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Accidents An accident is an unintentional, unplanned event that may result in any of the fol- lowing: • Injury or death to personnel • An interruption of planned procedures • Damage or loss of material and equipment In addition to endangering or causing injury to personnel, a major accident dur- ing the erection of structural steel may delay the completion of a job for weeks or months. In the past, accidents were common on construction sites, so much so that they were viewed as inevitable. Thankfully, this is no longer the case. Even with today’s safety standards, however, safety must not be taken for granted: the only way to prevent an accident is to think about safety in connection with every possible operation. Habitual observance of safety rules by all members of an organization will drastically reduce or entirely prevent serious accidents during construction. Always remember that while the employer is responsible for implementing safety through a job site safety program, you (the employee) usually have the most control over your own safety. No amount of safety regulations or protective equipment can be effective if regulations are not followed, or if equipment is used improperly. Safety Measures Safety on the job site demands that each and every worker make safety his or her number one priority each and every day. The potential for death or injury to oneself and others is a part of all construction projects and can only be negated through constant attention to safety. While performing duties in the safest manner possible, every Ironworker must be aware of activities in his or her immediate surroundings. Other crafts may, for example, use solvents or powder-actuated tools, both of which can be hazardous to workers in the immediate area if used improperly. Remaining vigilant and keeping a watchful eye out for unsafe acts and conditions helps not only yourself but every- one who works around you. Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.3 UNIT 2

To help ensure safety on a job site, follow these safety measures: • Wear appropriate PPE (see Objective 2). This includes a full body harness when required. Do not wear loose or ragged clothing that may become entangled in moving parts. Do not burn or cut, or work in improperly ventilated areas, without wearing approved equipment. • Be aware of your feet, arms, posture, and position. Regardless of where you are working – whether on the ground or high in the structure – keep a solid footing. Use proper stance and position when lifting to avoid strain, and keep hands and feet clear of moving parts. • Do not minimize cuts or scratches; have all minor cuts and abrasions attended to by first aid personnel. • Observe all warning signs. Stay alert to your surroundings and the activities of co-workers. Know what is going on, work in watchful unison with partners, and do not daydream. • Keep working areas clear of all refuse. Keep scaffolds, runways, stairs, passageways, etc. clear of all obstructions. Materials stored inside a structure must be piled neatly and placed clear of all hoist shafts or floor openings. • Maintain adequate lighting. • Make sure any electric tools used are in safe operating condition and properly grounded. • Know and observe signals for hoists, derricks, cranes, etc. Do not ride on any hoisting equipment. • Remember that machinery, equipment, tools, etc. may be operated only by authorized persons. • Do not engage in any horseplay, practical jokes, etc. • Think of possible dangers before acting. Do not, for example, drop any material to a lower level. • Rectify any unsafe condition; if you cannot do so, report the hazard to your supervisor immediately. • Above all, think safety: be safety conscious. Remember, every Ironworker can take a direct role in promoting job site safety, and it is the responsibility of each individual to recognize and avoid unsafe work- ing practices. Ultimately everyone is responsible for his or her own personal safety. 2.4 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 2

▶▶OBJECTIVE 2: PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE) Personal protective equipment (PPE) is clothing or equipment used to protect workers from hazards. Employers must protect employees from hazards such as falling objects, harmful substances, and noise exposures that can cause injury. All feasible engineering and work practice controls must be used to eliminate and reduce such hazards; however, if these controls do not eliminate hazards, PPE must be used. Part of the erection supervisor’s responsibility is to ensure that all workers are equipped with and use the correct PPE. This includes making sure that workers are properly dressed for the particular job they are doing. Part of the Ironworker’s responsibility is to wear and use the proper PPE. Figure 2.2 shows structural Ironworkers properly dressed to begin work. Figure 2.2 Properly Dressed Structural Ironworkers Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.5 UNIT 2

PPE generally includes the following items: Heavy-duty work gloves: While the choice of work gloves is a personal preference, any gloves chosen should be durable, somewhat flame-resistant, and maintained in a dry, clean condition. Ironworkers involved in burning operations should wear gloves with extended gauntlets (Figure 2.3) to prevent sparks from entering shirtsleeves. ANSI-approved hard hat (Figure 2.4): All protective headgear worn on steel erec- tion sites should be approved by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Any hard hat worn should be maintained in good condition, be free of cracks, and have a properly installed suspension. Eye protection: Safety glasses with side shield protection (Figure 2.5) should be worn on the construction site. Modified glasses and safety equipment (i.e., goggles, welding hoods, face shields, etc.) are also available and should be worn when needed. Figure 2.4 ANSI- Figure 2.3 Gloves with Approved Extended Gauntlets Hard Hat Figure 2.5 Safety Glasses with Side Shields Note: Be aware that prescription eyeglasses, unless specially designed, do not provide adequate eye protection, and that it is the Ironworker’s duty to make any special PPE requirements known to his or her supervisor. Work boots: Always wear high-top, heavy leather shoes with non-skid soles on the job site. Shirt, jeans, and coveralls that fit properly: Ironworkers must always wear the proper clothing for the job. Weather conditions and the tasks you are expected to perform should be considered when selecting daily work wear. Clothes should be designed so as not to tear or fray easily, and pants should not have cuffs. Clothes worn on the job site should be loose enough to allow freedom of movement, but not so loose that they become snagging hazards. Clothing worn on the job site should also be somewhat fire-resistant. Caution! When working in direct sunlight, wear long-sleeve shirts to help prevent sunburn and skin cancer. 2.6 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 2

Ear protection (Figure 2.6): Earplugs may be required on the job site. If so, be certain to wear them. Specialized PPE: A danger of exposure to hazard- ous or toxic agents may exist for some projects. These projects require specific and/or much higher levels of PPE. Depending on the project and hazard, site-specific training may also be required. Welding PPE: Welding requires specialized PPE to pro- tect workers from ultraviolet rays, heat, hot sparks, and toxic fumes. This PPE should include a welding hood or helmet with a face shield that works with a hard hat and that is equipped with a #10 or #12 dark lens, safety glasses that protect the eyes when the welding hood is raised to chip slag or brush the weld, leather weld- ing sleeves (particularly when there is any overhead or vertical welding to be done), fire-resistant clothes free of oil and tears (and without cuffs), gauntlet welding gloves, and skid-resistant boots that rise beneath pants. Figure 2.7 shows specialized welding PPE (face shield, burning goggles, and welding gloves). Full body harness (Figure 2.8): When needed or required, fall arrest equipment must be properly worn and maintained. Any harness used should be free of tears and stains that could disguise damaged areas. A lanyard is attached to the harness on the worker; this lanyard must have its other end secured to an anchor- age point (preferably overhead) capable of withstand- ing a 5,000-pound shock load. Figure 2.8 Full Body Harness Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection Figure 2.6 Two Types of Earplugs Figure 2.7 Specialized Welding PPE 2.7 UNIT 2

▶▶OBJECTIVE 3: JHAs AND SAFETY MEETINGS A job hazard analysis (JHA) is a listing of all of the potentially unsafe conditions, actions, or hazards associated with a particular task, and the specific preventative or corrective actions that should be taken to eliminate or mitigate such hazards, actions, or conditions. Figure 2.9 is an example of a JHA. Page 1 of 1 Contract No. Location: Contractor: Date: Oct 26 4077 - 1948 White Building - Main Street Piccione Construction Activity/Operation Unsafe Condition, Action, or Hazard Preventative or Corrective Action Shake out area Shifting or rolling of iron because ground is not level, well drained, or the area is not of sufficient size The controlling contractor is responsible for providing a firm, properly graded and drained area readily accessible to the work with adequate space for the storage of materials and the safe operation of the erector’s equipment. The steel erector’s competent person will ensure that the steel is properly placed. Reference 1926.752 Site layout and 1926.753 Hoisting and rigging. Figure 2.9 JHA Example 2.8 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 2

