Atlas Africa Potential Template.potx 10-4-19 FINAL SPLIT

ATLAS AFRICA REFUGEE – PAGE 1 SUSTAINABILITY – PAGE 5 HEALTH – PAGE 7 ART ACTIVISM – PAGE 9 SPRING 2019 Orange By Jana Lang

Olivia Hansen Will Land Conflicts Close Uganda’s Open Door? Olivia Hansen Will Land Conflicts Close Uganda’s Open Door? Editorial Board 2019 Olga Bronshteyn Photography Kay Dilworth Ravyn Granados Grace Stanley Olivia Hansen Raven Maier Bell Art & Design Breonna Osuegbu Ronni Ravid Jana Lang Zoe Reinecke Sofia Sheldon Allison Spindler Spring 2019

ATLAS AFRICA SPRING 2019 Refugee Introduction: IDP’s in Nigeria By: Breonna Osuegbu Local: Will Land Conflicts Close Uganda’s Open Door? By: Olivia Hansen Partnership: The Ripple Effect Quality Education Has On The Refugee Community By: Zoe Reinecke 2 Sustainability Introduction: Finding Sustainable Roots – Understanding the Utility and Necessity of African Tradition By: Raven Maier Bell Local: Desertification in the Sahel: Local Knowledge and Collaborative Opportunities for Sustainable Land Use By: Olga Bronshteyn Partnership: United Nations and Africa By: Kay Dilworth Health 3 Introduction: Reimagining the African Health Rhetoric By: Ronni Ravid Local: Female Entrepreneurs Creating Solutions to African Health Problems By: Grace Stanley Partnership: Transnational Connections via Midwifery By: Ravyn Granados Creative Activism 4 Introduction: Arts Intro By: Allison Spindler UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 2

Introduction: 1 Africa’s Refugee Crisis, IDP’s in Nigeria Breonna Osuegbu Under construction in the city of Fourteen kilometers west of the Lekki in Lagos State, Nigeria is the Lekki Free Zone is Debojo, a beach new Lekki Free Zone, a development town on Lagos Island that is home to project between the Lagos State thousands of people who have been government, the Lagos Free Zone forced out of their homes and Development Company, and various communities for reasons out of their private Chinese entities. The project control. These individuals and families will include real estate development, a are known as Internally Displaced school, industrial facilities for the Persons (IDPs) under international law production and exportation of crude oil and are subject to protection and and other logistics and more. Expected provisions by the Nigerian state, to be completed in 2022, the Lekki according to the 2009 Kampala Free Zone is aimed at “developing, Convention3. The proximity of this IDP operating, and managing a modern community to the Lekki Free Zone Free Zone”, fostering economic prompts the question: how are these cooperation between Nigeria and development and investment projects China, and improving the living going to be accessible and beneficial to standard in Nigeria. the most vulnerable citizens—the displaced? 10/4/2019

With approximately 3.3 million IDPs day5. Of course, this happens because jobs within the country, Nigeria currently holds the 3rd highest number of IDPs on can be hard to come by in Lagos, the the African continent as of February 2019. 74% of these displaced households are largest city in Africa and Nigeria’s uprooted by violence and destruction from the 2009 Boko Haram insurgency. This economic hub. Here, IDPs and others insurgency is still destroying villages, murdering civilians, and fighting Nigerian among the urban poor typically make (and neighboring countries’) armed forces to this day. Boko Haram, a militant group money through small-scale founded in 2002, commits routine attacks against towns and villages across the entrepreneurial ventures like driving Lake Chad Basin in the fight to establish an Islamic state in the region, which motorcycle taxis (called okadas), selling Northeast Nigeria is a part of. As a result, hundreds of thousands of people are killed food and household goods, and sometimes or forced to leave the community and land they’ve always known in search of refuge prostitution6,7. Public education, although in IDP camps and informal settlements on vacant lands across the country. While it free in Lagos State, becomes inaccessible is a major concern on the topic of IDPs, Boko Haram is not the only cause of when uniforms and school lunches are too displacement—environmental factors, such as flooding, and pastoral conflicts big of a burden on the household budget, also drive people out of their communities3. and children are needed at home to work When families and individuals find and help their parents make money7. themselves far away from home, they are vulnerable to all kinds of deprivation. Moreover, eviction and further Malnutrition is rampant among IDPs when there is simply not enough money to displacement from informal settlements is feed a family three balanced meals per a looming threat in big cities like Lagos, where the “war of space and land between the rich and the poor is tough and brutish”6. On a morning jog with my dad in Lekki, a relatively affluent city in Lagos, I was confronted with a clear view of wealth inequality, much like the juxtaposition between the Lekki Free Zone and the Debojo IDP camps. Jogging out of the confines of the gated estate and toward the ocean, we found ourselves lost in maze of shanties right on Elegushi Beach. This informal settlement is home to hundreds of men, women, and children who left their hometowns in search of safety and opportunity. UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 3

Orange By Jana Lang While one may imagine these high returns on land investment areas as idle and stagnant, what I saw thanks to development projects like the was actually a group alive with Lekki Free Zone8. But what happens to commerce, construction, and activity. IDP settlements on the land that This is to say that IDPs in Nigeria are developers and investors so desire? It not just sitting in their poverty and is essential for IDPs to be integrated waiting for handouts. They are into the formal economy, perhaps by building, trading, selling, and granting land titles for their informal producing with what is available given settlements, putting capital into their their circumstances. They cannot be entrepreneurial ventures, and using ignored nor hidden; they are present development projects to employ IDPs and active, right alongside affluence. rather than further displacing them to make “better” use of the land. What would it look like if local Investment in their infrastructure and and state governments integrated the human capital is necessary so that economic activities of the urban poor, IDPs, and the urban poor at large, are and of IDPs specifically, into the not left behind in economic formal local economy? Investors are development efforts. pouring into Lagos Island due to the 10/4/2019

As a body of institutions that have relief materials for personal benefit, area the responsibility of intervening when an unfortunately serious challenge in things go awry, what is the state currently supporting IDPs9. doing to alleviate the hardships of IDPs in the country? Ask someone living in an IDP Regarding IDP enfranchisement, the camp or informal settlement, like 48-year- old Hasfat Mustapha who travelled to Independent National Electoral Lagos from Borno State after a Boko Haram insurgency attacked her hometown, Commission (INEC) has made special and they might just laugh at such a question6. Government IDP management provisions for IDPs to vote in national agencies, such as the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) and the elections since they are unable to get to Lagos State Emergency Management Agency (LASEMA), work to provide relief in their polling units where they are originally IDP camps alongside various non-profit agencies. However, corrupt practices, like registered3. This has the potential to the mismanagement of funds and selling of empower IDPs to contribute their voice in government practices regarding spending and the fight against Boko Haram violence. UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 4

