5th semerter History english

HISTORY Issues in Twentieth Century World History I B.A Program Semester 5th Important Questions with Answer NOTES

Where every problem is solved of your study. Manish Verma Notes, EduTech Private Limited provides notes and guidance for students to prepare for CBSE, NIOS, DU, SOL, NCWEB, IGNOU & All Universities. the sole aim to initiate, enable and empower individuals to grow up to be extraordinary professionals. Mr. Manish Verma (M.A, B.Ed., Teaching experience of DU, SOL, NCWEB, IGNOU Students through my YouTube channel more than 8 years ago We Help you Dream, Achieve & Succeed. Joined us millions of students. Manish Verma YouTube Channel - The Fastest, Easiest, and most fun way to study From Class 9th to 12th CBSE, NIOS, & Graduation DU SOL, IGNOU, NCWEB ( UGC Syllabus ) Vision: Helping DU, SOL, NCWEB, IGNOU Students pass their degree in the fastest time possible with great marks. To enable them to achieve their dream job, business success, dream life - partner and lead a fulfilled life. Making them global citizens contributing to creating a better world. Mission: Our aim is not merely to penetrate the markets to expand the reach of our notes, but to understand the contemporary educational needs of DU, SOL, NCWEB, IGNOU students and fulfil those needs with our Best in Class Products/Services. We provide , DU, SOL, NCWEB, IGNOU Notes, Important Question with Answer for the final exams, Solved Assignments. And Online Classes. Subscribe to our YouTube channel. I am extremely enjoying this YouTube journey. I am overwhelmed with the love I have received from you all. There is no hard-and-fast rule that defines the path to success in the social media world. Going an extra mile and putting all your heart never goes unnoticed. Delighted, grateful and full of joy, thanks to each one for the love and appreciation. Long way to go! Love to all - By Manish Verma +91- 8368259468 [email protected] New Delhi manishvermanotes.com MANISH VERMA

BEST AWARD

1 Index Unit I: The Concept and Definition: What is World History? Unit II: First World War: (a) Consequences in Europe and the world, (b) League of Nations Unit III: 1917 Russian Revolution: (a) Formation of the USSR; (b) Debates on socialism and the role of the Communist International (Comintern) Unit IV: Fascism and Nazism: Germany and Japan and Second World War Unit V: Modernity, Rights and Democracy: (a) The suffragette movement (England) (b) Anti-colonial struggles (Indonesia) (c) The formation of the United Nations (d) Art and politics (Picasso) All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

2 Question - What is world history? OR Question - What do we understand by world history and global history? Answer – Introduction There are a few key qualities that set world history apart from other types of history. World historians use a wide spatial lens, though they do not always take the entire world as their unit of analysis. They tend to de-emphasize individual nations or civilizations, and focus instead on regions defined differently, including zones of interaction, or on the ways in which people, goods, and ideas moved across regions through migration, conquest, and trade. Most world historians think that history should be studied on a range of chronological and spatial scales, including, but not limited to, very large ones. Some world history has a narrow temporal framework, examining developments around the world in a single decade or even a single year. Other historians use an expanded timeframe, beginning with the Big Bang to examine history on a cosmic scale. Histories of single commodities such as salt, sugar, or silver can be world history, as can those of single individuals, organizations, or ideas.  World History World historians use a wide spatial lens, though they do not always take the entire world as their unit of analysis. In the twenty-first century, world historians are building on different national and regional roots and traditions to create a multivocal version of world history, working upwards and outwards from the available sources in multiple languages and from multiple sites. World history today is a research field, with academic journals, conferences, books, and research centres, as well as a teaching field, from primary school through postgraduate work. Scholars, teachers, and students have developed innovative All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

3 approaches and materials and regularly engage in debates about theory, methodology, and content on Web sites, blogs, and in print. Advantages/ Features of World History 1. Knowing who we are Study of world history is the broadest and most searching approach to the question of who we are as both individuals and members of groups. Exploring how humankind has changed since its hominid ancestors walked the earth is the best way to grapple with the question of what makes us special, in fact, unique, in relation to other living species. National history teaches us what is distinctive about a particular land and people. World history throws light on the distinctive characteristics of human beings and how their thought, behavior, and interactions have changed over time. 2. Preparing to live in the world World history helps prepare young people for college studies, international experience, and active participation in civic life. It helps get them ready for the roles they will inevitably play as citizens of both their country and the world. A \"global citizen\" is simply a national citizen who knows and cares about the history and contemporary affairs of all humankind, a person who can in some measure think, speak, and write about world issues and problems intelligently and confidently. Most of us are generally aware of world interconnections and interdependence. We know that the internet allows people to trade stocks at blinding speed, that hundreds of millions of people simultaneously watch the Olympic Games, and that the threat of global warming requires cooperation among all governments. We know that we live in a border-crossing, migration-prone, multiple identity-taking world. Intelligently addressing today's world conditions, however, requires more than vague awareness of these realities. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

4 World history education helps us better understand how and why the world got to be the way it is. It gives attention to the histories of nations, civilizations, and other groups and the differences among them. But it particularly emphasizes the history, problems, and challenges that humans have shared simply because they are humans. 3. Attaining cultural literacy on a world scale World history contributes to our cultural literacy. Human beings, unlike other species, have the gift of language, that is, symbolic thinking and communication. That means that humans also have what World History for Us All calls collective learning, the ability to learn from one another and to transmit knowledge from one generation to the next. Communicating intelligently in any language, whether English, Spanish, or Vietnamese, requires that we share a common fund of knowledge, information, vocabulary, and conceptual tools. We need shared knowledge and understandings partly because we live in a world where people in specialized occupations and professions tend to use special words, terms, and concepts that \"outsiders\" do not understand. Making world history a core subject in schools broadens the fund of knowledge that we all share. It helps us speak and write to one another in clearer and more intricate ways. This does not mean that world history courses should be exactly the same in every school district. But societies should aim for general agreement regarding the common stock of both world-scale knowledge and historical thinking skills that children ought to possess when they graduate from high school. All past societies that we know of have had an endowment of collective knowledge. World history is shared knowledge that citizens, whatever their country of allegiance, need to function on our planet in the twenty-first century. The complexity of human interrelations today means that cultural literacy must be global in range and depth. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

5  Global History \"Global history\" refers to a wide range of research approaches that are typically characterized by a rising interest in alternative conceptions of space beyond methodological nationalism and Eurocentrism. It builds on a multitude of detailed research projects in all branches of historiography, ranging from economic history to cultural history and from gender history to environmental history. Unlike in the case of intellectual movements such as subaltern studies or world systems theory, global history did not emerge from a core political agenda or societal commitment. Rather, it rose to significance as a rather diffuse – and initially often unnoticed – research trend across a wide variety of research communities. Global History, which was founded at Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology during the late 1990s, and the European Network in Universal and Global History (ENIUGH), which came into being a few years later. Furthermore, major scholarly associations have begun to operate with the expression \"global history\" or closely related terminological derivatives. For instance, in 2009 the American Historical Association’s annual convent ion met under the guiding theme \"Globalizing History\", and a few years before the proceedings of the quinquennial \"International Congress of Historical Sciences\" were published under the title \"Making Sense of Global History\". In March 2009, \"global history\" generated about 700.000 hits in a regular Google search and thus already more than 20 percent of the entire amount of entries found for a term such as \"cultural history\", which entered mainstream historiography at least two decades before. Particularly during the past one or two decades, many fields of historical inquiry have witnessed a growing momentum towards exploring largely uncharted territories across and beyond \"nations\", \"continents\", and other specifically modern ways of framing the past. This has been, for example, the case with the spectrum of research subsumable under \"cultural history\" as well as with the equally complex landscapes of \"political history\". All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