Each JHA should be site-specific as each project – and sometimes each specific area on a project site – has its own inherent hazards. These hazards may be similar to those on another job site, but no two hazards are ever exactly the same. JHAs are required by contractors; however, the burden of representing the contrac- tor on the job site typically falls onto the shoulders of the Ironworker foremen. In the foremen’s hands usually rest the responsibility of writing and making certain all employees are aware of JHAs. Some contractors require JHAs to be written daily, while others require that they be written as many times in a day as a new task begins. In this case, a new JHA for each task is written and reviewed with the crew or gang before the task is begun. Some contractors require that a signed sheet accompany each JHA. Safety Training Foremen typically conduct weekly (at a minimum) safety training meetings as well as regular JHAs. Safety training on job sites is usually presented in a forum where workers are encouraged to speak their minds about safety issues and to ask any safety questions they may have. Note: Always ask questions if you are unsure or do not completely understand something, especially when it comes to safety. Do not be embarrassed to do so – if you have a question about something, it is likely that someone else has that same question, too. The foreman conducting the training may show pictures of an unsafe condition on the job site that was corrected as soon as the pictures were taken. These pictures are often accompanied by a list of what is wrong in them, and a description of how to correct the unsafe condition. See Figure 2.10 for an example of such a list and description. To avoid complacency during these frequent and potentially lengthy training meet- ings, some foremen may show a safety related video. No matter how the training is conducted, however, each Ironworker in attendance must supply proof of atten- dance by printing and signing his or her name on a sheet of paper provided for that purpose (see Figure 2.11). Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.9 UNIT 2

Training Topic: Bolting Requirements During Steel Erection OSHA 1926.756 (a) (i) – “During the final placing of solid web structural mem- bers, the load shall not be released from the hoisting line until the members are secured with at least two bolts per connection, of the same size and strength as shown in the erection drawings, drawn up wrench-tight or the equivalent as specified by the project structural engineer of record, except as specified in paragraph (b) of this section.” EXAMPLE OF INSUFFICIENT BOLTING • In this illustration, only one bolt was installed at the beam to column connection and bundles of decking were landed on the beam. Serious accidents involving structural collapse due to bolt shear can occur if connections are not properly bolted prior to applying construction loads on the structure. • All employees must ensure that all connections have a minimum of 2 bolts installed prior to releasing the load from the hoist line and landing additional loads on the structure. • Some structural members may require more than 2 bolts in each connection to provide sufficient strength. • Never land loads on structures that have not been adequately bolted or welded. Figure 2.10 Safety Meeting List and Description 2.10 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 2

Acknowledgement of Training and Instruction Date: Project: Qualified Instruction Provided By: I have been instructed on bolting requirements during the steel erection pro- cess and the potential hazards of insufficient bolting. Print Name Employee Signature Figure 2.11 Safety Meeting Attendance Sheet Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.11 UNIT 2

▶▶OBJECTIVE 4: FIRST AID AND FIRE SAFETY Throughout their careers, Ironworkers work for many different contractors/ employers. All of these contractors should follow the same basic safety require- ments. Because plans and procedures following these requirements may vary from contractor to contractor, however, it is important that Ironworkers be aware of the requirements. First aid/emergency medical treatment and fire safety are two of these requirements. First Aid/Emergency Medical Treatment First aid and emergency medical treatment must be part of every employer’s safety plan. Before a project begins, provisions must be in place for prompt medical atten- tion in case of serious injury. The location of the nearest medical facilities must also be documented and made known to all employees, along with all emergency numbers (i.e., police, fire, and ambulance services). This information must be prominently posted. On extremely large projects, professional emergency services are usually available on site. At least one person on every project should be trained in basic first aid, particularly if medical facilities are not readily available. Most Ironworker employers require first aid/CPR courses as part of their training. As part of an employer’s safety plan, too, a first aid kit (Figure 2.12) must be readily available to all personnel. This kit should be fully stocked at all times with materials approved by medical professionals or an authorized first aid organi- zation. If a first-aid kit is running low on any particular item, or in general, report the short- age to your supervisor. All first-aid kits must be inspected on a weekly basis to ensure that they are well stocked, and that any missing or needed items are added or replaced. Figure 2.12 First Aid Kit 2.12 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 2

Fire Safety An employer’s safety plan must also include provisions for fire prevention and protection. Fire prevention and suppres- sion equipment must be readily available at all times during construction, and employees must know the location of this equipment and be trained in its proper use. On large projects, a fire extinguisher (Figure 2.13) must be pro- vided every 3,000 square feet. On tiered projects, there must be at least one extinguisher per floor, and at least one near the stairway. Fire extinguishers should be inspected regularly, labeled by type, and be fully charged with pins in place. Always remember that not all fire extinguishers are effective on every type of fire: Figure 2.13 Fire Extinguisher • Class A fire extinguishers are effective on fires involving ordinary materials such as paper, wood, and cloth. • Class B fire extinguishers are effective on fires resulting from flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline, paint thinners, propane, and kerosene. • Class C fire extinguishers are effective on electrical equipment fires, such as those involving appliances, switches, and panels. • Class D fire extinguishers are effective on fires involving certain explosive metals such as magnesium or sodium. Remember, too, that all flammable liquids must be stored in an approved safety can. This safety can must have a spring-closing lid and spout cover, and a capacity of five gallons or less. It must also be designed so that it will relieve internal pressure when subjected to fire and heat. Fire Prevention To help prevent fires, follow these general safety rules: • Keep work areas neat and uncluttered. Poor housekeeping breeds fires. • Always pump fuel – Never suck or siphon it using your mouth. • When it is necessary to use a can to fill a fuel tank, always use a properly marked safety can. • Never force fuel out of a drum or other container by means of compressed air. Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.13 UNIT 2

• • • • • • • • • Never grease, refuel, or attempt to repair machinery while it is running. Ensure that all guards are in place before starting machinery. Never store fuel near an engine in operation. Always keep full drums covered with approved covers. Always store fuel away from open fires or sparks or any source of excessive heat. Remember that even fuel fumes are highly explosive. Never use any fuel to rekindle a fire. Use only approved safety solvents to clean engines and motors. Never use fuel or flammable solvents. Never clean anything in an enclosed area. Be aware of electrical hazards. Do not, for example, use faulty power tools or frayed power cords. Always have the correct fire extinguisher close by for each task you perform. Danger! Never clean anything with gas. 2.14 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 2

▶▶OBJECTIVE 5: SUBSTANCE ABUSE Substance abuse is a serious health and safety hazard, and it adversely affects the safety of a work site. Among other things, alcohol or other drug use can lead to poor performance and bad judgment. Typical signs of drug abuse include the following: • Abrupt changes in work, for example, quality of work and/or work output • Unusual flare-ups or outbreaks of temper • Withdrawal from responsibility • General changes in overall attitude • Dramatic changes in physical appearance and grooming • Wearing sunglasses at inappropriate times • Unusual borrowing of money from co-workers • Secretive behavior Most locals now have some form of a member assistance program (MAP) or employee assistance program (EAP) to assist their members with substance abuse issues. Contact your local union officers for information on the MAP or EAP in your area if you have concerns about a co-worker (or yourself). Remember, there must be no tolerance for drug and alcohol use or possession on the job site: if you suspect a co-worker is using or is in possession of a drug, seek help. Follow the substance abuse procedures outlined by your employer or union, report the concern to your supervisor, seek professional assistance and resources for your co-worker, etc. Not seeking help or reporting the concern endangers not only your co-worker, but yourself and others around and working with that co-worker. Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.15 UNIT 2

▶▶OBJECTIVE 6: SAFETY DATA SHEETS (SDSs) Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) are the primary source of information about hazardous chemicals used on work sites. The Safety Data Sheet was formerly known as the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Your employer is required to have an SDS for every hazardous chemical used or stored on each job site. Figure 2.14 is a sample SDS for acetylene, a welding or cutting fuel gas. SDSs vary widely in form, and content shifts based on relevance to the chemical described, but a typical SDS contains many or all of these 16 sections or parts of these sections: • • • • • • Section 1 (Product and Company Identification) identifies the name of the chemical as it appears on the container’s label, the name and address of the manufacturer, and phone numbers for use in emergencies or to obtain additional information. Section 2 (Composition and Information on Ingredients) identifies the hazardous ingredients and properties of the substance. This may include the chemical makeup as well as the common and trade names of the chemical, OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) and NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs), established Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), and any other recommended limits. Section 3 (Hazards Identification) contains information on the potential health effects of those exposed to the chemical. Potential immediate (acute) and long-term (chronic) health effects of exposure are listed, as are the substance’s known carcinogenicity, typical routes of entry into the body (ingestion, inhalation, etc.), and the parts of the body most likely to be affected (“target organs”). Section 4 (First Aid Measures) provides information on first aid and medical treatment that should be administered (or avoided) if exposure occurs. Section 5 (Fire and Explosion Data/Fire Fighting Measures) supplies fire and explosion hazard data, including the flash point of the substance, flammable limits, extinguishing media, and special fire fighting procedures. Section 6 (Accidental Release Measures) details steps to follow in the event that the material is released or spilled. 2.16 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 2