It seems as though a primary focus places. Further, many issues of Africa’s for the government’s management of governments, such as financial IDPs is to help them resettle back in mismanagement and rigged elections14, their towns of origin or just anywhere are only recontextualized with IDPs and outside of the camps. The Youth refugees—what’s the use of empowering Employment and Social Support the IDP vote if Nigeria’s elections are Operation (YESSO), established by the typically rigged and manipulated federal government in 2013 and anyhow?—which makes one wonder if supported by the World Bank, works to the solution will come from the people create a social safety net, jobs, and themselves, NGOs, or even corporations, workforce training for impoverished rather than the state. This does not youth10. For IDPs, YESSO has mean that we shouldn’t hold the developed a plan to provide money for government accountable to its IDPs to relocate out of their camps and responsibilities to the people, but that we into safe communities11.While should empower and shed light upon the resettlement is an important solution to voices and efforts of refugees. There are the IDP crisis, as many do want to ways that African refugees and IDPs return home to their normal lives, themselves are addressing the issues several towns have been flooded, burnt that come from their particular down by insurgents, or are even still circumstances, and we need not always prone to attack12 and are thus impose foreign solutions onto these unsuitable to be resettled. Other IDPs problems. Often, more resources may be have left their homes with the intention needed that can come from partnerships to start a new life and find new economic and, more sustainably, increased opportunities in places like Lagos5. economic independence and quality of Thus, resettlement is not quite ideal for governance across the African continent. some IDPs. This reality emphasizes the need to help IDPs integrate into the local formal economy. Pulling back, the IDP crisis in Nigeria looks much like Africa’s refugee crisis at large. People are fleeing violence and natural disaster on a massive scale, seeking safety and economic opportunities for a better life in foreign 10/4/2019

1Lagos Free Zone Development Retrieved from Company. (n.d.). Lekki Free Zone https://www.premiumtimesng.com/ Investment Brochure [Brochure]. Retrieved from health/health-interviews/277340- https://www.eiseverywhere.com/file_upl special-report-lagos-forgotten- oads/4c89fc4ccf7b9b01305474f571ba12b communities-how-idps-suffer-in- 3_LFZ_InvestmentGuide.pdf nigerias-wealthiest-state-1.html 2Lagos Free Zone Development 6 Living under terror of ‘Omo- Company. (n.d.). Company Background. Onile’: Lagos’ female IDPs braving Retrieved from http://lfzdc.org/about-us/ uncertainty to make a living. (2017, April 22). Retrieved from 3IDPs and the 2019 Elections https://punchng.com/living-under-terror- (Publication). (2019, February 11). of-omo-onile-lagos-female-idps-braving- Retrieved uncertainty-to-make-a-living/ http://www.placng.org/situation_room/sr /wp-content/uploads/2019/02/IDPs-and- 7 Chimezie, A. (2018, May 21). This the-2019-Elections.pdf is where Chibok IDPs in Lagos sleep: See How Boko Haram victims are 4Nigeria. (n.d.). Retrieved from struggling to survive Chased from http://www.internal- Chibok to Lagos. Retrieved from displacement.org/countries/nigeria http://naijalifemagazine.com/blog/2018/0 5/21/chibok-idps-lagos-sleep-see-boko- 5 Busari, K. (2018, July 22). This is haram-victims-struggling-survive- where Chibok IDPs in Lagos sleep: See chased-chibok-lagos/ How Boko Haram victims are struggling to survive Chased from Chibok to Lagos. UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 5

8 Ukwuoma, I. (2016, June 25). 13 International Committee of the All You Need To Know About Lekki Red Cross. (2012, December 5). ICRC Free Zone and Why You Should Invest welcomes entry into force of Kampala in Ibeju-Lekki, Lagos, Nigeria. Convention for displaced persons Retrieved from [Press release]. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@IgnatiusUkwuom https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/d a/all-you-need-to-know-about-lekki- ocuments/news-release/2012/12-05- free-zone-and-why-you-should-invest- kampala-convention-entry-into- in-ibeju-lekki-lagos-nigeria- force.htm d04ce3b871e 14 Warf, B. (2017). Geographies of 9 Eweka, O., & Olusegun, T. O. African corruption. PSU Research (2016). Management of Internally Review,1(1), 20-38. Retrieved from Displaced Persons in Africa: https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pd Comparing Nigeria and Cameroon. An fplus/10.1108/PRR-12-2016-0012. International Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia, 10(1), 40th ser. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/afrrev/ article/view/12984 10 Okunmadewa, F. (2013). Nigeria Youth Employment & Social Support Operation [Abstract]. Retrieved from http://projects.worldbank.org/P126964/ youth-employment-social-support- operation?lang=en&tab=overview 11 Usim, U. (2019, January 1). FG introduces empowerment scheme to help IDPs. Retrieved from https://www.sunnewsonline.com/f g-introduces-empowerment-scheme-to- help-idps/ 12 Ezea, S. (2018, November 24). ‘We’re are being forced out of IDP camps with nowhere to go’. Retrieved from https://guardian.ng/saturday- magazine/were-are-being-forced-out-of- idp-camps-with-nowhere-to-go/ 10/4/2019

Local: Will Land Conflicts 1 Close Uganda’s Open Door? By: Olivia Hansen The Pearl of Africa stands apart. ability to integrate into the economy Serving as a host to 1.2 million beyond refugee settlements.2 Uganda's refugees,1 the world’s third largest Self-Reliance Strategy (SRS) has been refugee population, Uganda has viewed as an exemplary model of a diverged from the refugee policies of its long-term, sustainable solution to East African neighbors. Rather than refugee crises around the world. The following the encampment model of SRS caught the attention of the many other host nations and international community and was restricting refugees’ right to work, chosen as a pilot program for the Uganda has adopted a progressive UNHCR’s Comprehensive Refugee 'open-door’ policy: freedom of Response Framework.3 movement, land to cultivate, and the UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 6

However, tension from long-standing allowing access to the same public services land conflicts are causing cracks to appear and education as nationals. This in the surface of the program’s success and distinctive approach was further enforced threatening the foundation of Uganda’s by the Refugee Act of 2006 and the refugee framework. If these conflicts are implementation a decade later of the not addressed, the willingness to replicate UNHCR’s Refugee and Host Population its model will wane, and Uganda may be Empowerment (ReHoPE) initiative to forced to close its doors, receding to the integrate refugees into Uganda’s restrictive encampment policies countries development agenda while supporting host of first asylum most often adopt. Uganda’s communities.6 These efforts have led to SRS program developed from a general assumptions that refugees are partnership between the Government of achieving high degrees of self-sufficiency Uganda (GoU) and the UNHCR in 1999, and are poised to contribute to Uganda’s and has succeeded in providing higher overall economic growth. Indeed, a study degrees of refugee autonomy and social in 2016 by USAID discovered that the SRS integration than most host nations.4 The provision of land to refugees led to an SRS adopted three noteworthy objectives: annual contribution to the local economy permitting freedom of movement and of up to $205.7 Yet, African scholars are economic integration, allocating plots of skeptical of these assumptions. land offered by host communities, and 10/4/2019

Due to its core component of urgency in solving land conflicts land allocation, the most subvert these efforts and threaten the fundamental threat to the viability and replicability of the SRS sustainability of Uganda’s refugee program.10 The findings from this policy lies within land conflicts study conclude that ambiguous between refugee and host boundaries, unresolved land rights, communities. Although these poor management of land allocation, conflicts emerged at the same time as and land scarcity each contribute to the settlements’ formation, a confrontation over land use. Not only simultaneous increase in land do these confrontations hinder efforts scarcity and refugee movements have at integration and increase caused land competition and insecurity, they undermine the confrontation to intensify. Dr. Frank foundational objective of self-reliance. Ahimbisibwe, Head of the These findings are significant Department of Planning and because tensions over land threaten Governance at Uganda’s Mbarara to push the GoU to shift from its University, emphatically believes admirable strategy of self-sufficiency that integration efforts like ReHope to a model of encampment, stripping are essential to addressing the source refugees of their autonomy and of ongoing refugee crises, yet he does ability to contribute to Uganda’s not believe the SRS economic economy. integration agenda will succeed if land conflicts are not addressed.8 Dr. Ambiguous boundaries and a Ahimbisibwe has focused his research lack of formal demarcation of lands on regional security and disaster allocated for refugee settlement have management in relation to refugees, been the major cause of land and he asserts that the proliferation conflicts.11 Refugees frequently of protracted refugee crises in Africa become bitter when Ugandan are due to a lack of prioritization of nationals claim land within a local integration.9 Yet, despite the settlement, yet the land plotted for laudable integration efforts of the refugees is rarely demarcated, GoU, Dr. Ahimbisibwe’s research leading to confusion over settlement conducted at the Nikavale boundaries and inevitable conflict. Settlementproves that a lack of UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 7