6 Question: Modernity was inherent in imperialism. Do you agree? Ans – Introduction: - Imperialism is a policy or ideology of extending the rule over peoples and other countries, for extending political and economics access, power and control, often through employing hard power, especially military force, also soft power. While related to the concepts of colonialism and empire, imperialism is a direct concept that can apply to other form of expansion and forms of government. Imperialism: - The word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power,” sovereignty” or simply “rule”. It first became common in the current sense in Great Britain during the 1870s, when was used with a negative connotation. Previously, the term had been used to describe what was perceived as foreign military interventions. The term was end is mainly applied to western and Japanese political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debates by scholars. Some writers, such as Edward said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organized around an imperial core and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neo-colonialism. In the 1970s British historians John Gallagher (1919-1980) and Ronald Robinson (1920-1999) argued that European leaders rejected the notion that \"imperialism\" required formal, legal control by one government over a colonial region. Much more important was informal control of independent areas. According to Wm. Roger Louis, \"In their view, historians have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps of the world with regions coloured red. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

7 The bulk of British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas outside the formal British Empire. Key to their thinking is the idea of empire Informally if possible and formally if necessary. '\" Oren Hale says that Gallagher and Robinson looked at the British involvement in Africa where they \"found few capitalists, less capital, and not much pressure from the alleged traditional promoters of colonial expansion. Cabinet decisions to annex or not to annex were made, usually on the basis of political or geopolitical considerations.\" Modernity, a topic in the humanities and social sciences, is both a historical period (the modern era) and the ensemble of particular socio-cultural norms, attitudes and practices that arose in the wake of the Renaissance in the \"Age of Reason\" of 17th-century thought and the 18th-century \"Enlightenment''. Stages of capitalist industrialization and \"modernity\" • The first stage is known as business or commercial capitalist. Its period is believed to be from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century. This was the time when Western European countries such as England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain were collective powers, dominating international trade and were in the process of colonizing other nations. • In the second phase, the nineteenth century is seen as a fully developed form of capitalism. This was linked to the large-scale production that developed due to investment in industrial production and technological progress. This period saw new inventions in the steam engine, textile machines and agriculture, new means of transport, especially railways, new methods of coal and iron mining - and factories where wage workers and their owners Contributed to the development of capitalism. In the beginning of the 20th century, giant leaps were made in the field of iron industry, building, concentration of production in large firms, union and capital. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

8 Capital monopoly, imperialism and international imperialist rivalry came to be seen in a very crude form during this period. Monopoly in capitalist industrialization originated in highly developed countries. These countries identified the best position in industrial production and engaged in the process of monopolizing the market and protecting the economy of their colonies rather than leaving them open to market and competition. In other words, he was now in favor of a regulated market, a market controlled by him rather than laissez faire or leaving the laws of supply and demand to determine the economy. The second half of the 20th century saw the rise of multinational or international corporations and the New Economic Policy. Governments all over the world cut welfare spending. The new economic policy included structural reconciliation between developed and third world countries. This was due to the pressure exerted by the developed countries. As a new phase in capitalist industrialization and as a result, there are policies to exert imperialist pressure on the economy of the third world and this is known as globalization. Some commentators consider the era of modernity to have ended by 1930, with World War II in 1945, or the 1980s or 1990s; the following era is called postmodernity. The term \"contemporary history\" is also used to refer to the post- 1945 timeframe, without assigning it to either the modern or postmodern era. (Thus \"modern\" may be used as a name of a particular era in the past, as opposed to meaning \"the current era\".) Depending on the field, \"modernity\" may refer to different time periods or qualities. In historiography, the 17th and 18th centuries are usually described as early modern, while the long 19th century corresponds to \"modern history\" proper. While it includes a wide range of interrelated historical processes and cultural phenomena (from fashion to modern warfare), it can also refer to the subjective or existential experience of the conditions they produce, and their ongoing impact on All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

9 human culture, institutions, and politics. As an analytical concept and normative idea, modernity is closely linked to the ethos of philosophical and aesthetic modernism; political and intellectual currents that intersect with the Enlightenment; and subsequent developments such as existentialism, modern art, the formal establishment of social science, and contemporaneous antithetical developments such as Marxism. It also encompasses the social relations associated with the rise of capitalism, and shifts in attitudes associated with secularisation, liberalization, modernization and post-industrial life. By the late 19th and 20th centuries, modernist art, politics, science and culture has come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America, but almost every civilized area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the West and globalization. The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism,121 capitalism, 31 urbanization and a belief in the possibilities of technological and political progress. Wars and other perceived problems of this era, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, have led to many reactions against modern development. Optimism and belief in constant progress has been most recently criticized by postmodernism while the dominance of Western Europe and Anglo-America over other continents has been criticized by postcolonial theory. Question: What were the causes of the success of the Bolsheviks in October 1917 in Russia? Ans – Introduction: - Russian Revolution, also called Russian Revolution of 1917, two revolutions in 1917, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the imperial government All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

10 and the second of which, in October (November), placed the Bolsheviks in power. Causes of the success of the Bolsheviks in October 1917 in Russia: - The Russian revolution was a pair of revolution that transformed the political structure of the nation. The February revolution provided for a provincial government in the place of autocratic Russian Tsar. It is followed by the October revolution which placed the Bolshevik in the power instead of the provisional government which is known as the Bolshevik revolution. Conditions led to the success of Bolshevik revolution:  Weakness of the provincial government  Economic and Social condition  Prolonged war conditions  Lenin’s April theses of Peace, Land and Bread. Plan of the Bolsheviks:  First to gain the control in the Petrograd Soviet.  Take the power in the name of Soviet.  Repetition of the process in other cities. Impact of the Bolshevik revolution on the world:  Rise of communist ideology in reality.  Tension between capitalism and communalism.  Export of the communal values to different nations.  Inspiration to the freedom movement of colonel countries. Economic difficulties Economic difficulties had played a major role in Nicholas II's fall from power. The Provisional Government had failed to address these same problems. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

11  The price of goods continued to increase  Food was in short supply  Fuel shortages made living conditions unbearable, especially during the harsh Russian winter  The government could not guarantee enough grain, ammunition or weapons for troops fighting in the war. The government did not to solve the land issue in the countryside and the desire of peasants for control of more land was not met. As a result, seizures of land from landowners became widespread. The continuing economic crisis discredited the Provisional Government and strengthened the appeal of the Bolsheviks. Continuation of the war The Russian people wanted the war to come to an end. However, the Provisional Government decided to continue Russia’s involvement. They feared that foreign investment from Britain and France would cease in the event of a Russian withdrawal. In March, 1917, the Petrograd Soviet declared that it would no longer support an offensive war against Germany. The June Offensive The Provisional Government persisted with military campaigns. Alexander Kerensky, Minister of War, ordered the June Offensive of 1917, an attempt to push the Austrians back. However, this failed and contributed to protests during July. The morale of the army declined further and there were huge increases in the level of desertions. The soldiers became more interested in Bolshevik policies and the loyalty of a number of units to the Provisional Government was now uncertain. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

12 The Petrograd Soviet: - The July Days: - Following the failure of the June Offensive morale in the army fell rapidly. Increasing numbers of soldiers deserted. Others lost their loyalty to the government. Shortages continued and there was widespread unrest in Petrograd between the 3rd and 6th of July. Sailors from Kronstadt protested in the city. Soldiers joined them. Soon thousands of protesters awaited instructions from the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolsheviks. However, there was little in the form of direction from Socialist Revolutionaries. Lenin did not take advantage of the situation, perhaps because only small numbers of soldiers and sailors actively supported the Bolsheviks. The uprising was suppressed by loyal troops who were brought in by the Provisional Government. A number of Bolshevik leaders, including Trotsky, were arrested. Lenin fled to Finland. The Kornilov Revolt In August 1917, Laver Kornilov, a Russian General, tried to seize power for himself. His army advanced on Petrograd. The Provisional Government, now under the leadership of Alexander Kerensky, seemed powerless to stop him. Kerensky called on the Petrograd Soviet to defend the city. This meant arming the Soviet - a move that would not be easy to reverse. General Kornilov Under Trotsky's direction, the Red Guards organised the defence of the city. Bolshevik agents infiltrated Kornilov's troops and encouraged them to desert. The Bolsheviks also organised strikes by railway workers - disrupting Kornilov's supplies and communications. By the end of the month, Kornilov had been relieved of his command and put under arrest. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

