol- lowing a predetermined erection sequence calculated by the EOR. The EOR’s plans should never be deviated from without his or her approval as they are critical to the structural stability and constructability of the clear span structure. In general, erecting clear span structures is similar to erecting any other structure, except that more attention is given to maintaining structural stability. Since struc- tural stability does not become a significant concern until span lengths near or exceed 200 feet, rigging practices, operations, and methods not always performed when erecting other structures are sometimes required in the erection of clear span structures. Bracing, falsework, and tandem lifts are more likely to be required when erecting clear span structures. Bracing and Falsework For clear span structures, bracing (see Unit 6) is usually important in providing some lateral support, while falsework (see Unit 14) is usually used to support the middle of the total span or one end of a piece or pieces in the total span. Bracing used for structural support in clear span structures can be temporary, adjustable, fixed, or a combination of the three. Bracing may have to be installed as the clear span members are erected, and should be completely attached and properly tightened – for example, all bolts or all required welds should be in place – before the erection proceeds. Figure 17.6 Atrium Unit 17 — Erecting Clear Span and Modular Structures 17.3 UNIT 17

Falsework support is accomplished by the crane hoisting one piece connected to the column at one end while the other end of the piece is set on the falsework tower. The crane is then able to hoist the other half so that it can be fastened to the column and to the first piece erected in the center of the span. When the full span is made of two or more pieces that must be erected individually, each of these pieces has one end supported by falsework until it is fastened appropriately. Figure 17.7 shows falsework being used in the construction of a bridge. Figure 17.7 Bridge Falsework Tandem Lifts The term “tandem lift” has more than one meaning. When two or more pieces are hoisted and erected together, the pieces are set in tandem. This means that one piece will not support its own weight, but when set in tandem with another piece both act to support each other. Hoisting and setting pieces in tandem is not techni- cally a tandem lift, but the term is sometimes used to describe this procedure. Some trusses are designed and engineered to be erected in tandem. Note: When pieces are lifted in tandem, any horizontal members should be assembled on the ground to help minimize fall hazards, and all required braces and supports must be installed. 17.4 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 17

A tandem lift for clear span structures can be conducted in one of several ways, depending on the design of the structure. Two of these ways include the following: 1. One crane hoists half of the piece(s) of the total span. The piece(s) is/are connected to the column on one end. A second crane hoists the other half of the piece(s) and connects it/them to the other vertical support and to the first half. Once all of the necessary fasteners and/or bracing are installed, both cranes then slowly release their loads. 2. All of the pieces that make up the clear span “piece” are fully assembled on the ground before hoisting. Both cranes are positioned and hoist the member into place through a means similar to that shown in Figure 17.8. Once all of the necessary fasteners and/or bracing are installed, both cranes then slowly release their loads. All individual crane capacities are based on freely suspended and balanced loads. The use of two machines therefore introduces potentially dangerous elements, such as side loading, overloading, and shock loading, all of which are less likely to occur during a lift with a single piece of equipment. To help avoid these dangers, it is important to properly plan a tandem lift operation. A competent person shall be responsible for the entire operation and all employees – Ironworkers, operators, and oilers – should be made aware of the entire process, including (but not be limited to) the placement of each crane, the rigging of the loads, the final position of the loads, how many fasteners are needed or the amount of weld required before the load can be released, and any site- or task-specific hazards. For more information on tandem lifts, see the Cranes manual and OSHA Subpart CC. Figure 17.8 Two Cranes Lifting a Truss Unit 17 — Erecting Clear Span and Modular Structures 17.5 UNIT 17

The following list of precautions should be followed in any rigging operation, but they are essential to observe when making a tandem lift as these lifts are more haz- ardous than many others: • Only use rigging hardware that is rated (i.e., has a safe working load which meets or exceeds the weight) for the entire load. • Allow for reductions due to sling angles. • Use only one signalperson for both cranes (this is the proven safest method). • Make certain that the counterweights and booms of each crane will not interfere with one another. • As much as possible, try to match the line and swing speed of both cranes. Do not allow one crane to perform an operation faster than the other. • Make all movements with the equipment as slowly as is possible. • Constantly be aware of your surroundings. Figures 17.9-17.12 show Ironworkers assembling and erecting 148' aluminum trusses at a water purification facility. Figure 17.9 Ironworkers Assembling Trusses Figure 17.10 Completed Truss Being Lifted Figure 17.12 Trusses in Place Structural Steel Erection Figure 17.11 Truss Being Set in Place 17.6 UNIT 17