“It is therefore not surprising,” Dr. spatialcompetition for fertile and pasture Ahimbisibwe determines, “that some lands has consistently sparked people… don’t know that they are actually confrontation and violence. By contrast, living in the settlement and seeing careful planning during implementation of refugees brought to the land they believe is the policy of land allocation would include theirs will certainly fuel conflict.”12 Due to the consideration of households’ poor planning and negligent governance, occupations and organize the settlement Nakivale’s 84 square miles of settlement plots accordingly. Just as the gift of a plot land was never clearly delineated as such, of land is crucial for refugees’ self- leading to an immense amount of sufficiency and food security, arable land frustrated confrontation. represents a vital source of income for Ugandan nationals. Agriculture employs Although many of these land nearly 72 percent of the labor force,14 and conflicts are born of ambiguity, from the refugee settlements are located in the time Nakivale opened, opportunists within most impoverished regions of the country local government offices took advantage of where households rely on subsistence the unclear boundaries, secured illegal farming. Just as the mismanagement of land titles, and leased or sold land land rights presents a massive challenge reserved for refugees. These murky land to refugees’ economic integration, holdings, enabled by the lack of Uganda’s agricultural sector growth is demarcation, are one example of chronically challenged by the same mismanagement. Another example is the convoluted land rights process. Poor government’s methods of land allocation; implementation of the land allocation supervisors’ organization of refugees strategy, lack of administrative planning, within the settlements ranges from and land title fraud places refugees and ignorant at best to sinister at worst. At host communities in direct confrontation Nakivale, refugees are often directed to and threatens cultural and economic settle on land being cultivated by Ugandan integration. nationals, which ruins the relationship between households.13 This mismanagement and its insensitivities has resulted in pastoralists and cultivators being placed unnecessarily in close proximity, leading to conflict between the two groups and presenting economic challenges for both. This 10/4/2019

These tensions are further influence refugees’ economic choices in exacerbated by land scarcity and detrimental ways. Due to increasing increasing envy of the agricultural violence from land competition, Dr. resources granted to refugees. Ahimbisibwe finds that refugees are Particularly due to the fact that hesitant to interact with markets outside refugees’ plots of land have been gifted of the settlements, or to send their by local communities, a mounting children to better schools beyond perception that resources are settlement borders.16 Both of these disproportionately allocated to the choices are a response to growing settlements has led to bitterness and a hostility towards refugee settlements reduction in productive integration. This and have a negative impact on livelihood disposition is not exclusive to Nakivale. development. Refugees’ aversion towards Communities in Northern Uganda have social integration thus prevents refugee been heavily burdened by a massive labor from contributing to the Ugandan influx of South Sudanese refugees, and economy. resentment is rising towards the GoU policies which assist refugees more than the locals who have given up their land.15 This envy has been shown to UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 8

Despite Uganda’s commendable and retroactive land demarcation,18 land allowances for economic integration, management reform to end direct refugees live in a state of uncertainty confrontation,19, 20 livelihood programs and because the SRS does not permit land investments in diversification for both ownership. This barrier to long-term refugees and host communities,21 stability discourages refugees from future mechanisms for managing conflict,22 and planning, or taking entrepreneurial risks, cohesive multilateral partnerships to due to the fear of forced removal or reduce the fragmentation of the GoU and reallocation. This fear is not unfounded. A UNHCR programs.23 As developing 2010 report found that land allocated to nations around the world struggle with and cultivated for decades by Rwandese the burden of major refugee crises, refugees was reclaimed by the GoU, and Uganda has been held up as a beacon of 1,700 Rwandese were forcibly returned to hope for progressive refugee policies which Rwanda.17 This uncertainty prevents pursue a dignified, developmental refugees from their full capacity to approach. Yet, the issue of land conflicts integrate as assets to Uganda’s economic poses a threat to Uganda’s refugee development. framework. Research conducted by African scholars such as Dr. Ahimbisibwe Land conflicts due to poor exposes this weakness in Uganda’s refugee governance and planning, mismanaged policy and suggest that the GoU and its land allocation, and envy from nationals implementing partners cohesively address are threatening the economic these conflicts before refugees’ economic sustainability of the SRS program and the integration is negated, the SRS crumbles, integration of refugees into Uganda’s and Uganda is forced to close its doors. development framework. The GoU’s stated goal of self-reliance for refugees is further undermined by laws against land ownership, and therefore fails to provide a long-term solution which benefits both refugees and their host communities. These land conflicts must be addressed to prevent the GoU from the all-too-common model of protracted, inhumane encampment. Urgently suggested reforms to the SRS framework include: proactive 10/4/2019

1\"Operational Portal,\" (Uganda 10Ibid., 22. Comprehensive Refugee Response 11Ibid., 22. Portal, 2019). 12Ibid., 23. 13Ibid., 23. 2Alexander Betts et al., Refugee 14\"Uganda - Agriculture,\" (U.S. Economies in Uganda: What Difference Does the Self-Reliance Department of Commerce, 2019). Model Make? (University of Oxford, 15Halima Athumani, \"Uganda Refugee Studies Centre, 2019), 6. Pressed for Land Amid Refugee 3Tessa Coggio, \"Can Uganda's Breakthrough Refugee-Hosting Influx - Uganda,\" (ReliefWeb, 2018). Model Be Sustained?\" (Migration 16Ahimbisibwe, \"The Effect of Policy Institute, 2018). Land Conflicts,” 24. 4Betts, Refugee Economies in 17Gardner, \"Beneath the Uganda, 6. Surface…” 5Ibid., 6. 18Betts, Refugee Economies in 6Ibid., 4. 7Coggio, \"Can Uganda's Uganda, 35. Breakthrough…” 19Ibid. 8Frank Ahimbisibwe, PhD, 20Ahimbisibwe, \"The Effect of \"The Effect of Land Conflicts on the Livelihoods of Refugees: Land Conflicts,” 27. Implications for Refugee Protection 21Ibid. in Uganda,\" (International Journal of 22Ibid. Research In Social Sciences, 2013), 23Ibid., 28. 19Ibid., 19-28. In my own By Jana Lang 9 UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER

Partnership: The Ripple Effect 1 Quality Education Has On The Refugee Community Zoe Reinecke Surrounded by conflict-ridden necessary to “rebuild their lives and countries, Chad is a haven to 461,716 communities.”2 refugees.1 There is no question that the influx of refugees has introduced a Support for refugee education myriad of challenges for Chad; does not always translate directly into including providing access to quality access to quality education. For host education for refugees. The benefits of governments “the additional task of education for refugees has been finding school places, trained teachers acknowledged by both the and learning materials for tens or even international and refugee community. hundreds of thousands of newcomers, UNHCR articulates that education is a who often do not speak the language of human right: protecting refugee instruction and have missed out on an children from forced recruitment into average of three to four years of exploitative work, increasing their schooling”3 is an overwhelming wellbeing, and giving them the skills challenge. 10/4/2019