13 An important result of the Kornilov Revolt was a marked increase in support for the Bolsheviks. They were seen to have saved the revolution from a loyal Tsarist general. By September, the Bolsheviks had gained control of the Petrograd Soviet. The October Revolution Led by Trotsky, the Military Revolutionary Committee was able to secure the support of the Petrograd Garrison and the Kronstadt sailors. On 24th October, Prime Minister Kerensky tried to limit Bolshevik influence. He ordered the arrest of many of their leaders. In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee decided to act. The Red Guards and Kronstadt sailors gained control of key locations in the city. This included the bridges, railway stations, and post office. On the night of the 25th, they moved against the Provisional Government. By this time the only defenders the Government had left were a few officer cadets and the “Women’s Battalion of Death”. Very few people were prepared to fight for it. The majority of troops remained in their barracks and did nothing to stop the Bolshevik takeover. Kerensky left the Winter Palace to find help. Later that evening the Palace was surrounded by workers and soldiers. They were supported by the Kronstadt sailors who had arrived on board the cruiser Aurora. On the 26th of October, Red Guards entered the Winter Palace and arrested the members of the Provisional Government. There was little fighting. Conclusion: Thus, the Bolshevik revolution aimed in the building of a proletariat society in Russia. It experimented with the ideas of Marx in real world conditions. In world politics it acted as inspiration for the common people to rise against their colonial masters. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

14 Question: Discuss the reasons for the Great depression of 1929. Or Question: What led to the Economic Depression of 1929? Or Question: What were the impacts of the Great Depression (1929) on the under developed world? Ans – Introduction: - Great Depression, worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted until about 1939. It was the longest and most severe depression ever experienced by the industrialized Western world, sparking fundamental changes in economic institutions, macroeconomic policy, and economic theory. Great Depression (1929): - The Great Depression of the late 1920s and ’30s remains the longest and most severe economic downturn in modern history. Lasting almost 10 years (from late 1929 until about 1939) and affecting nearly every country in the world, it was marked by steep declines in industrial production and in prices (deflation), mass unemployment, banking panics, and sharp increases in rates of poverty and homelessness. In the United States, where the effects of the depression were generally worst, between 1929 and 1933 industrial production fell nearly 47 percent, gross domestic product (GDP) declined by 30 percent, and unemployment reached more than 20 percent. By comparison, during the Great Recession of 2007–09, the second largest economic downturn in U.S. history, GDP declined by 4.3 percent, and unemployment reached slightly less than 10 percent. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

15 There is no consensus among economists and historians regarding the exact causes of the Great Depression. However, many scholars agree that at least the following four factors played a role. The stock market crash of 1929. During the 1920s the U.S. stock market underwent a historic expansion. As stock prices rose to unprecedented levels, investing in the stock market came to be seen as an easy way to make money, and even people of ordinary means used much of their disposable income or even mortgaged their homes to buy stock. By the end of the decade hundreds of millions of shares were being carried on margin, meaning that their purchase price was financed with loans to be repaid with profits generated from ever-increasing share prices. Once prices began their inevitable decline in October 1929, millions of overextended shareholders fell into a panic and rushed to liquidate their holdings, exacerbating the decline and engendering further panic. Between September and November, stock prices fell 33 percent. The result was a profound psychological shock and a loss of confidence in the economy among both consumers and businesses. Accordingly, consumer spending, especially on durable goods, and business investment were drastically curtailed, leading to reduced industrial output and job losses, which further reduced spending and investment. The most devastating impact of the Great Depression was human suffering. In a short period of time, world output and standards of living dropped precipitously. As much as one-fourth of the labour force in industrialized countries was unable to find work in the early 1930s. While conditions began to improve by the mid-1930s, total recovery was not accomplished until the end of the decade. The Great Depression and the policy response also changed the world economy in crucial ways. Most obviously, it hastened, if not caused, the end of the international gold standard. Although a system of fixed currency exchange rates was reinstated after World War II under the Bretton Woods system, the economies of the All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

16 world never embraced that system with the conviction and fervour they had brought to the gold standard. By 1973, fixed exchange rates had been abandoned in favour of floating rates. (See also money.) Both labour unions and the welfare state expanded substantially during the 1930s. In the United States, union membership more than doubled between 1930 and 1940. This trend was stimulated by both the severe unemployment of the 1930s and the passage of the National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act (1935), which encouraged collective bargaining. The United States also established unemployment compensation and old-age and survivors’ insurance through the Social Security Act (1935), which was passed in response to the hardships of the 1930s. It is uncertain whether these changes would have eventually occurred in the United States without the Great Depression. Many European countries had experienced significant increases in union membership and had established government pensions before the 1930s. Both of these trends, however, accelerated in Europe during the Great Depression. Effects and consequences of the Great Depression As a result of this economic collapse, companies naturally had to close down and lay off their employees. Thus, for example, there were 2.85 million unemployed people in Great Britain and even 12 million unemployed in the United States. Germany has unfortunately also hit very hard with six million unemployed. As can be seen from the graph, the highest unemployment rate was 23.6 percent in 1932.14 People who were not affected by unemployment struggled with short-time work and lower wages. In addition to the economic problems, governments could no longer keep the political systems under control. Thus in 1932 National Socialism rose in Germany. At the same time, anti-liberal and anti-parliamentary movements rose in other countries. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

17 For many years, as one economic malady after another befell the country, American citizens were left in awful conditions, with poor jobs and wages. Many no longer had savings. A severe drought struck the Southern Plains, causing the infamous Dust Bowl. This meant many U.S. farmers, in addition to being hurt by the tariffs and trade decline, no longer even had usable land for farming. Question: To what extent division of Europe into opposite groups was responsible for the outbreak of First World War? Or Question: What were the factors responsible for the First World War? Ans - Introduction: - When World War 1 began in 1914 and ended in 1918, the series of events and wars were the severest rounds that Europe had ever experienced in several centuries. Let us look at how the Triple Alliance formed and started. If we go back to the time of the Franco-Prussian War, we can trace the beginning of The Triple Alliance. The whole thing started even before that, it started from Congress of Vienna in 1814- 15 but it came into Limelight in the late 19th century around the time of the Franco- Prussian War. DIVISION OF EUROPE It could be said to have begun in the German Victory over Austria in the battle of Sadowa (1866) and the German defeat of France, Battle of Sedan in 1870. The balance of power brought into being by the Vienna Congress was reversed. For the first time, the power was shifted from Paris to Berlin (New Capital). Otto von Bismarck’s era in 1871 ushered in a series of impulsive doing with Europe. Bismarck came up with very interesting information in Europe inhabited by 5 powers where 5 powers are at play everyone should attempt to be on the site on which there are 3 powers and with this am in mind he laid the principle of Foreign Policy. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