• Section 7 (Handling and Storage) gives instructions on safely handling and storing the substance. • Section 8 (Exposure Controls/Personal Protection) provides information on engineering controls and personal protective equipment that should be in place to help prevent hazardous exposure. • Section 9 (Physical and Chemical Properties) lists information on the physical and chemical characteristics of the substance, such as its physical state, vapor pressure and density, and its boiling and freezing points. • Section 10 (Stability and Reactivity Data) indicates the stability of the substance, its incompatibility with other materials, any hazardous decomposition properties or by-products associated with it, and conditions to avoid. • Section 11 (Toxicological Information) lists known toxic public health dangers, including chronic health effects, carcinogenicity, and reproduction toxicity. • Section 12 (Ecological Information) offers information on known ecological dangers, including biodegradation toxicity and other environmental hazards. • Section 13 (Disposal Considerations) supplies information on waste disposal methods. • Section 14 (Transport Information) provides information on the substance’s shipping and transporting dangers, requirements, and regulations. • Section 15 (Other Regulatory Information) gives information on other regulations to which the substance may be subject. • Section 16 (Other Information) may list label requirements and systems used, and offer manufacturer or supplier disclaimer information. Safety Data Sheet Acetylene Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification Product Name: Contact Information: In Case of Emergency: Acetylene ABC Company 123 Carnation Blvd. Sierra, HI 1-800-123-4567 call 1-800-123-4567 Figure 2.14 Sample SDS Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.17 UNIT 2 SAMPLE

Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients CAS# 74-86-2 Chemical Name Acetylene % Volume 100 Exposure limits NIOSH REL (United States, 6/2001). CEIL: 2662 mg/m3 Form: all forms CEIL: 2500 ppm Form: all forms Section 3: Hazards Identification Emergency Overview: Warning! Flammable gas. Contents under pres- sure. Causes damage to respiratory tract and cen- tral nervous system. Vapor may cause flash fire. Keep away from heat, sparks, and flame. Do not puncture or incinerate container. Keep container closed. Use only with adequate ventilation. Contact can cause frostbite. Target Organs: Routes of Entry: Respiratory system, central nervous system Inhalation Physical State: Gas Potential Acute Health Effects: Eye: No known significant effects Skin: No known significant effects Ingestion: Uncommon route of entry Inhalation: Simple asphyxiant Potential Chronic Health Effects: Not available Carcinogenicity: Not available Medical Conditions Aggravated by Overexposure: Acute or chronic respiratory conditions Section 4: First Aid Measures Action taken without appropriate training involves substantial personal risk. If fumes are still present, a respirator is required. Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation may be dangerous to the person administering it. Eyes: Flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Seek medical assistance. Skin: Flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing and shoes before re-use. Seek medical assistance. Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything to an unconscious person through his/her mouth. Seek medical assistance. Inhalation: Remove from exposure and move to fresh air immediately. If not breathing, give artificial respiration (not mouth-to-mouth resuscitation). If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Seek medical assistance. Frostbite: Warm frozen tissues. Seek medical assistance. Figure 2.14 (cont.) Sample SDS 2.18 Structural Steel Erection SAMPLE UNIT 2

Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data/Fire Fighting Measures Flammability of Product: Flammable Auto-ignition temperature: 304.85°C (580.7°F) Flash Point (closed cup method): -18.15°C (-0.7°F) Flammable Limits, Lower: 2.5% Flammable Limits, Upper: 82% Products of Combustion: Carbon oxides (CO, CO2) Fire Hazards: Extremely flammable in presence of open flames, sparks, and static discharge. Extremely flammable in presence of heat and oxidizing materials. Explosion Hazards: Explosive in presence of heat. Extinguishing Media: Use water spray (fog), dry chemicals, carbon dioxide, or foam. Fire fighting Information: Shut off gas flow immediately if it can be done without risk. Apply water from a safe distance to cool the container and to protect the surrounding area. Extremely flammable. Gas can travel to source of ignition and flash back causing fire or explosion. Wear appropriate protective clothing and a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) with a full facepiece operated in positive pressure mode. Section 6: Accidental Release Measures General Information: Immediately contact emergency personnel and keep unnecessary per- sonnel away. Isolate area until gas has dispersed. Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated in Section 8. Shut off gas supply if this can be done safely. Spills/Leaks: Avoid dispersal of spilled material and runoff. Avoid contact with soil, waterways, drains, and sewers. Section 7: Handling and Storage Handling: Keep container closed, and use only with adequate ventilation. Keep away from heat, sparks, and flame. Minimize ignition sources. Use explosion-proof electrical (ventilating, lighting, and material handling) equipment. Do not puncture or incinerate container. High pressure under gas. Use equipment rated for cylinder pressure. Close valve after each use and when empty. Protect cylinders from physical damage. Do not drag, roll, slide, or drop cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder movement. Storage: Keep container tightly closed and in a cool, well-ventilated area. Store cylinders upright, with valve protection cap in place, and firmly secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Cylinder temperatures should not exceed 52°C (125°F). Figure 2.14 (cont.) Sample SDS Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.19 SAMPLE UNIT 2

Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection Engineering Controls: Use only with adequate ventilation. Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering controls to keep airborne levels below recommended exposure limits. Engineering controls need to keep gas, vapor, or dust concentrations below explosive limits. Use explosion-proof ventilation equipment. Personal Protective Equipment: Eyes: Safety eyewear complying with approved standards should be used when a risk assess- ment indicates this is necessary to avoid exposure to liquid splashes, mists, or dusts. Skin: Personal protective equipment for the body should be selected based on the task being per- formed and the risks involved and should be approved by a specialist before handling this product. Hands: Chemical-resistant, impervious gloves or gauntlets adhering to approved standards should be worn if a risk assessment indicates this is necessary when handling the product. Respiratory: If indicated as necessary by a risk assessment, wear an approved and properly fit- ted air-purifying or air-fed respirator. Any respirator used must be chosen based on known or expected exposure levels, hazards, and the respirator’s safe working limits. If a large spill occurs, a self-contained breathing apparatus should be used to prevent inhalation. Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties Physical State: Gas Molecular Weight: 26.04 g/mole Molecular Formula: C2-H2 Vapor Pressure: 635 psig Vapor Density: 0.9 (Air = 1) Boiling/Condensation Point: Not available Freezing/Melting Point: Sublimation temper- ature: -81.8°C (-115.2°F) Critical Temperature: 35.3°C (95.5°F) Specific Volume (ft3/lb): 14.7059 Gas Density (lb/ft3): 0.068 Section 10: Stability and Reactivity Data Chemical Stability and Reactivity: May undergo hazardous decomposition, condensation, or polymerization. May react violently with water to emit toxic gases. May become self-reactive under conditions of shock or increase in temperature or pressure. Incompatibilities: Extremely incompatible or reactive with oxidizing agents. Section 11: Toxicological Information Chronic Effects: Causes damage to the upper respiratory tract and central nervous system (CNS) Carcinogenicity: No known significant effects Mutagenicity: No known significant effects Reproduction Toxicity: No known significant effects Section 12: Ecological Information Products of Degradation: Carbon oxides (CO, CO2) and water Toxicity of Biodegradation Products: Not toxic Environmental Hazards: No known significant effects Environmental Toxicity: Not available Figure 2.14 (cont.) Sample SDS 2.20 Structural Steel Erection SAMPLE UNIT 2