These challenges manifest a testament to the ingenuity of refugees themselves in teaching environments that through the successes of a play-based often threaten the safety of refugee early education program for children students, inconsistent teachers, and a lack between the ages of three to five years. of necessary resources. Many times, Examining the ways Little Ripples students opt to look for ways to contribute sustainably mobilizes community to the financial survival of their family resources highlights potential unit rather than participate in education, opportunities for future financial and which puts them at risk for exploitation resource partnerships with universities. and other negative ramifications. Quality education means something The refugee community in Chad different when dealing with refugees. does not allow their challenging Coming from countries contaminated by circumstances to prevent them from conflict, refugee children have very providing education to their children. specific psychological needs and Little Ripples mobilizes refugee women to educational gaps that must inform the be teachers and leverages the available curriculum and the training of teachers resources to educate future generations. delivering it. If these experiences are not By empowering “refugee women to specifically addressed in the educational improve the social-emotional, cognitive, setting, violence and other catastrophic and physical development of refugee consequences will plague these children, ages three to five, in their communities. community. In partnership with families, refugee homes are selected across a One excellent example of how the refugee camp and adapted into safe and refugee community in Chad has combated appropriate learning spaces called Little these obstacles is through community-led Ripples Ponds (Ponds).”4 Little Ripples initiatives such as Little Ripples. This benefits the entire community by initiative launched by iACT in 2013 empowering women and teaching provides the refugee community student’s life skills, ways to navigate autonomy over tailoring education to best traumatic experiences, improving their meet their unique needs. Little Ripples is overall psychosocial wellbeing in the present and the future. UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 10

When women are equipped and involvement has on the lives of the empowered, economies are stimulated, gender discrimination is combatted, and children, motivating them to increase the overall wellbeing of families is improved.5 “Empowering refugees to their influence. Little Ripples is informed adapt and lead an education programme fosters ownership from the outset, and ran by the refugee community; thus, ensures the solution is culturally relevant, and enables the programme to every outcome is dictated by the be sustainable beyond the support of international aid agencies.”.6 community it serves. Converting available spaces A recent article published by provided by refugees into “Ponds” not only has financial benefits but also Stanford Social Innovation Review stimulates ownership within the community. Sara-Christine Dallain, the discusses the impending gap in education Director of International Programs at iACT, explains the logic behind this in developing countries. Mark J. Epstein approach. “We put the money into teacher training and employing teachers and Kristi Yuthas argue that “what and create spaces in the community where more children can attend and be in students need are not more academic safe spaces.”7 Investing in developing people has a much greater return than skills, but rather life skills that enable investing in infrastructure because more adults are trained to be teachers, them to improve their financial prospects allowing for more students to receive quality education. This requires the and well-being.”8 Little Ripples community to step up to close the gap in infrastructure. Engaging the community successfully provides students with the in this way allows them to witness the positive impact their training and skills that they need to meet the demands of their life. The emphasis on intentionally and strategically training teachers contributes to the success of Little Ripples. Teachers are trained in “a pre-established, evidence-based outline that trains and guides refugee teachers in mindfulness, play-based literacy and numeracy, empathy and social-emotional development, positive behavior management and protection, peacebuilding, and hygiene practices for young children.”9 10/4/2019

The universal training curriculum Orange By Jana Lang allows for versatility and ease when scaling the program. The teachers are integrate into schools that serve the given freedom within the curriculum to public. The play-based interactive model integrate personal stories that pertain to that guides Little Ripples engages the the culture and the context in which their students and reinforces invaluable skills students come from, making the such as hand washing, hygiene practices, education more relatable for the children. and navigating violent inclinations. The curriculum empowers both the students and the teachers. An integral part of Little Ripples is the unique curriculum the community The one-year evaluation suggests curates to meet the needs of the students. that students are becoming more The curriculum that has been confident with life skills without implemented by Little Ripples “aims to compromising their academic skills. War increase empathetic behavior, decrease and displacement significantly impact violent behavior, improve cognitive skills, the overall mental, emotional, and and improve the physical health of physical wellbeing making it even more students.”10 Within a year of attending complicated for them to successfully Little Ripples, caregivers of the children reported noticeable improvements in each objective. UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 11

Individuals who grow up in crisis ensure that the curriculum is current has zones are more prone to perpetuate long-lasting benefits. The unique violence in the future; therefore, teaching proposition that universities such as students tangible skills to navigate their UCLA have is that students and faculty experiences and take care of themselves can work together to do on the ground not only benefits them but also the evaluations with community members to community and nation. Basic hygiene guarantee that what is being done is truly skills can have massive impacts on the capitalizing on the available resources. health and well-being of the entire Developing a partnership to invest in community by aiding in the prevention of individuals allows for more teachers to be the spread of sickness. Focusing on the trained and more children to receive a life- health of the children increases their changing education. Teachers are the ones ability to consistently attend school and who are creating the safe learning concentrate. These factors ultimately environments, thus partnerships must contribute to decreasing sickness and focus on teacher training. Adults and vulnerability to exploitative employment. children are being empowered by Little Where other programs fail in addressing Ripples. The demand for education within the emotional and mental consequences the larger refugee community will always that result from trauma, Little Ripples is be present, but Little Ripples offers a meeting that need. practical, realistic, and result based model to address this ever-growing need. This is an effective model to potentially copy, and partnerships with universities and institutions such as UCLA can lead to even richer programs down the road. The genius behind Little Ripples is that there is a streamlined curriculum used to train the teachers, but there is flexibility for the teachers to add personal stories at their discretion. This allows for Little Ripples to transcend borders and cultures. Partnerships focused on exploring ways to train more teachers, engage other refugee communities, and providing resources to 10/4/2019

1 \"Operational Portal.\" Country Programme Has a Big Effect on - Chad. Accessed June 23, 2019. Young Refugee Children in Chad - https://data2.unhcr.org/en/country/tcd. Chad,\" ReliefWeb, October 17, 2018, accessed June 23, 2019, 2 United Nations. \"Education.\" https://reliefweb.int/report/chad/little- UNHCR. Accessed June 23, 2019. ripples-programme-has-big-effect- https://www.unhcr.org/en- young-refugee-children-chad. us/education.html. 8 Mark J. Epstein and Kristi 3 United Nations. \"Missing Out: Yuthas, \"Redefining Education in the Refugee Education in Crisis.\" Developing World,\" Stanford Social UNHCR. September 2016. Accessed Innovation Review, 2012, accessed June 23, 2019. June 23, 2019. https://www.unhcr.org/missing-out- state-of-education-for-the-worlds- 9 \"Center For Education refugees.html. Innovations.\" Little Ripples | Center for Education Innovations. January 4 Jwthacher. \"Little Ripples.\" 01, 1970. Accessed June 23, 2019. IACT. Accessed June 23, 2019. https://educationinnovations.org/prog https://www.iact.ngo/impact/little- ram/little-ripples. ripples/. 10 \"LR One Year Public PDF 5 Kabeer, Naila. \"Gender Final - Educationinnovations.org,\" Equality and Womens September 14, 2014, accessed June Empowerment: A Critical Analysis of 23, 2019, the Third Millennium Development https://educationinnovations.org/sites Goal 1.\" Gender & Development 13, /default/files/LR-One-Year- no. 1 (July 1, 2010): 13-24. Public_Sept-14.pdf. doi:10.1080/13552070512331332273. 6 Billy Briggs, \"Little Ripples Programme Has a Big Effect on Young Refugee Children in Chad - Chad,\" ReliefWeb, October 17, 2018, accessed June 23, 2019, https://reliefweb.int/report/chad/little- ripples-programme-has-big-effect- young-refugee-children-chad. 7 Billy Briggs, \"Little Ripples UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 12