18 Bismarck’s aim was to keep France isolated from Bismarck’s Germany and with this, he was particularly significant in defining the trajectory along with both Berlin and Paris. His aim was to win over other powers on its side in terms of diplomacy. In the second half of the 19th century, Britain decided to remain aloof peaceful Britain had no problem accepting whichever power is dominantly provided it is not going to Challenge the British hegemony. France – unreconcilable and Britain – unwilling to be aligned Bismarck had only Austria-Hungary and Russia to take care of the three emperors’ league or the Dreikaiserbund was an alliance between Germany, Russia and Austro – Hungary. Bismarck was in charge of the German foreign policy from 1871 and his goal was a peaceful Europe based on the balance of power. He feared that Russia, France and Austria would crush Germany at once, so he came up with the solution to ally with the two of the three. In 1873, A League of Three Emperors was formed, an alliance of the Kaiser of Germany, the Tsar of Russia, and the Kaiser of Austria-Hungary. An agreement was negotiated between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany on October 22, 1873. Maintaining the status quo and avoiding war were the cornerstone of Bismarck’s political philosophy. The collective was disbanded in 1878 over the Balkans issue and following the body’s first conclusion in 1879. FORMATION OF TRIPLE ALLIANCE If we leave aside the exact motivation of Germany’s behavior behind the Berlin Congress and take the substance of it that Bismarck preferred Austria-Hungary. This goes on to explain why in 1879 a dual alliance was forged with Vienna. In 1879, A Secret Treaty was signed b/w Berlin and Vienna laid a clear set of protocols in which the alignment was made. The terms of Dual Alliance b/w Germany and Austria-Hungary was clearly a military strategic alignment. If Austria-Hungary gets attacked by Russia then Germany All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

19 would provide Military Assistance and on the other hand, Germany gets attacked by France then Austria would do the same. Later, in 1882, when Italy joined the Alliance, it had its reasons for joining the Austro-German Alliance. Conservatives sympathized ideologically with two monarchies used to control the Italian Government. Its terms were that both other powers would support Italy if she were attacked without provocation by France. Italy in return was pledged to support either of her allies only if it were attacked by two or more great powers but would aid Germany if she were attacked by France alone. On the other hand, in Hey the event of war between Austria -Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral. Germany and Austria – Hungary for proposing to come to each other military aid if either of them was attacked by France or Russia which also meant Bismarck was not guaranteeing a blank cheque in Balkan. The alignment was a kind of a defensive alliance Berlin remained a staunch ally of Austria-Hungary. Russia decided to ignore Bismarck’s favouring of Austria-Hungary and attempted to get close to Germany Bismarck was happy to bring Russia back on board because it would guarantee the fact that Russia and France would not be able to come to each other. The 3 emperors League was reinstated in 1887 but this time with more definite provisions. He is either of the 3 signatory words to go to the board with the 4th power than the other 2 would remain basically neutral. The reinsurance Treaty of 1887 was an attempt by Bismarck to keep Russia on board. GERMAN REALIGNMENT TO AUSTRIA- HUNGARY AND RUSSIAN REALIGNMENT TO FRANCE, 1887 – 1892 In 1887, German and Russian alignment was secured by a means of secret reinsurance treaty arranged by Otto von Bismarck however in 1890, he fell from power and the treaty was allowed to lapse in the favor of dual alliance (1879) All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

20 between Germany and Austria Hungary the development was attributed to count Capri the Prussian general who replaced Bismarck as a chancellor. Caprivi recognized a personal inability to manage the European System like his predecessor had so he was counselled by the contemporary figures to follow a more logical approach which leads to the collapse of the Reinsurance treaty b/w Russia & Germany. Question: What is fascism? To what extent Mussolini was responsible for the rise of Fascism in Italy? Ans – Introduction: - Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist political ideology and movement characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hierarchy, subordination of individual interests for the perceived good of the nation and race, and strong regimentation of society and the economy fascism: - political ideology and mass movement that dominated many parts of central, southern, and eastern Europe between 1919 and 1945 and that also had adherents in western Europe, the United States, South Africa, Japan, Latin America, and the Middle East. Europe’s first fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, took the name of his party from the Latin word fasces, which referred to a bundle of elm or birch rods (usually containing an ax) used as a symbol of penal authority in ancient Rome. Although fascist parties and movements differed significantly from one another, they had many characteristics in common, including extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy and the rule of elites, and the desire to create a Volksgemeinschaft (German: “people’s community”), in which individual interests would be subordinated to the good of the nation. At the end of World War II, the All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

21 major European fascist parties were broken up, and in some countries (such as Italy and West Germany) they were officially banned. Beginning in the late 1940s, however, many fascist-oriented parties and movements were founded in Europe as well as in Latin America and South Africa. Although some European “neofascist” groups attracted large followings, especially in Italy and France, none were as influential as the major fascist parties of the interwar period.  Rise of Fascism in Italy Between 1922 and 1943, Italy was a totalitarian regime under the rule of Benito Mussolini. The rise of Mussolini and his political party, the Fascists, played a critical role in the growth of Italian nationalism during the interwar period as well as Italy’s decision to side with Germany during World War II. Among the most important of the circumstances surrounding Mussolini’s rise to power were the social and economic conditions in Italy after World War I. Although Italy had been a member of the victorious side during the war, its participation had been costly and disproportionate to its size and wealth. Italy spent nearly 15 billion dollars on the war effort and lost more than 600,000 people. In addition, Italy received fewer rewards than it had expected during post-war negotiations with its allies. These factors increased the unpopularity of Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando and the Italian government in Rome. As economic conditions worsened after the war, popular discontent increased sharply and Italians began to look for new alternatives. Many workers and peasants turned to Socialism, and some even attempted to enact their own reforms such as appropriating and collectivizing factories and the estates of rural landowners. In response, numerous landowners and middle-class Italians turned to a new militant group—the Fascists—led by Mussolini, a former Socialist. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

22 Formed in early 1919, the Fascists were a small but militant movement that attracted radicals, nationalists, and workers. At first the group advocated a relatively progressive agenda that included broad economic reforms, but the Fascists quickly discarded these reforms for a more conservative agenda that promoted nationalism and foreign expansion. Soon Fascist groups, known as the Black shirts, began to attack rival groups, most notably Socialists. The use of violence enabled the Fascists to weaken the Socialists, an accomplishment that won them support among the upper and middle classes, the army, and the police throughout Italy. This support subsequently enabled Mussolini and an army of 50,000 Fascists to march into Rome in October 1922 and assume control of the government unopposed. During his first years of power, Mussolini restructured the Italian government to centralize his power. He abolished the cabinet system and declared a one-party state devoted to the principles of totalitarianism, nationalism, and militarism. He also restructured the Italian economy through the formation of corporations, or state- controlled organizations formed to regulate different industries. Although Mussolini’s reforms supposedly improved government efficiency and social conditions, they actually did very little to improve life for the majority of Italians. Having consolidated his control at home, Mussolini turned his attention to foreign affairs. Determined to reclaim Italy’s glory from the time of the Roman Empire, Mussolini aspired to expand Italian influence through the accumulation of new colonies and foreign territories. This policy also helped to distract attention from continuing domestic problems in Italy. Mussolini’s first target was Ethiopia (then known as Abyssinia), which was embroiled in a border dispute with the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland. In 1935 the Italian army marched into Abyssinia, which the next year was declared a colony of Italy. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

23 At the same time, Italy became more involved in European affairs. In 1936 Mussolini began providing military support to Francisco Franco’s forces in the Spanish Civil War. Later that year Mussolini signed a pact with Adolf Hitler, the dictator of Germany. Known as the Rome-Berlin Axis, the agreement divided Europe into spheres of influence and promised equality between the two powers. As war approached, Italy and Germany further consolidated their partnership through the Pact of Steel. Despite Italy’s pact with Germany, Mussolini had strong reservations about the looming conflict and was slow to join Germany after the outbreak of World War II in 1939. In 1940, however, after Germany began its invasion of France, Italy officially joined the war in the hopes of acquiring territories from its European rivals. In late 1940 Mussolini launched invasions of Egypt, Greece, and the French Alps that were easily rebuffed by Allied forces. Hitler subsequently provided Italy with military assistance in North Africa, but the combined German and Italian forces were defeated by the Allies in 1942–43. On July 10, 1943, the Allies undertook a successful invasion of Italy through Sicily and began the advance on Rome. Question: Evaluate the causes of the Second World War. Ans - Introduction  World War II, also called Second World War, was a conflict that involved virtually every part of the world during the years 1939–45.  The principal belligerents were the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan— and the Allies—France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China.  It was the biggest conflict in history that had lasted almost six years. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