▶▶OBJECTIVE 2: MODULAR STRUCTURES A modular structure is prefabricated somewhere other than the job site, trans- ported to the site, and erected. Modular units tend to have all structural steel frame- work, equipment, piping, instrumentation, insulation, and electrical components installed before they are erected. Once the units are set in place and fastened to the piers or to another structure, they require a minimal amount of on-site work to make them fully functional. Modular structures are highly desirable in certain situations, such as when erecting industrial buildings (refineries, plants, etc.). To avoid the possibility of explosion or fire, most industrial sites have very strict requirements, regulations, and procedures regarding tasks like welding, burning, grinding, using any electric power tools, or performing any task on-site that may cause a spark. Prefabricated modular struc- tures are therefore commonly used for structures needed at industrial sites. Figures 17.13–17.15 show a large modular structure being transported, hoisted, and erected on a job site. Figures 17.16–17.18 show another modular unit being deliv- ered, hoisted, and erected. Figure 17.13 Modular Structure Being Figure 17.14 Modular Structure Being Transported Hoisted Unit 17 — Erecting Clear Span and Modular Structures 17.7 UNIT 17

Figure 17.15 Modular Structure Being Erected Figure 17.16 Modular Structure Being Figure 17.17 Modular Structure Being Delivered Hoisted Figure 17.18 Modular Structure Being Erected 17.8 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 17

Modular structures usually have engi- neered lifting points and a detailed rig- ging/hoisting blueprint showing the rig- ging configuration to be used. Rigging/Hoisting blueprints sometimes show placement of the lifting lugs and the size of these lugs. Lifting lugs are welded (as in Figure 17.19) or bolted (as in Figure 17.20) onto the unit at the prefabrication site before it is shipped to the field. Figure 17.19 Welded Lifting Lug Figure 17.20 Bolt On/Bolted Lifting Lugs These blueprints also sometimes indicate the length of chokers (and/or spreader beams) and the size of shackles to be used. A sample rigging/hoisting blueprint is given in Figure 17.21 on the next page. Note: Even with blueprint specifications, a qualified rigger should always make his or her own calculations and determine that the rigging hardware to be used will support the intended load and that the hoisting equipment used will be within its rated capacities throughout the entire operation. Unit 17 — Erecting Clear Span and Modular Structures 17.9 UNIT 17

Figure 17.21 Blueprint of a Rigging Configuration for a Modular Structure 17.10 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 17

▶ ERECTING AMUSEMENT PARK STRUCTURES UNIT 18 ▶ OBJECTIVES After completion of this unit, you should be able to describe the general process of erecting amusement park structures. This knowledge will be evidenced by correctly completing the assignment sheet and by scoring a minimum of 70% on the unit test. Specifically, you should be able to: 1. Describe the history of amusement parks 2. Describe the history of roller coasters 3. Describe the process of erecting an amusement park ride 4. Describe ride inspection and maintenance requirements Each of these objectives is covered in the pages that follow. Note: This unit will present information on erecting amusement park structures and rides in general. For details regarding erecting specific structures and rides produced by a specific manufacturer or contractor, refer to the installation manuals and/or drawings. Unit 18 — Erecting Amusement Park Structures 18.1 UNIT 18

▶▶OBJECTIVE 1: HISTORY OF AMUSEMENT PARKS Figure 18.1 Amusement Park Amusement park is a generic term for a collection of rides and other attractions assembled for the purpose of entertaining a large group of people. An amusement park (Figure 18.1) is more elaborate than a simple city park or playground. Figure 18.2 shows an amusement park ride, a Ferris wheel (named for George Washington Gale Ferris, Jr., who created the first Ferris wheel for The Chicago World’s Fair in 1893). Amusement parks may be permanent or temporary, and are usually periodic, open only a few days or weeks per year. Temporary amusement parks are often annual occurrences with mobile rides, and are typically called a funfair, fair, or carnival. Theme parks form a more narrowly defined cat- egory of amusement park. They are permanent facili- ties that use architecture, signage, and landscaping to help convey the feeling that people are in a different place or time. A theme park will often have various “lands” (sections) of the park that are devoted to telling a particular story or fitting in with a certain theme. “Fantasyland” and “Tomorrowland” are sections in The Magic Kingdom theme park in Walt Disney World. Amusement parks evolved in Europe from pleasure gardens, gardens used for recreation that often contain other elements of entertainment (such as a zoo or Figure 18.2 Modern Amusement Park Ride (Ferris Wheel) 18.2 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 18