Introduction: Finding 2 Sustainable Roots, Understanding the Utility and Necessity of African Tradition Raven Maier Bell Often times in popular media and encompass not just environmental or academia, “sustainability” seems to ecological reform, but social, political, only bring to mind issues surrounding and economic as well. Therefore, the environmental degradation, our type of sustainability that will be depleting ozone, and global warming. adopted within this journal, is one that Although this aspect of sustainability is both holistic and intersectional, and is vital, it is only a small part of the which focuses on sustainability within “sustainable” effort. Sustainability is Africa which encompasses these more than the environment, it is about perspectives. Africa, due to the Berlin development that creates a better conference, has been developed by world not only for ourselves, but our colonial institutions that have fostered kids, friends, relatives, and our anti-sustainability policies within communities at large.4 With this Africa. definition, “sustainability,” begins to 10/4/2019

These non-sustainable efforts, stem the 80s and 90s and into today, as well as a from maintained colonial regimes of shift in priorities that have caused extraction, threatening sustainability governments to cater to the needs of efforts of African states, facilitated by the international donors, rather than the needs process of Neoliberalization. By focusing on of their own peoples.3 In turn, while Africa Morocco, a place that has faced extreme has some of the most liberalized neoliberal threat, as well as, Malawi as a agricultural and manufacturing sectors of site of transformative sustainability efforts, the world,(which according to neoliberal I hope to show a holistic view of Africa’s pedagogy should hail African states as issues with and efforts for sustainability frontrunners of the neoliberal capitalist across its diverse communities. economy), Africa faces a failure of liberalized returns, thereby creating Neoliberalism is an ideology of environments of exploitation, merciless marketization, that extends globally and quotas, child labor, dangerous work into every aspect of quotidian life. George practices, and overall economic, political, Monbiot defines Neoliberalism best as the and social inequality, leaving 1/3 of its process of making “competition as the population in poverty and low Human defining characteristic of human relations, Development Indexes in the world.1,4 On- [which] redefines citizens as consumers the-ground, neoliberalism translates into whose democratic choices are best exercised environmental degradation, extractionist by buying and selling,”.6 However, the issue export-orientated economies, a lack of with creating a society defined by governance and infrastructure, conflict, and competition is that it will inherently a lack of urgency for health care services. produce winners and losers - which All of which, restrict African states from complicates democratic values of equality, developing and reaching the UN’s by producing greater inequality within Sustainable Development Goals main states, as well as, internationally interest of peace and prosperity. 1.4.8 I turn deepening the divide between the Global to Morocco as a case study on the toxic North and the Global South.6 In Africa, this relationship between neoliberalism and is seen most starkly in conditional aid sustainability. policies set forth by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Banks, Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs). These policies led to a trend of decreasing per capita incomes across Africa throughout UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 13

The French colonial rule of land in the hands of rural and urban notables, who also benefit from Morocco began in 1912 and neoliberal policies and practices, therefore making sustainable land supposedly ended in 1956 with reform difficult for the people that actually live and work on the land.7 Moroccan independence. However, Not only has neoliberalism the same colonial justifications for the caused environmental hardship in Morocco, but also political and social subjugation and oppression of native hardship as well. In many ways, neoliberalism is seen as a champion of Moroccans in 1912, are the same ones economic development, however, although it opened Moroccan ports to being used today. Since 1912, French foreign goods and services, (which according to the IMF and World Bank colonial powers - continued by the should grow Morocco’s economy), instead it caused economic Moroccan kings, like Mohammad VI dependency, which in turn caused social and political upheaval.1,7 Since today - have blamed land degradation the implementation of Structural Adjustment Programs, Morocco’s and environmental deterioration on government, in order to import more foreign goods, has decreased subsidies natives over grazing of public lands.7 of basic products like petrol, wheat, oil, and sugar.7 In consequence, this This “blame the victim” mentality, brought a loss of jobs for both agricultural and petrol workers, and stems from an even larger history of caused the displacement of many families and communities.7 European ideology that asserts that native Africans threaten the same environment they come from.5 However, this is incorrect, as the majority of land degradation and environmental threats come from the ploughing of marginal lands and over irrigation, sanctioned by neoliberal policies of privatization, which limits regulation and allows multi-national corporation to create manufacturing plants that require intense production on that land, regardless of the ecological effects.7 Although, Moroccans are against this, there is little they are able to do, as the long- held, French placed client system put 10/4/2019

Alongside increased Accompanying these scare tactics, has also been the increasing unemployment, the privatization of disenfranchisement of renters, as their needs have been ignored and many are these sectors caused staple products to forced into displacement, as even their “illegal” homes are taken and destroyed become more expensive, creating a by the government.7 Another aspect of neoliberal hegemony in Morocco has disaster for an economy already marked been the lessening of funds to deal with the effects of pollution induced climate by high levels of unemployment and change.7 Although Morocco is one of the least polluting countries in the world, it economic inequality.7 This served as fuel still suffers greatly from its affects, resulting in environmental instability for the “Moroccan fire” to be a part of the characterized by increasing temperatures, heavy rains, droughts, Arab Springs in 2011 and of the political and floods, that destroy infrastructure and agricultural products and create protests since. hardship for Moroccan people.7 Unfortunately, this also sparked a political war between activists and the Moroccan government, as shown by the Mohammad VI condoning of activist suppression, mass firings, false accusation of people that spoke out against him, and ultimately imprisonment and mass disappearing’s.7 UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 14

However, instead of focusing on the with corruption, disregards land needs of its people, the Moroccan degradation, displacement, and the government following-the-money so to exploitation it causes, in turn creating a speak, provides funds for profit producing Morocco unsustainable for not only future projects, (in line with neoliberal ideology), generations, but of those living in it today. such as the “Green Morocco plan,” an ironic title, when considering that this projects Morocco, like the rest of Africa, relies calls for the agricultural shift to citrus, heavily on foreign aid to help fund and fruits, and vegetables – products that water carry out sustainability efforts. Although, require a lot of water, in a country that is the billions of dollars Africa receives in predicted to reach water scarcity by 2025.7 foreign aid has resulted in helping the As a result of a lack of funds, failures of issues of sustainability, such as health, basic services like trash collection and education, and the environment, progress disposal are blamed on the poor, while has been inept compared to the projected Moroccan elites and its private amounts of development foreign aid should partnerships with France, Spain, and Saudi have created. Arabia, are allowed to accumulate capital.7 Neoliberalism in Morocco, in association 10/4/2019

One of the main reasons this services leave out locals as has occurred is due to the lack of stakeholders altogether.5 Although NGO cooperation with local peoples, Slocum and Kline detail that NGOs as well as NGO’s adoption of do realize that local people need to be neoliberal aid practices.5 A defining included in the process, the creation characteristic of neoliberalism is less and implementation of these projects government regulation. However, due are done by outsiders.5 Therefore to NGOs demanding less government Africa, in order to reach a new level of intervention, in order to “help” not only economic, social, and political developing communities in Africa, sustainable development, but cultural NGOs have essentially become mini sustainability as well, must move corporations that “commodify natural away from conditional aid put forth resources as a revenue stream,” and by the IMF, World Bank, and NGOs, reduces the impact of development and look to indigenous solutions, like funding.5 Kline and Slocum note that that of Malawi. the NGO projects, like ecotourism in Morocco’s “Azur Plan,” as well as in In Malawi we see several types many Africa states, creates an image of sustainability reached of locals as “poverty victims” that simultaneously: cultural, economic, turns projects into neo-colonial and environmental, and all done extractionist institutions that leave through the traditional use of the little for the people the project is Msungu tree and dried vegetables. In supposed to serve.5 Malawi, Bhabha’s “third space theory” is practiced unknowingly, A part of the issue is that locals, however, it serves as an important because they are seen as “poverty- example of what a sustainable Africa victims,” are seen as inept to make could be.2 decisions about their own community, therefore NGOs and other foreign aid UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 15