24  Nearly some 100 million people had been militarised, and 50 million had been killed (around 3% of the world's population).  Causes of War The major causes of World War II were numerous. They include the impact of the Treaty of Versailles following WWI, the worldwide economic depression, failure of appeasement, the rise of militarism in Germany and Japan, and the failure of the League of Nations.  Treaty of Versailles  Following World War, I, the victorious Allied Powers met to decide Germany’s future. Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles.  Under this treaty, Germany had to accept guilt for the war and to pay reparations. Germany lost territory and was prohibited from having a large military.  The humiliation faced by Germany under this treaty, paved the way for the spread of Ultra-Nationalism in Germany. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

25  Failure of the League of Nations  The League of Nations was an international organization set up in 1919 to keep world peace.  It was intended that all countries would be members and that if there were disputes between countries, they could be settled by negotiation rather than by force.  The League of Nations was a good idea, but ultimately a failure, as not all countries joined the league.  Also, the League had no army to prevent military aggression such as Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in Africa or Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in China.  Great Depression of 1929  The worldwide economic depression of the 1930s took its toll in different ways in Europe and Asia.  In Europe, political power shifted to totalitarian and imperialist governments in several countries, including Germany, Italy, and Spain.  In Asia, a resource-starved Japan began to expand aggressively, invading China and maneuvering to control a sphere of influence in the Pacific.  Rise of Fascism  Victors’ stated aims in World War I had been “to make the world safe for democracy,” and post-war Germany was made to adopt a democratic constitution, as did most of the other states restored or created after the war.  In the 1920s, however, the wave of nationalistic, militaristic totalitarianism known by its Italian name, fascism.  It promised to minister to peoples’ wants more effectively than democracy and presented itself as the one sure defense against communism. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

26  Benito Mussolini established the first Fascist, European dictatorship during the interwar period in Italy in 1922.  Rise of Nazism  Adolf Hitler, the Leader of the German National Socialist (Nazi) party, preached a racist brand of fascism.  Hitler promised to overturn the Versailles Treaty, restore German wealth & glory and secure additional Lebensraum (“living space”) for the German people, who he contended deserve more as members of a superior race.  In 1933 Hitler became the German Chancellor, and in a series of subsequent moves established himself as dictator.  Moreover, in 1941 the Nazi regime unleashed a war of extermination against Slavs, Jews, and other elements deemed inferior by Hitler’s ideology.  Policy of Appeasement  Hitler openly denounced the Treaty of Versailles and began secretly building up Germany’s army and weapons.  Although Britain and France knew of Hitler’s actions, they thought a stronger Germany would stop the spread of Communism from Russia.  An example of appeasement was the Munich Agreement of September 1938. In the Agreement, Britain and France allowed Germany to annex areas in Czechoslovakia where German-speakers lived.  Germany agreed not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia or any other country. However, in March 1939, Germany broke its promise and invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia.  Even then, neither Britain nor France was prepared to take military action. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

27 Question: Imperialist rivalries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had led to the First World War. Discuss. Ans – Introduction: - Imperialism was one of the main causes of World War I, which began in July of 1914, following the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand. In fact, historians consider it to be one of four main long-term causes of the war, along with: militarism, alliance systems and nationalism. Imperialism was a particularly important cause of World War I. For instance, it caused European nations to compete for territory around the world, which increased tensions. These tensions caused the European nations to build up their armies and set the stage for war.  EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM BEOFRE WORLD WAR I Imperialism is a term that relates to when one country extends its political, economic or cultural authority over another country or region. This process involves the dominant country taking over the other through direct invasion and political control or by gaining authority over the economy of the other country. Imperialism, in history, was a foreign policy practiced by many different nations but is most often associated with European countries, especially during the Age of Imperialism. Imperialism was carried out by the powerful European nations against the rest of world in the decades before World War I began. For example, in the 19th century European nations carried out massive campaigns of imperialism against the regions of Africa in an event known as the Scramble for Africa. The Scramble of Africa led to the start of World War I because it increased the rivalry between the European nations as they fought against each other for territory in Africa and control over different regions. In general, European imperialism of Africa created tensions in that Germany felt left out of territory in the region. For example, in 1884, German leader Otto von All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

28 Bismarck called the Berlin Conference which had the European powers meet to discuss the division of Africa into regions controlled by the European nations. The purpose of the meeting was to avoid starting a major European conflict and to lessen tensions because the Scramble for Africa was leading to an intense rivalry and distrust between the Europeans powers. The peace created at the Berlin Conference did not last as the rivalry between the European powers increased as they approached 1914. For instance, Britain and France were the two Europeans nations that had control over the largest regions of Africa during the Scramble for Africa and this caused tension with Germany. Germany was angry that it lacked the colonies in Africa (as well as Asia) that both Britain and France had and resented their general role in Africa. For example, in 1914, Britain had 56 total colonies around the world; France had 29 colonies and Germany was limited to just 10 colonies. This anger by Germany led to two significant crises. These included the First Moroccan Crisis and the Second Moroccan Crisis.  EUROPEAN EXPANSIONISM In the 1900s, several European nations had empires across the globe, where they had control over vast swaths of lands. Prior to World War I, the British and French Empires were the world’s most powerful, colonizing regions like India, modern-day Vietnam and West and North Africa. The expansion of European nations as empires (also known as imperialism) can be seen as a key cause of World War I, because as countries like Britain and France expanded their empires, it resulted in increased tensions among European countries. The tensions were a result of many colonies often being acquired through coercion. Then, once a nation had been conquered, it was governed by the imperial nation: many of these colonial nations were exploited by their mother countries, and dissatisfaction and resentment were commonplace. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

29 empires, including Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, leading to the creation of the Allied Powers (Britain and France) and Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) during World War I.  CONFLICTS OVER ALLIANCES In the age of imperialism prior to World War I, countries throughout Europe had created alliances. The alliances promised that each country would support the other if war ever broke out between an ally and another Great Power. Prior to WWI, the alliances of Russia and Serbia; France and Russia; Germany, Italy and Austria- Hungary; Britain, France and Belgium; France, Britain and Russia; and Japan and Britain were firmly in place. The alliance, between France, Britain and Russia, formed in 1907 and called the Triple Entente, caused the most friction among nations. Germany felt that this alliance surrounding them was a threat to their power and existence. As tensions continued to rise over alliances, the pre-existing alliances fed into other countries declaring war against one another in the face of conflict. These conflicts over alliances — which forced nations to come to the defence of one another — led to the formation of the two sides of World War I, the Allied and Central Powers. By the start of the war, Italy and the United States entered on the side of the Allied Powers, which consisted of Russia, France and Great Britain. The Central Powers, alternately, consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.  SERBIAN NATIONALISM Nationalism was one of many political forces at play in the time leading up to World War I, with Serbian nationalism in particular, playing a key role. Serbian nationalism can be dated to the mid- and late-1800s, though two precipitating nationalism events are directly linked to the start of WWI. In the Balkans, Slavic Serbs sought All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