Section 13: Disposal Considerations Dispose of product according to federal, state, local, and provincial regulations. Return cylinders to ABC Company. Section 14: Transport Information Regulatory Information UN Number Proper Shipping Name Class Packing Group Label Additional Information United States DOT Classification UN1001 Acetylene, Dissolved 2.1 Not appli- cable FLAMMABLE GAS 2 Limited Quantity: yes Packaging Instructions: Passenger Aircraft: Quantity limitation: forbid- den Cargo Aircraft: Quantity limita- tion: 15 kg Canada TDG Classification UN1001 Acetylene, Dissolved 2.1 Not appli- cable FLAMMABLE GAS 2 Explosive Limit and Limited Quantity Index: 0 Passenger Carrying Ship Index: 75 Passenger Carrying Road or Rail Index: Forbidden Special Provisions: 38, 42 Mexico Mexico Classification UN1001 Acetylene, Dissolved 2.1 Not appli- cable FLAMMABLE GAS 2 Figure 2.14 (cont.) Sample SDS Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.21 SAMPLE UNIT 2

These and other pSoectetniotinal1e5l:emOtehnetsr oRfeSgDuSlastworilyl bInefdoirsmcuastsieodnmore thoroughly dur- ing your federal, state, and provincial safety courses. United States U.S. Federal Regulations: TSCA 8(B) Inventory: Acetylene SARA Section 302/304/311/312 Extremely Hazardous Substances: No products found SARA Section 302/304 Emergency Planning and Notification: No products found SARA Section 302/304/33/312 Hazardous Chemicals: Acetylene SARA Section 311/312 SDS Distribution (Chemical Inventory) Hazard Identification: Acetylene: fire hazard, reactive, sudden release of pressure, immediate (acute) health hazard Clean Water Act (CWA) 307: No products found Clean Water Act (CWA) 311: No products found Clean Air Act (CAA) 112 Accidental Release Prevention: Acetylene Clean Air Act (CAA) 112 Regulated Flammable Substances: Acetylene Clean Air Act (CAA) 112 Regulated Toxic Substances: No products found State Regulations: Pennsylvania RTK: Acetylene (generic envi- ronment hazard) Massachusetts RTI: Acetylene New Jersey: Acetylene Canada WHMIS: Figure 2.14 (cont.) Sample SDS Class A: Compressed gas Class B-1: Flammable gas Class F: Dangerously reactive material CEPA DSL: Acetylene 2.22 Structural Steel Erection SAMPLE UNIT 2

Section 16: Other Information United States Label Requirements: Flammable Gas Contents Under Pressure Causes Damage to the Following Organs: Respiratory Tract, Central Nervous System Vapor May Cause Flash Fire Canada Label Requirements: Class A: Compressed gas Class B-1: Flammable gas Class F: Dangerously reactive material Hazardous Material Information System (United States): Healt Fire h React Perso Health * 1 *1 Fire hazard 4 zard 4 Reactivity 3 ity 3 h a iv C Personal protectCion nal protection National Fire Protection Association (United States): Health Flammability 4 Fla4mmability He0alth3 0 3 Instability Instability SpecialSpecial Created: 03/06/2008 11:17 AM Last Updated: 03/17/2008 11:17 AM The information above is believed to be accurate and represents the best information cur- rently available to us. However, neither the above-named supplier nor any of its subsidiar- ies assumes any liability whatsoever for the accuracy or completeness of the information contained herein. Final determination of suitability of any material is the sole responsibility of the user. All materials may present unknown hazards and should be used with caution. Although certain hazards are described herein, we cannot guarantee that these are the only hazards that exist. Figure 2.14 (cont.) Sample SDS Unit 2 — General Safety For Structural Steel Erection 2.23 SAMPLE UNIT 2

2.24 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 2

▶ TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL ERECTION UNIT 3 ▶ OBJECTIVES After completion of this unit, you should be able to describe the tools and equip- ment most commonly used by Ironworkers for structural steel erection. This knowl- edge will be evidenced by correctly completing the assignment sheets, performing the skills in the performance exercise assessment, and by scoring a minimum of 70% on the unit test. Specifically, you should be able to: 1. Identify common hand tools 2. Identify power tools 3. Identify layout instruments 4. Describe safety procedures to follow when working around welding machines 5. Identify rigging equipment Each of these objectives is covered in the pages that follow. Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.1 UNIT 3

▶▶OBJECTIVE 1: BASIC HAND TOOLS Ironworkers need hand tools to do their jobs, and must therefore be able to identify, safely use, and care for these tools. Examples of some of the most common hand tools that you will use as an Ironworker are described in Table 3.1 below. Table 3.1 Common Hand Tools Used by Ironworkers BASIC HAND TOOLS A folding rule (or ruler) is used for measuring, and is handy when laying out sequential mea- surements. A measuring (or push pull) tape is also used to measure distances, and is convenient to use when measuring greater distances than those that can be typically covered by a folding ruler. Sledgehammers (often called beaters) are used to drive pins, align holes, and move iron to its exact intended location and to perform numer- ous other applications. Sledgehammer handles should be kept free of splinters and cracks, and be kept tightly attached to the hammer’s head. Beaters carried by Ironworkers usually have four- or six- pound heads. Adjustable locking pliers are used primarily to grip and lock objects. A 12\" adjustable wrench is used in many iron- working applications, such as assembling oxyfuel equipment for cutting and welding. Because of the varying sizes of bolts that an Ironworker may find on the job, it is necessary to carry such a wrench; however, some Ironworkers carry an adjustable spud wrench instead of this tool. An adjustable spud wrench is used to align holes and tighten bolts, and can be adjusted to tighten nuts of various sizes. 3.2 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

BASIC HAND TOOLS A regular spud wrench is also used to align holes and tighten bolts, although it cannot be adjusted to tighten nuts of various sizes. More than any other tool of the trade, spud wrenches – adjustable or regular – identify Ironworkers. The tapered end and off-set head of these tools make them ideal for aligning holes and tight- ening bolts. Two of the most commonly used wrenches are 3⁄4\" and 7⁄8\" hard spud wrenches. As with all tools, constant use of spud wrenches can take its toll over time. Spud wrenches can become “sprung,” which means the opening has expanded. When this happens, the wrench can slip from around a nut under pressure and create a serious safety concern. Regularly inspect wrenches for deformation, breaks, or bent ends. A connecting bar (also called a sleever bar) is used to align, pinch, or pry steel. It has one pointed end and one 15° chisel end to provide more leverage than a straight chisel end would when positioning steel members and aligning bolt holes. Never weld a connecting bar, heat it with a torch, or beat it with a hammer. Barrel-type drift pins are used to align two or more plies of steel. Always watch these pins for mushroomed heads as, when struck with a ham- mer, pieces of a mushroomed head can become airborne projectiles and seriously injure a worker. Mushroomed heads have resulted in the loss of a worker’s sight on many occasions. If you notice a mushroomed head on a pin, grind off the mush- roomed metal and bevel the head. If, however, the pin has been ground and beveled in this way twice before, remove the pin from service (it will otherwise be significantly altered from its original design). Bull pins are also used to align two plies of steel. As with barrel-type drift pins, regularly inspect bull pins for mushroomed heads. Table 3.1 (cont.) Common Hand Tools Used by Ironworkers Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.3 UNIT 3

BASIC HAND TOOLS A tapered reamer bit is used for reaming full- sized holes that are mismatched and holes that were burned with an oxyacetylene torch. The reamer bit is tapered for about half its length and the cutting edges of its five flutes are on the sides of the tool, permitting it to enter small or poorly matching holes and to remove the neces- sary metal with the least slotting of the holes. A nut may be welded on the end of a reamer bit (this allows the bolting-up crew to use an impact wrench rather than a regular drill or reamer). Cutting shears (often called snips) are used to make small, intricate cuts. They work like a pair of scissors, are small and portable, and can be carried in a tool belt for fast and easy cuts. The cuts they make do not produce any waste mate- rial. These snips come in different sizes and jaw shapes, and are normally identified by the color of the snips’ handles: • Red handled snips make it easier to cut to the right. • Green handled snips make it easier to cut to the left. • Yellow handled snips (also called aviator snips) make it easier to cut straight. It is not uncommon for an Ironworker to use all three types of snips on one cut. Right-Cutting Snips Left-Cutting Snips Straight-Cutting Snips An electrode bag is used to hold extra welding rods. A flint lighter (or striker) is used to light oxyfuel torches. Table 3.1 Common Hand Tools Used by Ironworkers 3.4 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