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Bhabha’s third space theory asserts Malawian culture, however, corn that is that we must “move away from privileged, now a staple in Malawi,(as well as other authoritative discourse by providing fruits and vegetables that are an indigenous cultures with improved access important part to their diet), come from to Eurocentric science, while at the same colonial powers, but by incorporating the time validating the local communities own two practices together – creating the third ways of understanding nature,” and that space - they help the people, their culture, by doing so sustainability efforts of Africa and their environment not only survive but will be far more impactful than what has thrive. Therefore, traditional techniques resulted from Foreign Direct Investment, such as these, which are found in every thus far.2 Take for example the Msungu African state and culture, must be focused tree. The Msungu tree is used in Malawi on as a starting point for sustainable where it only grows by rivers, but in doing African development, which complimented so provides a natural, fertile fertilizer that by western sciences can create lasting allows farmers to plant a variety of crops, sustainability and development, as well as like corn, (depending on the season), that promoting a sense of owed dignity, produce high yields.2 The Msungu tree humanity, community, and reciprocity.2 provides a plentiful food source and helps to combat land degradation by the shedding of and decomposition of its leaves; it is ingenious and a sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers which have led to land degradation by depleting the soil of its natural resources.2 . 2 Another example is the use of a traditional technique of drying fruits and vegetables, which allows families to store up both local and exotic food for 6 months, thereby serving as a safety net in case of bad harvests, or crop disease.2 These traditional techniques are a part of UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 16

1Davis, Diana K. \"Neoliberalism, Moroccan Catastrophic Environmentalism, and Agricultural Convergence.\" Against the Current 33, no. 1 Restructuring in Morocco.\" The (Mar, 2018): 16-18. Geographical Journal 172, no. 2 (2006): 88- https://search.proquest.com/docview/201494 105. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2006.00204.x. 1879?accountid=14512. 2Glasson, George E., Ndalapa 8\"Sustainable Development Goals .:. Mhango, Absalom Phiri, and Marilyn Sustainable Development Knowledge Lanier. \"Sustainability Science Education Platform.\" United Nations. Accessed June in Africa: Negotiating Indigenous Ways of 24, 2019. Living with Nature in the Third Space.\" https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?me International Journal of Science Education nu=1300. 32, no. 1 (2009): 125-41. doi:10.1080/09500690902981269. Primaries By Jana Lang 3Hilary, John. \"Africa: Dead Aid and the Return of Neoliberalism - John Hilary, 2010.\" SAGE Journals. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/03 06396810377010. 4Kameri-Mbote, Patricia. \"Challenges to Sustainability in Africa.\" SpringerLink. June 15, 2011. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/de v.2011.8#enumeration. 5Kline, Carol S., and Susan L. Slocum. \"Neoliberalism in Ecotourism? The New Development Paradigm of Multinational Projects in Africa.\" Taylor & Francis. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.108 0/14724049.2015.1023731. 6Monbiot, George. \"Neoliberalism – the Ideology at the Root of All Our Problems.\" The Guardian. April 15, 2016. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/a pr/15/neoliberalism-ideology-problem- george-monbiot. 7Moustakbal, Jawad. \"Despotism, Neoliberalism & Climate Change in Morocco: 10/4/2019

Local: Desertification in the 2 Sahel: Local Knowledge and Collaborative Opportunities for Sustainable Land Use Olga Bronshteyn The Sahel, a biogeographic zone recently, the Sahel suffered severe stretching across 10 countries from drought between 1970 and 1993; by Senegal to Eritrea and marking the 2050, climate change is predicted to transition between the Sahara and the exacerbate such extreme weather Sudanian Savanna, has historically events, along with overall been characterized by strong climatic desertification-- the transition of fertile variations and irregular rainfall, but land into desert.1 the situation has worsened dramatically in recent decades. Most UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 17

As millions in the region, a challenges of the past three decades, majority of them farmers and livestock the Sahel has also witnessed an owners, are critically affected by food inspiring mobilization of local farming and livelihood insecurity in the region, populations in experimenting with desertification has spurred a rise in sustainable practices for land use and staple food prices, migration and agriculture. Many of the technical displacement, violent local and innovations which have proven regional conflicts, and a host of effective in the sphere of soil and water consequences on overall development conservation are strongly rooted in of the countries affected.2 traditional regional practices and have owed their success in large part to a UNEP attributes changes over “bottom-up” approach to their the last half-century to a range of implementation. I turn to several case complex factors, including rapid studies throughout the region to population growth, land degradation, examine these techniques, and why the cyclical over-depletion of resources, implications they hold for both and a lack of coherent development adapting to and mitigating policies by governments and desertification-- as well as for African international development groups sustainability as a whole-- are so alike.3 Yet in response to the growing significant. 10/4/2019

One highly successful example has and substantial land restoration in the long been that of zaï agriculture, introduced as term. Local leaders like Burkina Faso-born an independent, indigenously sourced Yacouba Sawadogo have been at the methodology originating in Mali.4 This forefront of efforts to promote the technique relies on grids of planting pits technique, including founding a “zaï dug across farming plots to restore the school,” individually educating farmers in fertility of severely degraded farmland villages, and organizing semi-annual otherwise impermeable to water. The pits, market days focused on training.6 to which manure and fertilizers can be added, concentrate organic nutrients and In contrast to the history of the zaï moisture, allowing improved water method, stone bund technology introduced retention; in turn enabling plants to adapt on farms in Burkina Faso initially failed to to and survive long dry spells and yield results in soil and water conservation temperamental climate.5 Farmers in prior to 1980.7 Projects which experimented Burkina Faso began experimentation with with the technique in the 1960s and 70s zaï in the 1980s; these systems have proven were implemented by outside NGOs, particularly well adapted to smallholder without consultation of farmers in the farming, allowing both increased region. agricultural production in the short term Orange By Jana Lang UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 18

As a result, farmers did not soil fertility and moisture for adjacently planted crops, creating symbiotic maintain, and sometimes intentionally relationships while restoring arid land.11 The development of FMNR, in contrast to destroyed, the earthen bunds (intended to the zaï and stone bund techniques, was headed in the 1980s by Australian trap water) precisely because they were development agent Tony Rinaudo, who developed techniques for tree constructed without their involvement, or regeneration and soil management with close collaboration and guidance of local else strategically due to the bunds’ poor farmers.12 design, which actually endangered crop Together, the three methodologies described above have produced success in years of low rainfall.8 Not until remarkable results. Numerous studies have presented optimistic evidence of NGOs began experimenting with improvements to crop productivity, relief of food insecurity, land and soil conservation techniques and accepted regeneration, and even creation of various forms of capital, particularly (and input from farmers was the creation of crucially) for rural women. For instance, zaï and bund technologies, which have more effective contour stone bunds been implemented on 200-300,000 hectares of farmland in the Sahel, have facilitated. A traditional technique of been shown to boost cereal crop yields between 40 and over 100 percent.13 In the building stone bund lines, which has case of FMNR, which has become common practice on over 5 million today gained popularity around the West hectares in Niger and other nations, the U.N. acknowledges its contribution to African Sahel, was reintroduced along improved food security for an estimated 2.5 million people, as farms with well- “contours,” allowing water runoff to managed FMNR have seen doubled productivity of vital crops.14 spread evenly through crop fields and improve the soil by trapping sediments and organic matter.9 A third example of a system which has proven efficient in combating desertification is the farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) methodology implemented in Niger. FMNR is an innovative agroforestry initiative, drawing on a combination of local forest management methods and historical European practices to produce sustainable, highly multi-functional tree harvests.10 Under the practice, farmers encourage restoration and management of trees and shrubs sprouting from stumps, roots, and seeds found in degraded soil; such woody plants improve 10/4/2019