concert area) and that charge a fee. Pleasure gardens today may contain an amuse- ment park. In the United States, expositions such as The Chicago World’s Fair were another influence on the amusement park. The oldest amusement park in the world, Bakken, opened in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1583. Other still-surviving amusement parks include Prater in Vienna, Austria (opened in 1766), and Munich’s Oktoberfest, which dates back to 1810. Although Oktoberfest is better known as a beer festival, it actually provides many typical amusement park features, including rides. In 1895, the first permanent amusement park in North America opened: Sea Lion Park (renamed Luna Park in 1903) at Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York. In 1897, it was joined at Coney Island by Steeplechase Park, and then in 1904 by Dreamland Park. These amusement parks were a great success, and by the late 1910s there were hundreds of amusement parks in operation around the world. The Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II during the 1940s, however, saw a decline in the amuse- ment park industry, which, given that many rides were constructed with wood (see Figure 18.3), was also under constant threat of destruction through fire (both Dreamland and Luna Park burned to the ground at least once). By the 1950s, fires and other factors such as urban decay, crime, and suburban development reduced the number of operating amusement parks and the number of people interested in visiting them. Sights such as that shown in Figure 18.4 were becoming more common. In 1955, however, Walt Disney opened Disneyland in California, and paved the way for an amusement park resurgence. Since the 1980s, the theme park industry has become larger than ever before: world-wide theme parks devel- oped by Disney and Universal Studios are flourishing, as are medium-sized theme parks such as the Six Flags parks, Cedar Point, Valleyfair, Hershey Park, and count- less other venues. Figure 18.3 Tracks of an Old Wooden Roller Coaster Figure 18.4 Old Roller Coaster Unit 18 — Erecting Amusement Park Structures 18.3 UNIT 18

▶▶OBJECTIVE 2: HISTORY OF THE ROLLER COASTER One of the most visible and popular rides is the roller coaster. In the United States, the first commercially-built roller coaster was the “Switch-Back Railway” in Brooklyn’s Coney Island in 1884. With a maximum speed of only six miles an hour, it was little more than a gentle tour of the beach, but it was a wild success. Scenic railroads sprang up everywhere. With the twentieth century came a public demand for greater thrills. To fuel those thrills, giant wooden coasters (such as that shown in Figure 18.5) were built with speeds of up to 65 miles per hour. By the time the roaring twenties arrived, there were 1,500 coasters in the country. With the resurgence of amusement parks in the mid 1950s with Disneyland came a revolutionary kind of roller coaster: the “Matterhorn.” Until this time, coasters had run on tracks similar to railroads, metal rails embedded in wood. Disney’s Matterhorn, however, ran on a new type of track known as tubular steel rails. These rails could be bent into shapes that allowed the roller coaster cars to make tight corners and even go upside down. The use of nylon wheels on the coaster allowed for a smoother ride as well. Figure 18.5 Old Wooden Roller Coaster 18.4 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 18

Steel has allowed designers to take advantage of new technology to cre- ate new roller coasters and new rides; in fact, many parks build new rides on a regular basis. Steel also adds to the “thrill” of the ride: compared to wooden and other metal tracks, structural steel tracks make for less of a structure. This means that when a rider is at the top of a coaster, the track and structure are often not visible, making is so that the rider feels as if she or he is floating (or falling). Figure 18.6 shows a modern tubular steel railed roller coaster. Figure 18.6 Modern Roller Coaster Unit 18 — Erecting Amusement Park Structures 18.5 UNIT 18

▶▶OBJECTIVE 3: ERECTING AN AMUSEMENT PARK RIDE Figure 18.7 Amusement Park Ride Under Construction Erecting an amusement park ride (see Figure 18.7) uses essentially the same skills required to erect most other structures, including the ability to read drawings, weld, rig and lift loads, connect structural steel, tension bolts, etc. Basic knowledge of mathematics and met- rics (many drawings for amusement park rides are in metrics) are also needed. Because rides typically include thousands of tons of steel, tens of thousands of bolts, and thousands of structural steel compo- nents, building an amusement park ride such as that shown in Figure 18.8 is a major undertaking. Figure 18.8 Modern Amusement Park Ride 18.6 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 18