30 independence from Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, and in 1878, they tried to gain control of Bosnia and Herzegovina to form a unified Serbian state. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Serbian nationalism continued to rise, culminating in the assassination of the Archduke of Austria in 1914 by a Bosnian Serb and officially triggering the start of the Great War.  IMERIALISM CAUSED OF WORLD WAR I European imperialism how a profound impact on the outbreak of World War I. As stated above, imperialism was carried out by the powerful European nations against the rest of world in the decades before World War I began. For example, in the 19th century European nations carried out massive campaigns of imperialism against the regions of Africa in an event known as the Scramble for Africa. The Scramble of Africa led to the start of World War I because it increased rivalry between the European nations as they fought against each other for territory in Africa and control over different regions. For instance, Britain and France were the two Europeans nations that had control over the largest regions of Africa during the Scramble for Africa and this caused tension with Germany. Germany was angry that it lacked the colonies in Africa that both Britain and France had and resented their general role in Africa. This anger by Germany would lead to the two Moroccan Crises that occurred before World War I. Ultimately, these tensions led to a sense of anger and distrust among the European powers that helped to set the stage for war in 1914. Furthermore, imperialism combined with the other main causes of World War I, to set the war into motion. As stated previously, these causes included: militarism, alliances, imperialism and nationalism. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

31 Question: Was League of Nations a success or failure? Discuss. Ans – Introduction: - While the League of Nations was created after the end of World War One to prevent war from ever breaking out again, a few years later World War Two broke out shocking the world with its lack of response to defuse the situation. Though many people only discuss the epic failure of the League of Nations it is important to realize that the League of Nations was semi-successful in its goal of protecting minorities throughout Europe after World War One and was a predecessor to the United Nations. League of Nations: - To understand the League of Nations it is important to go over the reasons why it was created and its organizational structure. Based on President Woodrow Wilson’s, 1918 address to the United States Congress, where he spoke of his desire “to create a world dedicated to justice and fair dealing” (Wilson 1918) which later became the Fourteen Points program. This program included explicit references to the rights to self-determination and statehoods for nations seeking freedom (Wilson 1918). The League of Nations was created after the end of World War One to prevent war from ever breaking out again. After the turmoil, the Versailles Treaty in 1919 established the League of Nations to bring stability to the world. The world was horrified by the slaughter that had taken place in what was meant to be in the civilized part of the world. The only way to avoid having such atrocities to repeat, a need for an international body whose sole purpose was to maintain world peace and sort out international dilemmas when and if they ever occurred again was needed (Clapham 2007). The League failed to stop a bloody war in Turkey (see League failures) but it did respond to the humanitarian crisis caused by this war. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

32 1,400,000 refugees had been created by this war with 80% of them being women and children. The failures of the League of Nations Article 11 of the League’s Covenant stated: “Any war of threat of war is a matter of concern to the whole League and the League shall take action that may safe guard peace.” Therefore, any conflict between nations which ended in war and the victor of one over the other must be considered a League failure. Italy (1919) In 1919, Italian nationalists, angered that the “Big Three” had, in their opinion, broken promises to Italy at the Treaty of Versailles, captured the small port of Fiume. This port had been given to Yugoslavia by the Treaty of Versailles. For 15 months, Fiume was governed by an Italian nationalist called D’Annunzio. The newly created League did nothing. The situation was solved by the Italian government who could not accept that D’Annunzio was seemingly more popular than they were – so they bombarded the port of Fiume and enforced a surrender. In all this the League played no part despite the fact that it had just been set up with the specific task of maintaining peace. Teschen (1919) Teschen was a small town between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Its main importance was that it had valuable coal mines there which both the Poles and the Czechs wanted. As both were newly created nations, both wanted to make their respective economies as strong as possible and the acquisition of rich coal mines would certainly help in this respect. In January 1919, Polish and Czech troops fought in the streets of Teschen. Many died. The League was called on to help and decided that the bulk of the town should go to Poland while Czechoslovakia should have one of Teschen’s suburbs. This All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

33 suburb contained the most valuable coal mines and the Poles refused to accept this decision. Though no more wholesale violence took place, the two countries continued to argue over the issue for the next twenty years. Vilna (1920) Many years before 1920, Vilna had been taken over by Russia. Historically, Vilna had been the capital of Lithuania when the state had existed in the Middle Ages. After World War One, Lithuania had been re-established and Vilna seemed the natural choice for its capital. War between Russia and Poland (1920 to 1921) In 1920, Poland invaded land held by the Russians. The Poles quickly overwhelmed the Russian army and made a swift advance into Russia. By 1921, the Russians had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Riga which handed over to Poland nearly 80,000 square kilometres of Russian land. This one treaty all but doubled the size of Poland. The invasion of the Ruhr (1923) The Treaty of Versailles had ordered Weimar Germany to pay reparations for war damages. These could either be paid in money or in kind (goods to the value of a set amount) In 1922, the Germans failed to pay an installment. They claimed that they simply could not rather than did not want to. The Allies refused to accept this and the anti-German feeling at this time was still strong. Both the French and the Belgium’s believed that some form of strong action was needed to ‘teach Germany a lesson’. Italy and Albania (1923) The border between Italy and Albania was far from clear and the Treaty of Versailles had never really addressed this issue. It was a constant source of irritation between both nations. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

34 In 1923, a mixed nationality survey team was sent out to settle the issue. Whilst travelling to the disputed area, the Italian section of the survey team, became separated from the main party. The five Italians were shot by gunmen who had been in hiding. The social successes of the League of Nations At a social level the League did have success and most of this is easily forgotten with its failure at a political level. Many of the groups that work for the United Nations now, grew out of what was established by the League. Teams were sent to the Third World to dig fresh water wells; the Health Organisation started a campaign to wipe out leprosy. This idea – of wiping out from the world a disease – was taken up by the United Nations with its smallpox campaign. Work was done in the Third World to improve the status of women there and child slave labour was also targeted. Drug addiction and drug smuggling were also attacked. These problems are still with us in the C21st – so it would be wrong to criticise the League for failing to eradicate them. If we cannot do this now, the League had a far more difficult task then with more limited resources. The greatest success the League had involving these social issues, was simply informing the world at large that these problems did exist and that they should be tackled. No organisation had done this before the League. These social problems may have continued but the fact that they were now being actively investigated by the League and were then taken onboard by the United Nations must be viewed as a success. “In order to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honourable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

35 conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organised peoples with one another, Agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations.” Question: Describe the impact of the Russian Revolution on the rest of the world. Ans – Introduction: - The Russian revolution plays a vital role in World history which had a huge impact not only on Russia but also in other regions as well. It led to the formation of the Soviet Union later which was the first socialist state of the world. Here, we will be covering the Russian revolution in detail and it's related to all the concepts and events as well which will help you to understand this major event of world history. In this, we will cover the series of major events that led to this revolution, its causes, and effects of this revolution, etc. We hope these notes will help you in your studies and will increase your knowledge about historical events as well. Meaning of Russian Revolution: - The Russian revolution took place in the year 1917 when the angry workers and peasants raised their voices against the autocratic rule of Czars which was ended with the formation of the new government headed by Vladimir Lenin. Series of Events The various series of events are mentioned below that actually lead to the occurrence of this Revolution: The Revolution of 1905 The industrial revolution came to Russia with a lot of changes such as social and political. The population was increasing in urban cities such as St. Petersburg and Moscow. Such an increase in the population was becoming a problem for the All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

36 country due to the limited food supply because of the economic crisis and mismanagement and costly wars. Due to the shortage of food supply and present conditions, the people marched towards the Winter Palace of Nicholas II on Jan 22, 1905. Luckily, he was not there and he ordered not to shoot at the crowd but due to some miscommunication his orders were ignored and the troops fired on the crowd. This event is known as the Bloody Sunday Massacre. This even fueled the Russian revolution of 1905. The workers went into a number of strikes which were further deteriorating the Russian Economy. Nicolas agreed to bring reforms which were known as October Manifesto but later he dissolved the Russian Parliament. Nothing specific or significant brought out of this revolution of 1905 but the massacre sparked the angry people more. Effects of World War I Russia not have a modernized army at that time, World war I was disastrous for Russia.  Germany seized the Important regions of Russia which led to more shortage of food supply and led to more economic problems.  Tsar Nicholas II himself took part in the war and left his wife to take care of the government. But the Russian population hated her for being of German heritage.  A lot of Russian people lost faith in the government which was seen as a revolution in the coming years. Causes of the Russian Revolution The situation in Russia at that time was the major cause of the Russian revolution. There were several reasons for these unbalanced situations which are mentioned below which help you to understand what caused the Russian revolution: All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