BASIC HAND TOOLS Bolt bags are used to carry bolts, pins, and a small hammer/beater. They are usually con- structed of canvas or leather, and have tapered loops on each side to slide a belt through. Tool holders are used to carry tools and keep them securely in place while working. Some holders are tool-specific (such as wrench hold- ers), while others are designed to carry a variety of tools. The tool holders pictured are, from left to right, a scabbard (or multi-pocket holster), a wrench holder (spud scabbard), a snap loop, and a bull pin holder. Table 3.1 (cont.) Common Hand Tools Used by Ironworkers These are just some of the basic hand tools an Ironworker will use on the job site. There are many more tools that an Ironworker will use on different jobs, including power tools, various layout instruments, welding equipment, and hoisting equip- ment. Some of these tools will be discussed in the following objectives. In general, however, Ironworkers should be familiar with the setup, use, and maintenance of these various types of equipment. Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.5 UNIT 3

▶▶OBJECTIVE 2: POWER TOOLS Power tools can be electrical, pneumatic, powder-actuated, or hydraulic, and they have many applications in structural steel erection. They can be used to fasten, drill, cut, grind, lift, and bind. When using power tools, it is important to acknowledge how their use affects Ironworkers’ bodies. For example, some tools (particularly screw guns) sometimes require the operator to bend over frequently. Always position your legs and knees where the strain on the back is minimized. Additionally, screw guns and other tools should be adjusted correctly to prevent pressure to the wrist and lower arms. Figure 3.1 Hand Grinder Figure 3.2 Screw Gun Power tools should be removed from service immediately if the operator senses warmth from the tool housing, irregular sounds coming from the motor, or any indication that the tool is not operating properly. As always, proper PPE (gloves, eye protec- tion, and skin protection) is required when operating any tool. Electrical Power Tools Electrical power tools used in steel erection can include (but are not limited to) grinders (see Figure 3.1), screw guns (see Figure 3.2), impact wrenches, saws (see Figure 3.3), reamers, “jitterbugs,” TC guns (see Figure 3.4), nibblers (see Figure 3.5), and some aerial lifts (although aerial lifts are battery operated, they require an electrical charge and are therefore considered to be a type of electric power tool). 3.6 Structural Steel Erection Figure 3.3 Hand-Held Cut Off Saw Figure 3.4 Ironworker Using a TC Gun Figure 3.5 Nibbler UNIT 3

Note: Abrasive tools, such as grinders, reamers, and hand-held cut off saws, may throw off flying fragments, including small, hot waste particles. Care must be taken as to where these particles land as they may injure workers or damage other materials in their path. Do not use cracked or otherwise damaged grinding wheels as they can break apart and become dangerous projectiles. Machine guards must also be kept in place to protect workers from rotating parts, flying chips and sparks, and other dangers. The most serious danger when using electric power tools is electrocution. When not maintained and used properly, electric power tools can cause shocks, burns, and other serious injuries. Electrical shocks can lead to heart failure or cause a worker to fall off a ladder or elevated platform. Under certain conditions, even a small amount of current can result in death. Electrocution usually happens as the result of a combination of circumstances that occur frequently in construction work. For instance, electrocution can result from running electrical cords through water or running a cord over sharp metal edges. To protect against such dangers, avoid run- ning cords over edges and do not place them in water. Tools must also have a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) integrated into the circuit at the power source (see Figure 3.6) and a three-pronged cord, and be grounded, double insulated, or powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer. Cords should not be used if there are obvious cuts or breaks in them, if they have exposed wires, if they are improperly grounded, or if the grounding has been altered. Figure 3.6 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter Caution! Three-wire cords contain two current-carrying conduc- tors and a grounding conductor; never remove the third prong from an extension cord or power cord. If an electrically powered tool becomes hot to the touch, the insula- tion has failed. Immediately remove the tool from service and tag it “Do Not Use.” Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.7 UNIT 3

Employing strain relief devices (Figure 3.7) will help prevent damage to a power cord’s prongs as well as help to prevent accidental disconnection. Pneumatic Power Tools Pneumatic tools are powered by com- pressed air and include staplers, chip- pers, drills, reamers, sanders, and impact wrenches. Figure 3.7 Strain Relief Devices Caution! Drills and reamers can sometimes become lodged in, or bound up in, materials. When this happens, the worker using a drill or reamer is in danger of being thrown back or injured. Always work from a stable work platform and brace yourself when performing these operations. The standard impact wrench is generally used for all high-strength bolting and is powered by compressed air, with a minimum pressure of 90 psi for 7⁄8\" diameter bolts and smaller (for larger bolts, the pressure must be higher). Wrenches are avail- able for all common sizes of A325 and A490 bolts (more information on these and other types of bolts is given in Unit 9), while wrench sockets should be marked on the outer periphery every 90° to enable the operator to easily measure nut rotation. Hose lines must also be adequate for the number and size of wrenches being used. When a large number of wrenches are used, an auxiliary air receiver should be oper- ated to maintain adequate pressure. A spline drive pneumatic impact wrench is shown in Figure 3.8. Figure 3.8 Spline Drive Pneumatic Impact Wrench Note: There are many types of electric-powered wrenches on the market, but many cannot achieve the high torques required for tightening large diameter high-strength structural bolts. Pneumatic- powered wrenches are therefore preferred as, for reasons of effi- ciency, hand-tightening of bolts should be limited to jobs requiring only a few bolts of relatively small diameters. 3.8 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

The main hazard associated with pneumatic tools is the possibility of a worker being struck by a tool attachment or by a fastener that is used with the tool. Workers have been seriously injured when an air hose under pressure has suddenly discon- nected and struck them, or when a fastener has gone right through a surface not suitable for it and struck a worker on the other side. Ironworkers should take the same precautions with air hoses as with electrical cords. For example, always ensure that the tool is securely fastened to the hose and that sections of the hose are securely fastened to each other as well. Use a short wire or positive locking device to prevent accidental disconnection. Caution! To avoid serious injury, never use compressed air for cleaning. Powder-Actuated Power Tools Some jobs forbid welding for certain attachment procedures; when this is the case, powder-actuated tools (see Figure 3.9) are typically used to install fasteners. Powder-actuated tools operate like loaded guns and should be treated with the same respect and precautions. In fact, they are so dangerous that workers must be trained and licensed to operate them. Figure 3.9 Powder-Actuated Tools When using powder-actuated tools, remember that they expel fasteners at a tre- mendous velocity and that you must therefore be constantly aware of your sur- roundings. Be aware, too, of the surface on which you are using the tool: using a powder-actuated tool on porous, easily penetrated material such as plywood, dry- wall, etc., presents a safety hazard to everyone in the area as a fastener may go right though it. Be certain to test powder-actuated tools each day before operating them to ensure that safety devices are working properly and always select a powder level that will accomplish the task needed without excessive force. Never use these tools in explosive or flammable environments. When testing a powder-actuated tool before use, ensure that the tool is clean, that its barrel is free from obstruction, and that its moving parts move freely. Also make sure that the tool has the proper shield, guard, and attachments. Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.9 UNIT 3

Be certain, too, to follow these general safety rules when using powder-actuated tools: • Never load the tool unless you are using it immediately. • Do not leave a loaded tool unattended. • Keep hands clear of the barrel end. • Never point the tool at anyone. • Store powder-actuated tools unloaded in a locked box. • Do not fire fasteners into material that would allow them to pass through to the other side. Hydraulic Tools Hydraulic tools include jacks, tensioning devices, and calibrators. Raising or moving iron typically requires much force. When it needs to be moved great distances, rigging devices or heavy equipment are typically employed; however, when it must be raised or moved only a small distance or when height or other limitations (such as lack of head room) are a concern, hydraulic jacks (Figures 3.10 and 3.11) are generally used. Figure 3.11 Hydraulic “Porta-Power” Jack Figure 3.10 Hydraulic Bottle Jack Warning! If a powder-actuated tool misfires while in use, wait 30 seconds before trying to use it again. If it still misfires, wait another 30 seconds so that the faulty cartridge is less likely to explode, and then carefully remove the load and immerse the faulty cartridge in water. 3.10 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