The construction period for most amusement parks usually runs from October through April. To use all of the good weather days possible and to keep on schedule, work weeks are often seven days long. Note: Coordination of and at the site is critical to work completion for all trades. Daily and weekly meetings are not uncommon to help ensure that work is completed in the proper order and that the proj- ect is kept running as smoothly as possible. At the beginning of an amusement park project, the Ironworker’s contractor will place documents on file with the amusement park. These documents will include welder certifications, safety program information, etc. Before any welding work is begun, ensure that the proper certificates have been obtained, and keep in mind that, in some cases, Ironworkers are responsible for the welding of brackets or mis- cellaneous items for other trades. The first step in erecting any amuse- ment park structure is for the Ironworker foreman and crew mem- bers to become familiar with the structure’s drawings (see, for exam- ple, Figure 18.9) and instructions. This means studying the manufactur- er’s erection guide (if available) and the erection drawings (e.g., struc- tural, rail system, braking system). Given safety concerns associated with the erection and daily use of rides, it is essen- tial that all work be done according to specifications and that it be done correctly the first time. Figure 18.9 Checking Drawings On Site Note: Most manufacturers of amusement park rides are mem- bers of the American Industry Manufacturers and Suppliers International Association (AIMS International), which is “dedi- cated to continuing safety in the amusement industry.” AIMS International’s purpose is to establish communication and foster professional working relationships with other amusement industry trade associations, and with local, state, provincial, and federal government entities to promote and preserve the prosperity of the amusement industry. Unit 18 — Erecting Amusement Park Structures 18.7 UNIT 18

In some parks, materials must be stored away from the site and trucked in. This is where the bill of lading, shipping tickets, or inventory sheets become very important: pieces must be checked (see Figure 18.10) as they arrive at the site to ensure that noth- ing is missing or in disrepair. Sometimes even the smallest part missing can hold up a project. After the smaller parts and hardware have been checked, they should be safely stored inside trailers (see Figure 18.11). Once pieces have all been inspected and inventoried, sorted, and stored as required, erection is ready to begin. Erection procedures vary depending on the type of structure being built, but lifting/rigging equipment (see Figures 18.12 and 18.13), cranes (see Figure 18.10 Checking Pieces 18.8 Structural Steel Erection Figure 18.14 Crane on a Job Site Figure 18.11 Smaller Parts Properly Stored Figure 18.12 Ironworker Using an Extended Boom Fork Lift Figure 18.13 Ironworkers Rigging a Load UNIT 18

Figure 18.14), and hydraulic torque wrenches (see Figure 18.15) are likely to be required, and should be used following all safety regulations, precautions, and procedures. Since alignment tolerances vary from ride to ride and in some cases are as small as ± 2 or 3 millimeters, setting up lasers, string lines, and transits is also very important. Base plates must be level and centerlines must be marked. Figures 18.16–18.24 show Ironworkers at vari- ous points in the erection of several different amusement park rides. Figure 18.16 Erecting Columns and Track Figure 18.18 Properly Shimmed Base Plates Ready for Grout Figure 18.15 Ironworker Using a Hydraulic Torque Wrench Figure 18.17 Tube Columns and Base Plates Fitted and Ready to Weld Figure 18.19 Checking for Shim Elevation and Cleaning Anchor Bolts Unit 18 — Erecting Amusement Park Structures 18.9 UNIT 18

Figure 18.20 Erecting Pipe Structure Figure 18.21 Setting Columns Figure 18.22 Erecting Pipe Structure Figure 18.23 Overview of Erection Grid Figure 18.24 Vehicles Waiting to be Placed on Tracks During construction, you may be asked to perform other jobs: be prepared for this, and be ready to work with the contractor and/or park representative. Stay in your designated work area and keep it clean. Although you may be under a contract to erect a ride, you are also a guest of the park. In some parks, too, work may be undertaken while customers are in the park. Remain professional at all times. Note: Strive to form and maintain a good, professional relationship with the park owners, staff, representatives, and other contractors. Doing so could lead to much more work later on. 18.10 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 18