What can these cases tell us about the willingness of such agents, including combating desertification in the Sahel, national governments, international and its relation to African sustainability institutions such as the U.N. Food and as a whole? First and foremost, I believe Agriculture Organization, and NGOs, to them to reaffirm the significance of a navigate the intricacies of the unique “bottom-up” approach, which prioritizes challenges and circumstances of Sahelian the agency and mobilization of local farmers in nurturing innovative, stakeholders and encourages inclusive dynamics between land and international actors to build on a livelihoods, and those dependent on them. foundation of locally contextualized indigenous knowledge. Furthermore, the In the case of sustainable land use cases of FMNR and contour bunds practices, the seeds are already being exemplify that successful sustainability sown by local populations on the ground; initiatives can benefit from, and in fact financial and environmental may at times crucially depend on, sustainability must now be enabled to collaboration between informed, locally coexist. situated domestic actors and non-local agents. This is, naturally, conditional on UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 19

While higher-up stakeholders strengthening capital in various forms, play a role in creating favorable reducing food insecurity and incentives conditions through factors like land for migration, creating novel economic tenure and access to financial opportunities, and advancing towards resources, the primary role of local a future of sustainable land use in the actors must be oriented around face of a changing climate. promoting both formal and semi-formal education and inter-generational knowledge transfer, with particular focus on vulnerable farmers in remote areas, women, and even young children.15 When these conditions are met, there is significant potential for 10/4/2019

1Essoungou, Andre-Michel. \"The 12Ibid. Sahel: One Region, Many Crises.\" Africa 13Ibid. Renewal Online. 2013. Accessed May 02, 14Ibid. 2019. 15Kpadonou, Rivaldo A. Baba, Tom https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine Owiyo, Bruno Barbier, Fatima Denton, /december-2013/sahel-one-region-many- Franck Rutabingwa, and Andre Kiema. crises. \"Advancing Climate-smart-agriculture in Developing Drylands: Joint Analysis of the 2Sahel Early Action and Scale-up of Adoption of Multiple On-farm Soil and Emergency Response. Report. 2018. Water Conservation Technologies in West Accessed May 02, 2019. African Sahel.\" Land Use Policy 61 https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/ (February 2017): 196-207. Accessed May 12, resources/I8940EN.pdf. 2019. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.10.050. 3Ibid. 4Reij, Chris, Gray Tappan, and Melinda Smale. Agroenvironmental Transformation in the Sahel: Another Kind of Green Revolution. Technical paper. International Food Policy Research Institute, 2007. Accessed May 08, 2019. CORE. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6257709.pdf. 5Danjuma, Muhammad, and Salisu Mohammed. Zai Pits System: A Catalyst for Restoration in the Drylands. Report. Bayero University. 2015. Accessed May 12, 2019. ResearchGate. Doi: 10.9790/2380- 08210104. 6Ibid. 7Reij, Tappan, and Smale, 2007. 8Ibid. 9Ibid. 10Lahmar, Rabah, Babou André Bationo, Nomaou Dan Lamso, Yadji Guéro, and Pablo Tittonell. \"Tailoring Conservation Agriculture Technologies to West Africa Semi-arid Zones: Building on Traditional Local Practices for Soil Restoration.\" Field Crops Research 132 (June 14, 2012): 158-67. Accessed May 10, 2019. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2011.09.013. 11Reij, Tappan, and Smale, 2007. UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 20

Partnership: United Nations 2 and Africa Kay Dilworth Sustainability is interpreted and while at the same time sustaining the perceived differently by many academics, policymakers, etc. The ability of natural systems to provide perception of sustainability primarily affects the way it is implemented in the natural resources and ecosystem real-world cases. A working definition of sustainable development can be services upon which the economy and described as economic development that is conducted without the depletion society depend. Sustainable of natural resources. A more in-depth explanation is as follows, sustainable development is development, “that development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” Brundtland Commission coined this definition of sustainable development. 10/4/2019

The ability to develop sustainably is Various expectations are imposed on undoubtedly a privilege since sustainable developing regions by the Global North development is achieved at a cost. When without consideration for their needs that finances are at the forefront, it can easily may differ from the Eurocentric assume a racial character since financial expectations. accessibility comes into play rather pointedly. With that in mind, sustainability I feel that sustainable development is is an issue that plagues economically significant for economically developing the deprived regions such as parts of Africa, region correctly and more safely, but it can India, and Latin America. Development be challenging to achieve when African very quickly becomes a difficult task for the regions lack the same resources and Global South1 or for developing countries support that their European counterparts that typically lack the funds domestically to can obtain more quickly and implement build up infrastructure, cities, etc. When more efficiently. Instead of subsequently pairing in efforts not to deplete natural helping those regions that they resources, it can rather quickly become an disproportionately exploited throughout even more difficult task as financially history, the Global North opted to leave stable countries attempt to dictate how, them behind to the point where the Global when, the means, and the appropriate route South is forced to figure it out in terms of to take to achieve development for others. governing their country all the while still These conversations tend not to include being heavily policed by the Global North those who are the topic of discussion. on how and when they could achieve Therefore, these conversations do not take various development initiatives. Moreover, into consideration what is happening on the if the Global South disregarded the Global ground, and they do not look from the North's bullying tactics, then they would appropriate context, more often than not, only further be ostracized, further these conversations are conducted from a negatively affecting their access to financial Eurocentric viewpoint. The Global North2 and intellectual support. do not consider the state of the regions presently and furthermore, they lack the maintenance of cost’s importance at the forefront of each development discussion. UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 21

Power By Jana Lang Personally, I can understand Development Goals (MDG) was independence, but when they were set launched under the United Nation in a back by other regions, it only seems captivating effort to address the goals right that those regions should be of sustainable development. \"The eight looking out and providing assistance on Millennium Development Goals a government level (not only through (MDGs) – which range from halving private entities) to help and assist extreme poverty rates to halting the those areas. Therefore, partnerships spread of HIV/AIDS and providing should be of immense importance. universal primary education, all by the target date of 2015 – form a blueprint Africa needs considerable agreed to by all the world’s countries financing and debt relief from and all the world’s leading international partners to realize this development institutions. United shared vision of sustainable Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press development3 and the United Nations Releases. has consistently acknowledged this necessity. The Millennium 10/4/2019

They have galvanized unprecedented that, the child mortality rate in Sub- Saharan efforts to meet the needs of the world’s Africa declined five times faster during 2005- poorest”.4 Statements toward Africa were 2013 than it was 1990-1995, the region still outlined as such in the MDG Report 2015, retains the highest rate. Furthermore, 70% of “Africa made great strides towards the eight its population still suffers from lack of access Millennium Development Goals. In many to improved sanitation facilities, 41% of its areas, especially related to health and inhabitants still live, in 2015, with less than education, the advance registered by Sub- $1.25 a day and out of the 57 million global Saharan Africa was the fastest among all out-of-school children of primary school age in developing regions. At the same time, the 2015, 33 million are in Sub-Saharan Africa. Northern part of the continent met many of the Furthermore, in the past two decades, targets, including those on poverty and hunger Northern Africa has not registered any reduction, universal primary education, improvements in women's access to paid children and mothers’ health, as well as employment, with women still holding less sanitation”.5 However, many goals and targets than one out of five paid jobs in the non- have yet to be achieved. In spite of the fact agricultural sector.6 UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 22