When using a hydraulic jack, make certain it is set up properly and safely: • Make certain that the base rests on a firm, level surface. • Ensure that the jack is correctly centered. • Make sure the jack head bears against a level surface. • Ensure that the lift force is applied evenly. Note: The manufacturer’s load limit must be permanently marked on the jack and should not be exceeded. After the load is lifted to its desired elevation, block the load as necessary and remove the jacks. Hydraulic jacks should not be used to support a load. A hydraulic wrench (Figure 3.12) is typically used to install large diameter bolts (bolts with diameters greater than 11⁄2\"), as other impact wrenches do not deliver enough torque to properly install these fasteners. Figure 3.12 Hydraulic Wrench Note: A multiplier (Figure 3.13) can also be used in conjunction with differ- ent types of impact wrenches to achieve the proper tension on larger fasteners. Figure 3.13 Mechanical Multiplier Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.11 UNIT 3

Calibrators are used to conduct preinstallation verification testing (see Unit 9) of bolts to ensure that the bolts meet minimum tension require- ments. The most commonly used brand of bolt tension calibrator is a hydraulic instrument called the Skidmore-Wilhelm (or “skidmore”), shown in Figure 3.14. A skidmore may be clamped to a beam, column, or special frame, and the dial of the gauge may be marked with paint pens or a scribe to show the required minimum tension in pounds for each bolt diameter. 3.12 Structural Steel Erection When using a hydraulic tool, remember that hydraulic systems store fluid under high pres- sure. In the construction industry, these pressures reach or exceed 10,000 psi. The dangers of these tools, therefore, include bruises, cuts, abrasions, and other injuries from disconnected hydraulic lines that may lash about, burns from the hot fluid, and injection of the fluid into the skin through pinhole leaks in the equipment. To help prevent some of these dangers, the fluid used in hydraulic tools must be an approved fire-resistant fluid and must retain its operating characteristics at the most extreme temperature to which it will be exposed. Do not use a hydraulic tool in conditions where its acceptable fluid temperature range may be exceeded. To help prevent hazards, too, always read the operator’s manual for the recom- mended safe operating pressure for hydraulic tools’ hoses, valves, pipes, filters, and other fittings. Never exceed these recommendations. Figure 3.14 Calibrator Warning! Pinhole leaks are nearly invisible and are therefore dif- ficult to locate, a fact which can contribute to severe injuries. A leak may often only be apparent by a damp, oily, dirty place appearing near the hose. In trying to locate the leak causing this dirty spot, an Ironworker may unthinkingly run a hand or finger along the line. When he or she does so, and locates the pinhole leak, fluid can be injected into the skin. Initially, this will likely cause only a slight stinging sensation. Later, however, severe pain may occur, and by the time the worker seeks medical help, it is too late: he or she may lose a finger or an arm. Always use cardboard or wood instead of a hand or finger to locate a hydraulic leak. UNIT 3

In general, to minimize risk of serious injury when using hydraulic tools: • Choose the proper tool for the job. • Thoroughly inspect all tool components before each shift. • Read all manufacturer labels and instructions before using any hydraulic equipment. • Fill the reservoir only to the recommended level. If a hydraulic tool is to be exposed to freezing temperatures, fill the reservoir with an adequate anti-freeze liquid. • Be sure all connections are tight; escaping oil under pressure is both a fire and a personal injury hazard. • Never allow a body part to pass over a hydraulic hose leak. • Never carry a hydraulic tool by the hose as this can damage the coupler. • Keep all hoses free of obstructions and out of high traffic areas. • Do not allow anything to be dropped on a hose. • Before disconnecting oil lines, relieve all hydraulic pressure. • Inspect and lubricate the tools and hoses regularly. Safely Working With Power Tools When working with power tools – whether they are electric, pneumatic, powder- actuated, or hydraulic – follow these safety precautions: • Never carry any power tool by the cord or hose. • Never yank the cord or the hose to disconnect it. • Keep cords and hoses away from heat, oil, and sharp edges. • Do not allow cords or hoses to become tripping hazards. • Disconnect tools when not in use, before servicing, and when changing accessories such as blades, bits, and cutters. • If possible, secure work with clamps or a vise, freeing both hands to operate a tool. • Use all tools in accordance with the owner’s manual. • Remove all damaged or malfunctioning tools from use and tag them “Do Not Use.” • Do not use electric tools in damp or wet locations. All hand-held power tools must be equipped with a momentary contact “on/off” control switch to prevent accidental startup. Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.13 UNIT 3

▶▶OBJECTIVE 3: LAYOUT INSTRUMENTS 3.14 Structural Steel Erection Figure 3.15 Layout Instruments Spirit Levels Layout instruments (Figure 3.15) are used in steel erec- tion to establish working points, elevations, and benchmarks. Generally, layout instruments are expensive and range from simple to complex to use. This means that Ironworkers must be thoroughly trained in their setup, use, and care. Instruments generally fall into one of three categories: builders’ levels, lasers, and transits and theodolites. Builders’ Levels A level is used to establish elevations, transfer straight lines, and to determine whether something is plumb or level. They are also useful in establishing the top of steel and finished floor elevations. Ironworkers should have access to several different types of levels to use for these purposes, but in general there are two main groups of levels with which an Ironworker should be familiar: spirit levels and optical levels. These levels are used to determine whether something is plumb or level by placing the level on the structural member in question and then obtaining a reading from the level as to the amount out of plumb or level the member is. To plumb or level the piece, the Ironworker will adjust the piece until the spirit level reads true or plumb. The use of these sorts of levels is called direct leveling, and it has many advantages. For example, it involves minimal setup, is quick and easy to do, and is relatively error-free as long as the level is in good condition. Checking that a level reads true involves placing it against something and making a note of the deflection of the bubble in the spirit vial. The level is then flipped over or turned end for end and the deflection is again observed. If the deflection is the same, then the level is true. If there is any deviation in the amount that the bubble moves in the spirit vial, then the piece of equipment is faulty. Spirit levels used for direct leveling include birdseye levels, torpedo/engineer’s lev- els, and machinist’s levels. UNIT 3

A birdseye level (Figure 3.16) is a level vial that is circular from an overhead view and that levels in all planes simultaneously. It is used for outrigger leveling on cranes (and can therefore be found on the carry decks of cranes). It is also used on the base of instruments, on Philadelphia rod, and on other remote measuring devices that must be held truly plumb in two planes. Torpedo/engineer’s levels (see Figure 3.17) are rectangular in shape and come in various lengths (2', 4', or 6') with multiple spirit vials for leveling, plumbing, and 45° aligning. Some of these levels have magnetic bases, and some have Figure 3.16 Birdseye Level plan view openings for observing the level vial through the frame of the level. All are used exten- sively to plumb and level small single-story struc- tural jobs, and they must all be used to directly level or plumb the object in question. Figure 3.17 Torpedo Level A machinists’ level works on the same principle, but is more finely accurate. It has a machined base with a calibrated level vial that will read very slight deviations in level (up to 5/1000\" accuracy in some cases). This type of level is used to directly level machinery bases where shim thicknesses are much thinner than the typical 1/16\" used in structural jobs. Optical Levels Optical levels are remote leveling devices that have a base and an eyepiece much like a telescope, allowing the person using them to gather information regarding the plumbing, aligning, or leveling of a structural member without actually having the instrument touch the member in question. A contractor’s level (also called a dumpy or simply a builder’s level) is the most basic type of optical level, and is the cheapest and most common optical level in use on most structural jobs. It is shown in Figure 3.18. This type of level can only be used for leveling (not for plumbing or alignment), and it allows many items on different parts of a job to be leveled from the same location. It is frequently used for leveling shims: Figure 3.18 one shim pack per column base is usually set to the proper elevation of Contractor’s Level the underside of the base plate by an Ironworker using a contractor’s level while the rest are set with a torpedo or 2' level. These levels must have a clear view of the piece to be leveled and must be placed in close proximity to the piece to obtain an accurate reading. Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.15 UNIT 3