▶▶OBJECTIVE 4: RIDE INSPECTIONS AND MAINTENANCE During the commissioning of an amusement park ride (meaning prior to turning the ride over to park personnel for initial or continuing operation), Ironworkers are involved with the manufacturer and/or park personnel to help ensure that all regulations defining the assembly, disassembly, and maintenance of the ride are fol- lowed. This includes following ASTM International standards specifically relating to amusement rides and devices, such as • Practice for Maintenance Procedures for Amusement Rides and Devices • Guide for Inspection of Amusement Rides and Devices Note: Only an “authorized person,” or someone working under the supervision of an authorized person, is allowed to assemble and disassemble amusement park rides, and only an authorized person is allowed to perform daily testing and inspection of the ride. An authorized person is defined as “a competent person,” or someone who has been given responsibility to perform certain work by the owner (or the owner’s representative) who has the experience and instruction to perform that work. During construction or at the end of construction, all rides must also be inspected by an amusement park safety inspector to ensure that they meet all safety, ASTM, manufacturer, and park standards. Amusement park safety inspectors typically have several years of experience in the design, manufacture, repair, operation, and/or inspection of amusement park rides, and certification through the state building inspection agency and, in the U.S., sometimes also through the National Association of Amusement Ride Safety Officials (similar associations oversee amusement parks in Canada). If possible, contact the inspector at the beginning of the project so that you can work together throughout the erection process. This usually helps the erection process to run smoothly. During assembly, be certain to examine all parts closely to ensure that any wear or damage is discovered, and that any damaged or worn pieces are repaired or replaced. Unit 18 — Erecting Amusement Park Structures 18.11 UNIT 18

Rides must also be inspected and tested each day before they are used, and a record of these inspections must be maintained. During these daily inspections, the fol- lowing • Safety belts, bars, locks, and other passenger restraints • All automatic and manual safety devices • Signal systems, brakes, and control devices • Safety pins and keys • Fencing, guards, barricades, stairways, and ramps • Ride structure and moving parts • Tightness of bolts and nuts • Blocking, support braces, and jack stands • Electrical equipment • Lubrication as per manufacturer’s instructions • Hydraulic and/or pneumatic equipment • Communication equipment necessary for operation (if applicable) • Any other component that is included in the manufacturer’s specific ride maintenance and safety checks, or that the park operator or person performing the daily inspection deems necessary Once a ride has been thoroughly inspected, it is operated through one complete cycle of proper functioning before being opened to the public. Note: Every carnival or amusement park operator must maintain detailed records relating to the construction, repair, and mainte- nance of all rides, including all safety, inspection, and ride operator training activities. Such records shall be made available to inspectors at reasonable times, including during an inspection, upon the inspector’s request. If an inspection reveals any problems, or if a concern arises, Ironworkers may be asked to perform maintenance on a ride. This maintenance must be done under the supervision of qualified amusement park personnel and according to all relevant ASTM and other standards and specifications. elements are typically checked, with their inspection results recorded: 18.12 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 18

Figures 18.25–18.26 show maintenance work on amusement park rides. Figure 18.25 Ironworkers Working With Maintenance Department to Commission a Ride Figure 18.26 Finished Lift Hill Chain Unit 18 — Erecting Amusement Park Structures 18.13 UNIT 18

18.14 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 18

▶ COMPOSITES AND STRUCTURAL ERECTION UNIT 19 ▶ OBJECTIVES After completion of this unit, you should be able to describe the use of composite materials for structural erection. This knowledge will be evidenced by correctly completing the assignment sheet and by scoring a minimum of 70% on the unit test. Specifically, you should be able to: 1. Describe composite construction materials 2. Describe the use of composites on the job site 3. Describe the procedures for fabricating composites 4. Describe the procedures for repairing composites Each of these objectives is covered in the pages that follow. Note: Many of the photographs in this unit were taken of Local 229 apprentices erecting a composite mock-up. The fabrication and repair photographs were provided by Strongwell. Unit 19 — Composites and Structural Erection 19.1 UNIT 19

▶▶OBJECTIVE 1: COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS Fiber or fiberglass reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are a combination of a polymer (plastic resin) and a reinforcing agent (such as glass, carbon, or other rein- forcing material) pultruded (pulled and extruded) through a resin bath. They may also include fillers, additives, and core materials to enhance and strengthen them. Composites have been used in boats and planes for over fifty years and are increas- ingly being used in the construction industry (see Figure 19.1) as a good substitute for steel in many construction applications. This is because composites are lighter, stronger, and more resistant to corrosion, impacts, parasites, and chemicals than traditional structural materials are, and because traditional structural materials often require a great deal of maintenance. Figure 19.1 Composite Construction Materials 19.2 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 19