With Africa's fiscal position achieve, particularly in reaching the most vulnerable\".9 The revitalized more well known, partnerships are global partnership aims to \"facilitate sustainable and resilient advantageous and beneficial for the infrastructure development in developing countries through financially-deprived region; they aid enhanced financial, technological, and technical support to African in providing the transfer of knowledge countries\";10 in another target, it encourages official development necessary in developing the territory. assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to The United Nations has put forth a States where the need is greatest, in particular, least developed countries, 2030 Agenda for Sustainable African countries, small island developing States and landlocked Development, recognizing that developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and \"eradicating poverty in all its forms programmes\".11 If even just one country is suffering, we all are and dimensions, including extreme suffering. We all have a responsibility to aid in developing the African poverty, is the greatest global regions and partnerships and through a large entity such as the United challenge and an indispensable Nations, this effectively aids in doing so. Now, you have to ask yourself, are requirement for sustainable you doing enough, or could you be doing more to make a change in our development\".7 The agenda states Motherland? that all involved countries and stakeholders will act in a collaborative partnership to implement this plan. This agenda will furthermore be mobilized through a \"revitalized Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, based on a spirit of strengthened global solidarity, focused in particular on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable and with the participation of all countries, all stakeholders and all people”.8 The new agenda builds on the Millennium Development Goals [previously mentioned] and seeks to complete what these did not 10/4/2019

1Odeh, Lemuel Ekedegwa. \"A Platform. Accessed June 1, 2019. Comparative Analysis of Global North and Global South Economies.\" Journal https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/t of Sustainable Development in Africa 12, opics/africa.112030 Agenda for no. 3 (2010): 338-48. Accessed June 1, 2019. Sustainable Development PDF. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3629/a2 10Ibid. 898d4dc51902de3b8bd6b1c3b553fe7fff.p 11Ibid. df. 2Ibid 3\"Africa Needs More Financing, Debt Relief from International Partners to Realize Shared Vision of Sustainable Development, Speakers Tell General Assembly.\" United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. Accessed June 1, 2019. https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/ga120 81.doc.htm.United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. 4Ibid. 5Ibid. 6Ibid. 7Ibid. 8Ibid. 9\"Africa.\" Sustainable Development Goals: Knowledge UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 23

Introduction: Reimagining the 3 African Health Rhetoric Ronni Ravid From the Ebola outbreak to the underdevelopment by painting the AIDS epidemic it seems that all we continent as primal and archaic, a ever hear about African health is its piece of history lost in time and meant hopeless insolvability. We often hear of to be preserved. But the negative the ways western institutions have discourse also encourages the managed to abate the issues, but continuation of colonial dynamics rarely do we encounter a story about between Africa and the western world. African innovations for African By painting Africa as a place always in problems. The constant negative need of saving, the West relegates the rhetoric used to describe the problems continent as the locale for the “white that plague Africa perpetuates the savior” to take action. content’s stigma of underdevelopment. This stigma is problematic on many ends. For starters, it facilitates Africa’s 10/4/2019

The rhetoric attached to discussions symptoms that led to an over-diagnosis of about the African continent create a the disease. Thus, Africa came to be known fictitious image of perpetual ruin, disease as the origin and contagion of the AIDS and violence in the western imaginary. epidemic. From television advertisements to academic journals the western mind is flooded with We have seen western institutions statistics and images of widespread, like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, seemingly insatiable, suffering. Take the Red Cross and UNICEF among many AIDS epidemic, for example. Though the others attempt to “solve” Africa’s various disease was a worldwide public health health problems through western means. issue, it somehow still came to be These attempts to help, though perhaps associated with the primitivity of the well-intended, carry with them numerous African continent. Early researchers of the ethical issues that crystalize the colonial epidemic were focused on proving that relations between the West and the African AIDS was African in origin rather than continent. This relationship is clearly finding solutions to contain the illness. demonstrated in public health promotion Through this process, the stigma attached strategies. Though the promotion of good to the AIDS epidemic became attached to public health practices is meant to improve the African continent as well. Numerous the overall wellbeing of a nation, it countries felt the impact of falsely ascribed reinforces the authoritative role of the West AIDS stigma, especially in regard to their as the voice of reason and holder of all tourism-centered economies. Some African knowledges.2 Many public health leaders even claimed that the epidemic was campaigns in the developing world rely on being blown out of proportion by the Western ideals that create a paternal western media.1 During the World Health dynamic between western NGOs and their Organization’s meeting in 1985, African target communities. These uneven health practitioners complained that the dynamics ultimately undermine the clinical symptoms given to AIDS were far autonomy of individuals the initiative too general. Without the proper tools to test attempts to help. for the antibody abnormalities associated with AIDS, many African health practitioners relied on a list of general UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 24

Orange By Jana Lang Conditional Cash Transfers communities. Many of these programs (CCTs) are a clear example of this do not account for the local context paternal relationship in action. CCTs they function within and can aim to encourage good health behavior inadvertently burden the community by providing cash incentives to they try to help by assigning its compliant households. While these members extra obligations. may be rooted in good intentions, these programs police and subordinate the What is missing from the individuals they intend to help. These discourse on African health is the programs establish an authoritative African voice itself. This section aims relationship between the giver and to highlight African individuals and receiver of aid and stifle local institutions that are attempting to innovation by assigning a fixed, one solve health-related issues through a size fits all, solution to numerous local framework. 10/4/2019

While the technological innovations disease, many countries were generally and access to resources that western NGOs unable to help their citizens. Uganda, can provide is unparalleled; local however, demonstrated that a bottom-up, individuals and grassroots partnerships locally-led solution is possible. Beginning in have demonstrated that successful impact 1985, the Ugandan government created the relies upon a deeper understanding of the first African AIDS Control Program. This local cultural context. program aimed to destigmatize the disease by instigating meaningful, educational The AIDS epidemic in Uganda serves discussions led by local stakeholders like as a good example for ethical and local religious and political community leaders.4 health solutions. Throughout the 1980s a Uganda recognized that the western number of African countries struggled to stigmatization of the disease ultimately mitigate the AIDS issue due to a general obstructed any open discussion of the topic. stigmatization of AIDS positive individuals. The Ugandan effort to shift the local This stigmatization was largely rooted in conversation using local players proved western, Christian beliefs that demonized successful in reducing HIV prevalence in extra-marital sex and homosexuality.3 the country.5 Without the ability to publicly discuss the issues that lead to the spread of the UCLA AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER 25

On a grander scale, the ability aims to shift the conversation away of African countries to set their own from the disaster-oriented rhetoric health policy and protocols is typically used to discuss prevailing imperative to the continued health issues in Africa. Ultimately, development of the continent as a we hope to demonstrate that the whole. African countries must be paternal relationship between the given the autonomy to identify and West and the African Union is not solve their own issues without only unnecessary, but obstructive to paternal, western oversight. The the creation of uniquely African African Women’s Protocol is another solutions. African countries have demonstration of African solutions demonstrated their competence in for African problems. The protocol regard to mitigating their health targets key issues related to issues and it is time they are given women’s health like maternal the power to solve their own mortality and access to problems. contraception in order to improve the livelihoods of households throughout the African Union.6 The call for this protocol was led by local African feminist movements that deeply understood the issues of their own communities. The widespread acceptance of the protocol (ratified by two-thirds of the African Union) not only demonstrates the effectivity of locally generated solutions, but also negates the accepted notion that Africa is unable to govern itself. This section aims to debunk pre-held assumptions that Africa is unable to autonomously solve its own health related issues. It also 10/4/2019