37 The shortage of food supply, effects of Blood Sunday, and world war I on Russia and its economy and society were some of the major reasons for this revolution.  Autocracy was one of the major reasons that led to this revolution. Czar Alexander II became famous in Russia when some reforms were brought by him. But the successors after him became very autocratic such as Czar Alexander III and Czar Nicholas II. During their ruling period, various political parties lost their powers such as Meer, Jemstvo, and Duma. There was already unrest among the society and their policies and actions fueled this unrest. Thus, the autocratic rule of the Czars became one of the major reasons.  Czar Alexander III and his son Czar Nicholas II followed the policy called a policy of Russification of all the systems. Nicholas II declared \" One Czar, One Church, and One Russia \". Only the catholic religion and the Russian language were introduced as per this policy. Even the Russian language was introduced in non-Russian regions as well such as Poland, Lithuania, Finland, and others. This policy created big unrest in Russia.  The society of Russia was very unbalanced at that time. It consisted of two classes namely the rich and the poor. The rich include all the nobles, feudal lords, and wealthy people whereas the poor class consisted of labourers, peasants, and serfs, etc. Everyone was annoyed in society. For example, the feudal lords lost their lands, political parties lost their powers, and labourers were pissed off because of low salaries, etc.  A suitable environment of the revolution was created by the rise and activities of Nihilism which influenced the Russian revolution in 1917. Their main aim was only to destroy the rule of Czars. Their preachers came to destroy the existing system of Czars, the social and religious faith, and the creation of a new world. Their Organisations were doing activities to influence the people against the Czars and its system. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

38 Consequences of Russian Revolution The various consequences of the Russian Revolution are mentioned below:  The formation of the new government of the Bolshevik Party under Lenin, which was later known as the communist party.  The formation of the secret police which was known as Cheka by the bolsheviks after the revolution which helped Lenin to establish his powers in Russia.  Distribution of the farmland to the farmers and factories to the workers.  Nationalization of the banks and formation of the council at a national level to run the economy.  Russia pulls itself out of World War I with the treaty of Brest - Litovsk.  The end of the rule of Czars with the execution of Nicholas II, his wife, and children.  Cruel methods were being adopted by Lenin for both criminals and political prisoners.  The decrease in industrial production was seen and skilled workers fled the country.  The civil war from 1918 to 1920. Conclusion Thus, here we have covered the Russian revolution and its related concepts in detail. The Russian revolution took place in the year 1917. We have learned about the series of events that lead to the occurrence of this revolution, what caused the Russian revolution and what were its consequences, what was Cheka in Russia after the revolution, etc. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

39 Question: What were the causes for the rise of Nazism in Germany? Ans – Introduction: - The roots of Nazism in Germany could be traced to her defeat in the First World War and with the imposition of the extremely harsh Treaty of Versailles. The treaty aggravated German nationalism to a great extent as it was a serious attempt by victors to brought Germany to its knees so that she could never start a war again. Rise of Nazism in Germany: - Nazism has its roots peculiarly in Germany. It had been traced as part of Prussian tradition that was developed by Frederick William I, Otto von Bismark and Federick the Great. They had shown a military spirit and had created a line of discipline in the Prussian army. It had set a model for all civic life. The addition of political romanticism and sharp rationalism has underlined the principles of the French Revolution. These German traditions had influenced the viewpoint of Hitler. Despite these several Austrian movements professed political sentiments and that led to his childhood sufferings. The hatred against Jews, slaves’ contentment and his furious nationalism was the result of his traumatic experience. Political Instability in Germany: Under the Weimar Republic, there existed political instability. Between 1919 and 1933, as many as twenty-one coalition governments rose and fell. Policies changed frequently. Democracy failed to give any relief to the people. Hitler promised a stable and strong government. He won the support of the people. Humiliating Treaty of Versailles: The treaty of Versailles was a very harsh and humiliating treaty for Germany. The German patriots did not want to sign it, but they had to do so due to the undue pressure of the Allies over them. The Germans were, therefore, discontented with this treaty. Hitler was the greatest opponent of the Treaty of Versailles. He made it known All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

40 to the people of Germany that the republican government had committed a blunder by accepting the harsh conditions of the treaty of Versailles. He assured the Germans to rectify the mistakes of the republicans. He bitterly opposed that condition of the treaty, by which Germany had been held responsible for the war, therefore, a heavy amount had been imposed upon her as war indemnity. According to him, this condition was an attack on the national glory and prestige of Germany. Since the Republicans had accepted the responsibility of the war and of paying the war indemnity, it was to be treated, according to Hitler, as a crime of political treachery. Economic Crisis: The most important cause of the success of the Nazi Party was the economic depression of 1929-30. Every class in Germany was discontented in this period and the Nazis succeeded in exploiting their discontent. In June 1931, debts on farmers had risen to three hundred million dollars. Hitler promised the farmers to condone this amount. Big capitalists out of the fear of communism were supporting Hitler. He won over some of the capitalists by promising that industries would not be nationalised. The small shopkeepers had to suffer heavy losses in competition with large stores. So, they were promised that large stores would be immediately socialized. He also won over the people who had lost their income due to the devaluation of a mark by raising their hopes of prosperity. The most important class whose support he had won was that of the unemployed who numbered more than 5 million in 1930. Fear of Communism: The communists in Germany tried to stage a revolution on the pattern of the Soviet Revolution of 1917. Hitler feared that if the communists succeeded in their plans, then it would result in Germany acting as a satellite of Soviet Russia. So he exposed All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

41 the communists before the people. As a result, they preferred to join the Nazi Part than the Communist Party. Anti-Semitic Propaganda: From the time of German defeat in the First World War the feeling that the Jews were responsible for it had gained currency among the people of Germany. Though the Jews were not more than one per cent of the German population, they dominated politics, business, trade and the arts. They were the most prosperous clan in Germany. They owned large industries but the common people hated them as exploiters. The Jews enjoyed a prominent place in several fields of public life. Hitler took advantage of this anti-Semitic feeling of the people and promised to expel the Jews from the country and to hand over their factories to the unemployed. So the unemployed began to support the Nazi Party. The Personality of Hitler: Hitler possessed an attractive personality. He was an effective orator. He believed in the principle of propagation. He repeated his principles and ideology before the people. He had established effective control over the means of advertisement and propaganda. The principles of the Nazi Party had been disseminated among the public through these means. His Propaganda Minister, Goebbels, was also an influential orator. He assisted Hitler considerably. Thus, the attractive personality of Hitler and his spellbinding oratory contributed a lot to the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

42 Question - Discuss the emergence of anti-colonial struggles after the world wars. Answer – Introduction: - The end of World War II had sparked a multitude of anti-colonial movements towards achieving self-determination. Decolonisation had thus been a national liberation project: it was organised along the lines of nationalism in order to challenge the colonial powers and dismantle their empires. Indonesia as an anti-colonial struggle after the world wars:- In Indonesia, freedom fighter Ahmed Sukarno (1901-1970) propounded five principles of national independence like the Indian National Congress in Indonesia in the 1920s – faith in God, Humanism, national independence, democracy and social justice (which meant central economic guidance and redistribution of wealth). The Muslims (the majority religious community) agreed to be ruled by the centralized Indonesian nation on the condition that they would retain some local control, especially in religious matters. In the 1950s, the Sukans also started a communist mass movement inspired by the Chinese, but established a dictatorship in 1959, although they accepted the legitimacy of the communist movement. In 1965, the Sukans' internal enemies (mainly military officers) overthrew them and began cracking down on Indonesian communists, killing thousands. The Soviet Union watched from the sidelines, while the US secretly helped military officers. Until recently there was a military dictatorship in Indonesia. The Indonesian National Revolution, or War of Indonesian Independence, was an armed struggle and diplomatic conflict between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during postwar and postcolonial Indonesia. This occurred between Indonesia's declaration of independence in 1945 and the Netherlands' recognition of Indonesia's independence in late 1949. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