One of the greatest advantages of these materials is that they can be designed to provide a wide range of mechanical properties with performance benefits that are ideal for buildings and bridges. These benefits include composites being • high strength • lightweight (Figure 19.2 shows two workers easily holding a composite beam) • non-corrosive and low maintenance • electrically non-conductive • easy to assemble and erect • attractive in appearance • fabricated offsite • easier, faster, and more economical to install, with smaller cranes required The use of composites also offers an ability to bring larger sections or pieces to a job site, thereby reducing assembly time and cost, and in general reducing in size and cost the supporting structure and foundations. Composites can integrate special finishes and a wide variety of unusual effects, and some composites may even be recycled later. Despite their advantages, composite materials have not yet been broadly accepted by building code authorities, and some concerns still remain about FRP’s fire resis- tance. However, these concerns are being aggressively addressed by ASTM and other composite professional committees, resulting in the increased use of compos- ites in construction. Figure 19.2 Workers Holding a Composite Beam Unit 19 — Composites and Structural Erection 19.3 UNIT 19

Figures 19.3–19.16 show some of the most common composite shapes and products used for structural construction. Figure 19.4 Composite Channel Figure 19.3 Composite Angle Figure 19.5 Composite Beam (Can Be Both Wide- Flange and I-Beams) Figure 19.6 Flat Sheet 19.4 Figure 19.9 Threaded Rod and Nuts Structural Steel Erection Figure 19.7 Square Bar Figure 19.8 Round Bar UNIT 19

Figure 19.10 Round Tubes Figure 19.12 Grating Figure 19.14 Handrail Figure 19.11 Square Tubes Figure 19.13 Reinforcing Bar Figure 19.16 Stair Tread Unit 19 — Composites and Structural Erection 19.5 Figure 19.15 Ladders UNIT 19

▶▶OBJECTIVE 2: WORKING WITH COMPOSITES ON THE JOB SITE Although composites may be used in applications for most areas of construction, there are eight major areas where Ironworkers might use them: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. For cables and tendons: composite cables serve as stays, prestressing tendons, and external structural reinforcements. For beams and girders: new beam designs with double-webbed, internally-flanged cross sections with carbon reinforcement are used in many construction applications. Figure 19.17 shows a composite beam being connected. For trusses: due to their larger geometries, trusses can increase stiffness and reduce deflection over long-span structures For columns, posts, and pilings: composites bear large vertical loads without bending or buckling. Figure 19.18 shows a composite column. For gratings and handrails: composites gratings (Figures 19.19 and 19.20) and handrails (Figure 19.21) reduce maintenance costs in exterior structures. Figure 19.19 Composite Grating Figure 19.17 Beam Being Connected Figure 19.18 Composite Column Figure 19.20 Installing Grating Structural Steel Erection 19.6 UNIT 19

6. For reinforcing bar: composite rebar (Figure 19.22) is used to reinforce bridge decks, barrier walls, and buildings. 7. For laminates and wraps: composite laminates and wraps strengthen deficient designs, increase load- bearing capacity, and prevent structural deterioration in existing concrete structures. 8. For bridge decks (see Figures 19.23 and 19.24): compared with cast-in- place concrete decks, FRP bridge decks typically weigh 80% less, can be erected twice as fast, and have service lives that can be two to three times greater. Compared with steel grating, FRP bridge decks are equal or lighter in weight while they also provide a solid surface deck (this protects the support structure from corrosion and the effects of salt, chemicals, moisture, etc.), higher skid resistance, reduced noise, significantly lower maintenance, and a service life that can be two to three times greater. FRP bridge deck types may be either self-supporting structures or panels supported by girders or beams. Figure 19.23 FRP Bridge Deck (Small Section) Figure 19.21 Composite Handrail and Grating on the Catwalk of the Blennerhassett Bridge Figure 19.22 Composite Rebar Figure 19.24 FRP Bridge Deck (Large Section) Unit 19 — Composites and Structural Erection 19.7 UNIT 19