Lasers Lasers (Figures 3.19 and 3.20) use light beams and receivers to establish hor- izontal as well as vertical lines. They are therefore useful in leveling, plumb- ing, and laying out struc- tural steel. They can also be used to determine lengths of distance. Figure 3.19 Rotating Laser Figure 3.20 Plumbing Laser The use of lasers on structural job sites is limited due to their cost, the need for a receiver to be held by a worker, and the difficulty of seeing a laser’s light beam in daylight. Lasers are used more widely when layout, leveling, and plumbing are done inside an existing building (i.e., for leveling curtain walls, conveyors, etc.). Transits and Theodolites Transits and theodolites serve basically the same functions: they both establish horizontal and vertical lines and can be used to establish 360o layouts. They are also both digital instruments, which makes them more user-friendly and easier to read and operate than other instruments. Caution! Remember that laser instruments use ultraviolet light, which can be harmful to the eyes. Always post laser radiation warn- ing signs when using lasers. A transit (Figure 3.21) is used to level, plumb, align, and lay out on a degree vernier system. It is a very useful tool because it can be used for plumbing, aligning, and laying out in addition to leveling, but it requires more train- ing to use and read properly than a contractor’s level. Deviations in the vernier are etched on brass or stain- less steel and must be visible to the naked eye for verification. Some of the instruments have mini-magnifiers to make the reading of the vernier easier for the user. Figure 3.21 Transit 3.16 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

Total stations are a type of transit that can determine the distance along a site path to a target (a shiny reflective surface or bulls-eye at which the transit lens is aimed) as well as the horizontal and vertical distances the make up the triangulation of the target. They have the ability to store and export data, allowing the user to “shoot” many different targets and export the data to a computer where a software program can assemble it into a site plan. These instruments are very expensive and are typi- cally used for very complex jobs. They are not usually used on small jobs. A theodolite (see Figure 3.22) is basically the same as a transit in terms of appearance and function, except that it has an illumi- nated second telescope called the vernier eyepiece and deviations on the vernier are etched in glass and magnified through the glass. Because of this, theodolites are more accurate than standard transits. Digital theodolites (see Figure 3.23) are also available and are the same as standard theolodites, except that all of the readings are given by means of a liquid crystal display. Difficult calculations are sometimes required when reading and interpreting a vernier and scale. Basic Care for Instruments Instruments are easily damaged, which can affect the accuracy of their perfor- mance. As such, their care must be taken seriously. Always follow these simple steps when using instruments: 1. Pay close attention to how the instrument is removed from its case. It must be replaced the same way as it was removed. Never force the instrument back into place. If it does not rest easily, then it is probably not being replaced correctly. 2. When returning an instrument to storage, leave all setting controls and knobs loose. 3. When setting up an instrument for use, tighten controls only as much as necessary to control positioning. Excessive tightening may damages delicate threads. 4. Never leave an instrument unattended while it is set up. Movement can change its level, or it could be knocked over and damaged or destroyed. 5. Never expose instruments to extreme temperatures for extended periods (or, if possible, at all). Figure 3.22 Figure 3.23 Standard Theodolite Digital Theodolite Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.17 UNIT 3

▶▶OBJECTIVE 4: WELDING MACHINES All Ironworkers weld at some point in their careers. As such, you will take one or more welding courses during your Ironworker training. The following, however, pres- ents some basic safety information on welding machines that you should be aware of whether you are welding or simply working around someone who is welding. Anyone who welds must have received basic training in the proper setup of the machine, must know the proper settings for the type of weld application about to be undertaken, and must know which electrode to use for the material about to be welded. These welding machine safety rules should be followed as well: Warning! Never weld on the job site unless you are qualified to do so. Faulty welds endanger both the public and job site personnel. • • • • • • • • • • • Always inspect machines for proper connections. (The work lead connects the power source to the work. The ground lead connects the power source to the structure to complete the circuit.) Cables should be of the same diameter on both work and electrode leads. A hot electrode lead indicates trouble. Welding leads have several strands, and if enough strands are broken, they tend to heat up and burn. Never unplug welding machines under power. Never service machines while the power is on. Always check ground for a good connection prior to beginning work. Inspect insulation on leads for cracks. Never leave an electrode in the holder (stinger) when not welding, even for a short period of time. Do not splice a lead within ten feet of the electrode holder. Never loop or coil the leads or cables around your body. When joining cables, use only compatible parts. 3.18 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

• Remove butane lighters and other flammables from your pockets before welding. • Always arrange the work so that there is proper ventilation. This may require the use of fans. Note: Although oxyfuel welding operations are not discussed here, remember that oxygen and fuel bottles used in oxyfuel operations must be secured at all times. They should be on a welding cart or tied off securely. Table 3.2 offers information on other safety hazards, factors to consider, and pre- cautions to follow when welding. OTHER WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Hazard Factors to Consider Precaution Summary Electric shock can kill • Wetness • Welder in or on workpiece • Confined space • Electrode holder and cable insulation • Insulate welder from workplace and ground using dry insulation (e.g., rubber mat or dry wood). • Wear dry, hole-free gloves. (Change as necessary to keep dry.) • Do not touch electrically “hot” parts or electrode with bare skin or wet clothing. • If wet area and welder cannot be insulated from workpiece with dry insulation, use a semiautomatic, constant voltage welder or stick welder with voltage-reducing device. • Keep electrode holder and cable insulation in good condition. Do not use if insulation is damaged or missing. Table 3.2 Other Welding Safety Considerations Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.19 UNIT 3

OTHER WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Hazard Factors to Consider Precaution Summary Fumes and gases can be dangerous • Confined area • Positioning of welder’s head • Lack of general ventilation • Electrode types (i.e., manganese, chromium, etc. See SDS) • Base metal coatings, galvanize, paint • Use ventilation or exhaust to keep breathing zone clear and comfortable. • Use a helmet and positioning of head to minimize fumes in breathing zone. • Read warnings on electrode container and SDS for electrode. • Provide additional ventilation/ exhaust where special ventilation requirements exist. • Use special care when welding in a confined area. Welding sparks can cause fire or explosion • Containers that have held combustibles • Flammable materials • Do not weld on containers that have held combustible materials (unless strict American Welding Society F4.1 or similar Canadian Welding Bureau procedures are followed). • Remove flammable materials from welding area or shield from sparks and heat. • Keep a fire watch in area during and after welding. • Keep a fire extinguisher in the welding area. • Wear fire-resistant clothing and helmet. Use earplugs when welding overhead. Table 3.2 (cont.) Other Welding Safety Considerations 3.20 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

OTHER WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Hazard Factors to Consider Precaution Summary Arc rays can burn eyes and skin • Process: gas-shielded arc most severe • Select a filter lens that is comfortable for you while welding. • Always use a helmet when welding. • Provide non-flammable shielding to protect others. • Wear clothing that protects skin while welding. Confined space • Metal enclosure • Wetness • Restricted entry • Heavier than air gas • Welder inside or on workpiece • Carefully evaluate the adequacy of ventilation, especially where electrode requires special ventilation or where gas may displace breathing air. • If basic electric shock precautions cannot be followed to insulate welder from work and electrode, use semiautomatic, constant- voltage equipment with a cold electrode or stick welder with voltage-reducing device. • Provide welder helper and method of welder retrieval from outside enclosure. General work area hazards • Cluttered area • Keep cables, materials, and tools neatly organized. • Indirect work (welding ground) connection • Connect work cable as close as possible to the area where welding is being performed. Do not allow alternate circuits to go through scaffold cables, hoist chains, or ground leads. • Electrical equipment • Use only double insulated or properly grounded equipment. Always disconnect power to equipment before servicing. Table 3.2 (cont.) Other Welding Safety Considerations Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.21 UNIT 3