43 The four-year conflict involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and sectarian upheaval, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces (and, for a time, the Allied forces of World War II) were able to control major towns, cities and industrial assets in the republican heartland on Java and Sumatra, but could not control the countryside. By 1949, international pressure on the Netherlands mounted, with the United States threatening to cut off all economic aid to the Netherlands' reconstruction efforts for World War II, and a partial military standoff became such that it recognized Indonesian independence The revolution marked the end of colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, except for New Guinea. It significantly changed ethnic castes as well as reducing the power of many local rulers (rajas). This did not significantly improve the economic or political fortunes of most of the population, although some Indonesians were able to gain a greater role in commerce. Nationalist movement in Indonesia: - Indonesia is a large group of islands south of India. Java and Sumatra are its main islands. In terms of minerals, Indonesia is the world's richest country after America and Russia. Before World War II, the Dutch had control over Indonesia. During the war, this area came under the authority of Japan. During the Japanese control in Indonesia, the wave of independence was gaining momentum. Immediately after the surrender of Japan, on August 17, 1945, the establishment of the \"Republic of Independent India\" was announced. After Japan left Indonesia, the Dutch wanted to re-establish their authority over it. Allied forces also came to Indonesia to help the Dutch. The people of the country strongly opposed it. The liberation movement went on in full swing in Indonesia. A war broke out between the Dutch forces and the nationalist forces. The civil war continued for four years. In the end, due to the pressure of the United Nations and All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

44 world public opinion, the Dutch government had to make Indonesia independent. On May 27, 1949, the Republic of Indonesia was established. Anti-colonial struggles of Indonesians: - The feeling of nationalism in Indonesian started gaining momentum in the twentieth century itself. From time to time, events happening in the world continued to strengthen it, but the Dutch government continued to crush the national movement. The establishment of the Indonesian Nationalist Party did worry him a bit. Therefore, in 1927-31 AD, he presented the plan of constitutional reforms to the Indonesians. On the other hand, the educated class started to be engaged in civil service. The national movement got a little weak due to these reforms. But when Japan occupied Indonesian in March, 1945 AD, its national movement took a new turn. Japan had taken over for the purpose of using the natural resources of Indonesia and expanding its empire in Asia, but the main objective of Japan was to create a feeling of hatred towards the Dutch people in the minds of the Indonesians. He elevated the nationalist leaders here to high positions. Apart from this, the Japanese government did not create any hindrance in the development of their nationalism. Therefore, until the end of the Second World War, Indonesians did not face any difficulty in their national development. But when Japan was defeated in August, 1945 AD, with that came trouble for Indonesian nationalism. As soon as Japan was defeated, the Dutch government again tried to establish authority over Indonesian. Holland got help from England in this. But the Indonesians fiercely faced the imperialist Dutch and in August 1945, its leaders declared independence in their country. Dr. Sukarno was made the Vice President. A national committee of 135 members was formed to assist him. This further fuelled nationalism in Indonesian. They did not allow the people of Holland and England to set foot in their country. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

45 Finally, on November 15, 1945, the Dutch government was forced to make a Lingayat agreement with India. Under this agreement, it was planned to form a federal government of all the islands of Indonesia, but this agreement was not implemented for a long time. Rise of National Feeling in Indonesia: - National awakening among the residents of Indonesia took place late. The reason for this is the presence of people of different castes and religions here. Most of the population was of Muslims who were illiterate. The Dutch government had not made proper development of education in India. Indonesia is made up of various islands. Those islands are located far apart from each other. The Sultans who ruled them used to fight with each other. Those sultans also went under the dominion of the Dutch government. Their position was exactly the same as that of the native kings during the foreign rule in India. Therefore, they too could not see the development of nationalism in their own country. Nevertheless, the Dutch government could not stop the growth of nationalism for long. From the beginning of the twentieth century, the development of nationalism had started here. After the First and Second World War, such incidents took place in the neighbouring countries of Asia in the world, in which the nationalism in Indonesia became fierce. The main motivating factors of this nationalism are the following- Due to the rise of nationalism and anti-colonial struggle in Indonesia - 1. State Revolution of France- The State Revolution of France propounded the principle of equality, liberty and fraternity. In the Netherlands, the government was operating on these principles, but in Indonesia all these three principles had completely disappeared. For this reason, the feeling prevailed among the residents of Indonesia that this foreign government should implement the same principles here too. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

46 2. Atrocities of the Dutch government- The Dutch government resorted to harsh repression policy to maintain its dominance in Indonesia. The Dutch invaded the islands of Java, Sumatra and Bali. After the victory, the residents there were brutally crushed. The rebellion in Java (1825 AD) was brutally suppressed. Various types of atrocities were done to crush the rebellion of Moluccas. The result of these atrocities was that the people of Indonesia started hating the Dutch. Started trying to get them out of their country. 3. Economic exploitation of Indonesia- England exploited its colonies, France and Portugal also did it. But the Portuguese were God-fearing and the English had humanity, but the Dutch lacked both. Exploitation in Indonesia was the aim of his administration. He did not take care of the welfare, progress and development of the people of Indonesia at all. With the aim of making his country and countrymen prosperous, he forced the farmers of Indonesia to cultivate rice and sugarcane instead of rubber and spices. 4. To create mutual division and conflict among the permanent rulers- The local rulers of Indonesia were also independent among themselves like the native kings of India, but still they used to quarrel with each other. Like the British, the Dutch also adopted the divide and rule policy. He made the rulers of this place fight among themselves. The Dutch government also interfered in their internal affairs. 5. Enthusiasm of Islam- The dominance of Arab traders did not last long on Indonesia and they did not hold political power here either. But he did a good job of propagating and spreading Islam here. In Indonesia, the flag of Islam fell everywhere except the island of Bali. Even today, the majority of the population of Indonesia is of Muslims only. All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/

47 6. National movement in the countries of Africa and Asia- India had the most impact on Indonesia since ancient times. The national movement was gaining momentum in India since the beginning of the 20th century. Therefore, it was natural for his influence to fall on Indonesia. Japan had become a progressive country in Asia. He also had good relations with Indonesia. In 1917, there was Bolshevik revolution in Russia. The communist government of Russia expressed its willingness to help every country in Asia to get rid of Western imperialism. There was a movement in Java in 1926 AD. Russia's hand is also considered in that. Conclusion: - Countries that adopt colonialism do so primarily to benefit economically from the exploitation of the colonized country's valuable natural and human resources. In contrast, countries pursue imperialism in the hope of creating vast empires by expanding their political, economic, and military dominance over entire regions, if not entire continents. Some examples of countries considered to be influenced by colonialism include the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, Algeria, and Brazil countries that were controlled by large numbers of settlers from European powers. Typical examples of imperialism, cases in which foreign control is established without significant agreement, include the European domination of most African countries in the late 1800s and the United States' domination of the Philippines and Puerto Rico. Question - How did the Suffragette movement contribute to women's rights in England? Answer – Introduction: - A movement to fight for women's right to vote in the United Kingdom finally succeeded through acts of Parliament in 1918 and 1928. It became a national movement in the Victorian era. Women were not explicitly banned from voting in All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/