In many ways working with composite materials is the same as working with steel materials. However, there are a few differences: • While the planning and scheduling process of erecting composites is essentially the same as it is for erecting steel materials, composite material is lighter so the crane schedule might be different. • Fabrication and repair work for composites will need different drill bits, saw blades, and sandpaper. In general, fabrication and repair work for composites (see Objectives 3 and 4) is very different than for steel. • While reading structural drawings for composites is essentially the same as for steel, some of the details of the composite connections may show that they are made with epoxy (the Ironworker must be able to recognize this on the drawings). • Use nylon slings when unloading, shaking out, and storing composite materials, and when erecting composite columns, beams, joists, joist girders, and trusses. • Bolting up composite materials is similar to bolting up steel, but always check the manufacturer’s specifications (and especially tension limits) when bolting up composite materials. • Although many composite connections are made similarly to steel connections, some composite connections need to be made with epoxy and will require the use of clamps. Always check the manufacturer’s specifications when making these types of connections. Figures 19.25–19.31 show composite erection from unloading to making connections. Note: Never use steel rope chokers when working with composites as they will damage the materials. Figure 19.25 Unloading Composite Materials Figure 19.26 Shaking Out Composite Materials 19.8 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 19

Figure 19.27 Storing Composite Materials Figure 19.28 Erecting a Column Figure 19.29 Connecting a Beam Figure 19.30 Bolting Up Figure 19.31 Connections Unit 19 — Composites and Structural Erection 19.9 UNIT 19

▶▶OBJECTIVE 3: PROCEDURES FOR FABRICATING COMPOSITES When fabricating composites, follow these general practices: 1. Observe common safety precautions. For example, the operator of a circular power saw should wear safety glasses to protect his or her eyes. 2. Wear coveralls or a shop coat while sawing, machining or sanding. Although the dust created by composite materials is non-toxic and presents no serious health hazards, it can cause skin irritation. The amount of irritant will vary from person to person and can be reduced or eliminated by the use of a dust mask, by washing with cold water, or by using a protective cream. 3. Clean machine ways and other friction-producing areas frequently. The combination of grease and FRP chips can rapidly become a damaging abrasive if allowed to accumulate. 4. Avoid excessive pressure when sawing, drilling, routing, etc. Too much force can rapidly dull the tool. Use diamond or carbide grit edge saw blades, carbide tip drill bits, and carbide router bits whenever possible. 5. Do not generate excessive heat in any machining operation as it softens the bonding resin in the fiberglass, resulting in a ragged rather than a clean-cut edge. Excessive heat can also burn resin and glass. 6. Support the FRP material rigidly during cutting operations. Shifting may cause chipping at the cut edges. Proper support will also prevent warping. 7. Consider carefully the use and design of fastening devices for mechanical connections: the strongest connection of high reliability can be made by using a combination of mechanical fasteners with adhesives. For adhesive fastening, prepare the surface properly per manufacturer recommendations for bonding prior to the application of the adhesive. 8. If required, always touch-up or seal any cut surfaces or edges of the FRP shape before reporting the job complete. Procedures to follow when machining, fastening (both mechanical and adhesive), painting, and finishing composites are outlined below. 19.10 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 19

Machining Sawing or Cutting Use light, evenly applied pressure. Heavy pressure tends to clog the blade with dust particles and shorten the cutting life of the blade. Cutting speed is a critical variable. If the part edges begin to fray or turn black, slow the cutting speed. Straight Line Sawing Straight line sawing (Figure 19.32) of composite structural materials can be accomplished quickly and accu- rately with a circular power saw. A table or radial model is better than a portable hand model because the built-in rigidity and guides help ensure accurate cuts. A hand model can also be effective, however. A wood cutting circular saw blade can be used to cut FRP, but it is not recommended (if used, it will require frequent sharpening). A car- bide-tipped blade is also not recom- mended as it will vibrate during use and will sling teeth after a period of use. For high volume produc- tion cutting, a 60 to 80 grit diamond blade (shown in Figure 19.33) will provide best results. Circular or Curvature Sawing Good results can be obtained using a saber saw or band saw (Figure 19.34) on small quantity cutting. For large volume production sawing, use car- bide or diamond grit edge blades to avoid excessive blade replacement. Figure 19.32 Straight Line Sawing Figure 19.33 Cross Cutting with Radial Arm Saw and Diamond Grit Blade Unit 19 — Composites and Structural Erection 19.11 Figure 19.34 Cutting Shapes with a Band Saw UNIT 19