OTHER WELDING SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Hazard Factors to Consider Precaution Summary General work area hazards (cont.) • Engine-driven equipment • Use only in open, well-ventilated areas. • Keep enclosure complete and guards in place. • See service shop if guards are missing. • Refuel with engine off. • If using auxiliary power, federal state, and provincial regulations may require GFI protection or assured grounding program (or isolated windings if less than 5 kW). • Gas cylinders • Never touch cylinder with the electrode. • Never lift a machine with cylinder attached. • Keep cylinder upright and chained to support. Table 3.2 (cont.) Other Welding Safety Considerations 3.22 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

▶▶OBJECTIVE 5: RIGGING EQUIPMENT Unloading, hoisting, and erecting structural steel requires the use of a wide variety of rigging equipment, including hooks, shackles, slings/chokers, spreader bars, and cranes. A basic overview of these types of equipment, and some safety factors to keep in mind when using them, is offered below; however, more information on rigging equipment and cranes is provided in separate courses and reference manu- als (see, for example, the Rigging for Ironworkers and Cranes reference manuals). Note: Information on the load capacities for all of the rigging equip- ment outlined below can be found in the Rigging for Ironworkers and Cranes reference manuals. Always follow appropriate federal, state, and provincial standards and regulations when using any type of rigging equipment. Hooks A hook is used with other rigging equipment to attach to and lift a load. Before using a hook, ensure that it has the capacity to lift the weight of the load. The safe working capac- ity (SWC) of a hook can be approximated in tons as the square (in inches) of the diameter of the metal at the point where the inside curve of the hook begins to arc (SWC = D2). An example of such an approximation is shown in Figure 3.24. All hooks used must have a safety latch that prevents the choker from accidentally slip- ping off the hook. Figure 3.25 depicts such safety hooks. Shackles A shackle is most easily described as a link in the chain of rigging hardware. Shackles are frequently used to connect one piece of rig- ging hardware to another or to connect one Figure 3.24 Calculating an Approximate SWC for a Hook SWC = D2 SWC = 11⁄4\" × 11⁄4\" = 19/16 tons Figure 3.25 Safety Hooks Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.23 UNIT 3

piece of rigging hardware to the load or to the hoisting equipment. The two most common types of shackles, illustrated in Figure 3.26, are the anchor (bow type) and the chain (‘D’ type). Figure 3.26 Shackles Table 3.3 shows the safe working load in tons for screw anchor shackles (from the 29 CFR 1926 OSHA standards). 5/8 3⁄4 2.2 7⁄8 1 4.3 11/8 11⁄4 6.7 13/8 11⁄2 10.0 13⁄4 2 16.2 Table 3.3 Safe Working Load in Tons for Screw Anchor Shackles The size of shackles is deter- mined by measuring the diameter of the bow stock rather than the pin size. Shackle pins are generally 1/8” larger in diameter than the body of the shackle; larger shackles (those 11⁄2” and above), however, have pins 1⁄4” larger in diameter than the body of the shackle. SAFE WORKING LOADS FOR SHACKLES [IN TONS OF 2,000 POUNDS] Material size (inches) Pin diameter (inches) Safe Working Load 1⁄2 5/8 1.4 3⁄4 7⁄8 3.2 1 11/8 5.6 11⁄4 13/8 8.2 11⁄2 15/8 11.9 2 21⁄4 21.2 Caution! Rated lifting capacities are stamped on shackles. Never exceed this safe working load. 3.24 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

Slings/Chokers Slings, called chokers by Ironworkers, serve as the link between the hoisting equipment and the load to be lifted. They are usually made from either wire rope or synthetic fiber; those used for steel erection are most typically made from wire rope. Figure 3.27 depicts some of the more common types of chokers used in structural steel erection. Because chokers connect a load to hoisting equip- ment, it is very important that chokers of sufficient strength to lift the intended load be selected. The stress or tension on each choker depends on the number of chokers, the angle of the choker, and the total load. The total weight lifted is divided among the supporting chokers. The angle of the chokers, if not perpendicular, causes the tension in each choker to be increased. This reduces the lifting capacity of the chokers. The tension on each choker for a given load can be calculated by using the formula T = (W × L) / (N × V), where T = the tension on the choker in pounds* W = the weight lifted, measured in pounds L = the length of the choker, measured in feet N = the number of chokers used V = the vertical distance from the load to the hook, measured in feet *This may be considerably more than the total load being lifted. For example, if the weight lifted is equal to 2,000 pounds, the length of each choker in a set of 2 chokers used is 10 feet, and the vertical distance from the load to the hook is 5 feet, the tension on each choker is 2,000 pounds: W = 2,000 lbs. L = 10' N=2 V = 5' 2,000 lbs. × 10' 2 × 5' 20,000 = 10 = 2,000 lbs. Figure 3.27 Common Chokers Used in Structural Steel Erection Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.25 UNIT 3

Spreader Bars When hoisting a load excessive in length, when hoisting a load not rigid enough to prevent unde- sirable bending or flexing, or to help prevent load tipping and/or sliding, all of which could damage the piece being lifted, it is best to use a spreader bar or beam. A spreader bar (shown in Figure 3.28) can be either commercially manufactured or fabri- cated in a steel fabrication shop. Figure 3.28 Chokers and Spreader Bar Spreader bars come in a variety of types: beams, heavy duty pipes or square tub- ing, or fabricated trusses or plates. Whichever type of spreader bar used, however, should have a load rating and inspection tag. Caution! Never use a spreader bar or beam that has not been load rated or inspected. Cranes Cranes (see Figure 3.29) are used frequently on structural steel erection sites. As such, every Ironworker needs to be qualified to signal a crane operator. Doing so is essential to successfully unloading, handling, storing, and erecting struc- tural steel. Figure 3.30 illustrates crane signals every Ironworker must know. When signaling a crane operator, be aware of the following: • • • • • Only one person (the signalperson) is to give signals. The signalperson must watch the load (the operator watches the signals, not the load). Make certain that the operator can see the signalperson. Figure 3.29 Crane with a Spreader Bar • Make certain the operator acknowledges any given signal. Do not swing a load over other workers: warn them to keep them out of the way. Watch for overhead lines and other potential obstructions. 3.26 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3

STOP. With arm extended hori- zontally to the side, palm down, arm is swung back and forth. EMERGENCY STOP. With both arms extended horizontally to the side, palms down, arms are swung back and forth. HOIST. With upper arm extended to the side, forearm and index fin- ger pointing straight up, hand and finger make small circle. RAISE BOOM. With arm extended horizontally to the side, thumb points up with other fingers closed. SWING. With arm extended horizontally, index finger points in direction that boom is to swing. RETRACT TELESCOPING BOOM. With hands to the front at waist level, thumbs point at each other with other fingers closed. RAISE THE BOOM AND LOWER THE LOAD. With arm extended horizontally to the side and thumb pointing up, fingers open and close while load move- ment is desired. DOG EVERYTHING. Hands held together at waist level. LOWER. With arm and index finger pointing down, hand and finger make small circles. Figure 3.30 Crane Signals Unit 3 — Tools and Equipment for Structural Steel Erection 3.27 UNIT 3

LOWER BOOM. With arm extended horizontally to the side, thumb points down with other fingers closed. EXTEND TELESCOPING BOOM. With hands to the front at waist level, thumbs point out- ward with other fingers closed. TRAVEL/TOWER TRAVEL. With all fingers pointing up, arm is extended horizontally out and back to make a pushing motion in the direction of travel. LOWER THE BOOM AND RAISE THE LOAD. With arm extended horizontally to the side and thumb pointing down, fin- gers open and close while load movement is desired. MOVE SLOWLY. A hand is placed in front of the hand giving the action signal. USE AUXILIARY HOIST (whipline). With arm bent at elbow and forearm vertical, elbow is tapped with other hand. Then regular signal is used to indicate desired action. CRAWLER CRANE TRAVEL, BOTH TRACKS. Rotate fists around each other in front of body; direction of rotation away from body indicates travel for- ward; rotation towards body indicates travel backward. USE MAIN HOIST. A hand taps on top of the head. Then regular signal is given to indicate desired action. CRAWLER CRANE TRAVEL, ONE TRACK. Indicate track to be locked by raising fist on that side. Rotate other fist in front of body in direction that other track is to travel. Figure 3.30 (cont.) Crane Signals 3.28 Structural Steel Erection UNIT 3