A hand router with rotary bit can also be used to cut circles and curves, but it removes considerably more stock. In cutting rod or bar stock, a hacksaw may be convenient. A blade with 24 to 32 teeth per inch is effective for hand cutting (light, steady strokes should be used). Abrasive blades (carbide or diamond) that may have become clogged because of overheating or too much pressure may be cleaned by cutting a common brick. Drilling If standard high speed steel drill bits are used for drilling FRP shapes, they will require frequent sharpening. Carbide tipped drills are therefore recommended when drilling large quantities. Drill speeds should be approximately equivalent to those used for drilling hardwood. When drilling large holes, a backup plate of wood will reduce the break out on the back side of the hole. Note: Holes drilled in composite structural materials are generally .002\" to .004\" undersize. For example: a 1/8\" drill will not produce a hole large enough to admit a 1/8\" expanding rivet. Instead, a No. 30 drill should be used. This is especially important to keep in mind for close tolerance work. Routing Typically, a CNC router is used to perform quick, highly repetitive standard routing operations. Exact measurements can be directly down- loaded electronically from engineer- supplied CAD drawing files. Both hand-held and bench type routers (Figure 19.35) give excellent results. Rotary file bits – preferably carbide or diamond tipped – are best when routing on production quanti- ties. Two-fluted wood bits can be used, but they require frequent sharpening and are therefore practical only for occasional routing. Figure 19.35 Router Cutting Composite Material Caution! Use light pressure when making a cut. Forcing the routing operation causes the composite to heat and soften, and may damage the bit or the part if the bit becomes clogged. 19.12 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 19

Mechanical Fastening Nailed Connections Nailing is a satisfactory way of fastening composite shapes to wood and to other materials that provide enough grip to hold the nail. Common nails can be driven through 1/16\" thick FRP without re-drilling holes; tempered nails will go through 5/16\" thick material. FRP heavier than 5/16\" requires pre-drilled holes, slightly oversized, to admit the nail and allow for expansion and contraction between the FRP and the material to which it is nailed. It is also advisable to pre-drill slightly oversized holes before nail- ing long lengths of lighter FRP sections. If pre-drilling is not done, it is likely that the nail will bend when driving it in is attempted. Screwed Connections Self-tapping screws have been used successfully in many applications involving mechanical connections when high strength fasteners are not required. When used in combination with adhesives, self-tapping screws can serve to hold the adhesive bonded surface of the two parts together while the adhesive cures. They can also contribute limited mechanical strength to the connection. Appropriately sized pilot holes should be provided in the composite shape before the screws are installed. Note: Never nail FRP to FRP (the material is too hard). For removable cover plates, sheet metal screws can be used. The strength of the connection can be improved by use of the threaded inserts bonded into place with suitable adhesives. Bolted Connections A very satisfactory connection can be made with composite components by using standard bolts, nuts, and washers (see Figure 19.36). Since FRP materials can fail under high localized stress condi- Figure 19.36 Bolted Connections (Plus Bonded With Adhesive) Unit 19 — Composites and Structural Erection 19.13 UNIT 19

tions, such as those encountered around a bolt, the tighter the bolt is in the hole, the more effective it will be. Always use flat washers on both sides of bolt connections. The strongest joint between pieces of composite shapes is obtained by using a com- bination of properly fitted bolts with adhesives applied to the properly prepared mating surfaces. When a bolt needs to be inserted that may be removed (or that may be removed and then reinserted), threaded metal inserts or fasteners should be installed in the FRP and preferably bonded in place with a suitable adhesive. This is because threads made by tapping FRP will wear out quickly with the repeated removing and reinser- tion of bolts and may not give sufficient holding strength for a bolt. If tapped FRP must be used, the bolt threads and shank should be covered with grease or some other releasing agent before the bolt is inserted. The bolt can then be withdrawn after the adhesive has formed and hardened around the threads. Note: This method is NOT recommended when an exceptionally strong connection is required. In general, mechanical fastening can be done by using bolts or screws into tapped holes; however, the properties of tapped holes are not good nor will the connection be strong. When bolts are to be installed permanently, a tight connection is easily made by tapping the FRP and applying epoxy or polyester adhesive to the hole just before inserting the bolt. Adhesive Fastening Adhesives can provide strong and durable bonds between two composite shapes or between composite shapes and other structural materials, and several types of adhesives are recommended for use with FRP reinforced materials. In addition to sealing joints and surfaces, adhesives distribute stress more evenly. Satisfactory bonds will be obtained if a joint is designed to avoid excessive peeling stresses, if the mating surfaces are properly prepared, and if the recommended types of adhe- sives are used. Always refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations when using or mixing epoxy adhesives. In general, only mix small amounts of adhesives at a time as larger amounts may harden before they are able to be used. The time it takes for an adhesive to harden varies based on quantity and temperature. For example, at room temperature, small 19.14 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 19