JEE-Physics FRICTION Whenever surfaces in contact are pressing each other slide or tend to slide over each other, opposing forces are generated tangentially to the surfaces in contact. These tangential forces, which oppose sliding or tendency of sliding between two surfaces are called frictional forces. Frictional forces on both bodies constitute third law action-reaction pair. Types of Friction Before we proceed further into detailed account of frictional phenomena, it is advisable to become familiar with different types of frictional forces. All types of frictional phenomenon can be categorized into dry friction, fluid friction, and internal friction. Dry Friction It exists when two solid un-lubricated surfaces are in contact under the condition of sliding or tendency of sliding. It is also known as Coulomb friction. Fluid Friction Fluid friction is developed when adjacent layers of a fluid move at different velocities and gives birth to phenomena, which we call viscosity of the fluid. Resistance offered to motion of a solid body in a fluid also comes in this category and commonly known as viscous drag. We will study this kind of friction in fluid mechanics. Internal Friction When solid materials are subjected to deformation, internal resistive forces developed because of relative movement of different parts of the solid. These internal resistive forces constitute a system of force, which is defined as internal friction. They always cause loss of energy. Frictional forces exist everywhere in nature and result in loss of energy that is primarily dissipated in form of heat. Wear and tear of moving bodies is another unwanted result of friction. Therefore, sometimes, we try to reduce their effects – such as in bearings of all types, between piston and the inner walls of the cylinder of an IC engine, flow of fluid in pipes, and aircraft and missile propulsion through air. Though these examples create a negative picture of frictional forces, yet there are other situations where frictional forces become essential and we try to maximize the effects. It is the friction between our feet and the earth surface, which enables us to walk and run. Both the traction and braking of wheeled vehicles depend on friction. Types of Dry Friction In mechanics of non-deformable bodies, we are always concerned with the dry friction. Therefore, we often drop the word “dry” and simply call it friction. To understand nature of friction let us consider a box of weight W W Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 placed on a horizontal rough surface. The forces acting on the box N are its weight and reaction from the horizontal surface. They are shown in the figure. The weight does not have any horizontal component, so the reaction of the horizontal surface on the box is normal to the surface. It is represented by N in the figure. The box is in equilibrium therefore both W and N are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and collinear. Now suppose the box is being pulled by a gradually increasing horizontal force F to slide the box. Initially when the force F is small enough, the box does not slide. This can only be explained if we assume a frictional force, which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied force F acts on the box. The force F produces in the box a tendency of sliding and the friction force is opposing this tendency of sliding. The frictional force developed before sliding initiates is defined as static friction. It opposes tendency of sliding. 20 E
JEE-Physics W F W F fs f sm fs = F N fsm = F N Static Friction Limiting friction: The maximum Static Friction As we increase F, the box remains stationary until a value of F is reached W F fk when the box starts sliding. Before the box starts sliding, the static friction increases with F and counterbalances F until the static friction reaches its maximum value known as limiting friction or maximum static friction f . N sm When the box starts sliding, to maintain it sliding still a force F is needed to Kinetic friction over come frictional force. This frictional force is known as kinetic friction (f ). k It always opposes sliding. D r y F r ic tio n S t a t ic F r ic t io n Kinetic Friction O p po se s ten de n c y o f slidin g O p po se s slid in g a n d h a s a c o n sta n t characteristic value. Laws of Friction When a normal force N exists between two surfaces, and we try to slide them over each other, the force of static friction (f ) acts before sliding initiates. It can have a value maximum up to the limiting friction (f ). s sm fs fsm The limiting friction is experimentally observed proportional to the normal reaction between surfaces in contact. fsm s N Here S is the constant of proportionality. It is known as the coefficient of static friction for the two surfaces involved. When sliding starts between the surfaces, the frictional Friction Static Friction Kinetic Friction force rapidly drops to a characteristic value, which always opposes the sliding. This characteristic frictional fsm fk force is known as kinetic friction (f ). Kinetic friction is k experimentally found proportional to the normal reaction between surfaces in contact. fk k N Tangentially applied force F Here k is the constant of proportionality. It is known as the coefficient of kinetic friction for the two surfaces involved. Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 The frictional forces between any pair of surfaces are decided by the respective coefficients of friction. The coefficients of friction are dimensionless constants and have no units. The coefficient of static fiction (s) is generally larger than the coefficient of kinetic friction (k) but never become smaller; at the most both of them may be equal. Therefore, the magnitude of kinetic friction is usually smaller than the limiting static friction (f ) sm and sometimes kinetic friction becomes equal to the limiting static friction but it can never exceed the limiting friction. The limiting static friction and the kinetic friction between any pair of solid surfaces follow these two empirical laws. • Frictional forces are independent of measured area of contact. • Both the limiting static friction and kinetic friction are proportional to the normal force pressing the surfaces in contact. E 21
JEE-Physics Angle of Friction The angle of friction is the angle between resultant contact force of and normal reaction N, when sliding is initiating. It is denoted by tan fsm sN s N N • For smooth surface = 0 Angle of Repose () A body is placed on an inclined plane and the angle of inclination is gradually increased. At some angle of inclination the body starts sliding down the plane due to gravity. This angle of inclination is called angle of repose (). Angle of repose is that minimum angle of inclination at which a body placed on the inclined starts sliding down due to its own weight. Thus, angle of repose = angle of friction. Example A block of mass 1 kg is at rest on a rough horizontal surface, where coefficients of static and kinetic friction are 0.2 and 0.15. Find the frictional forces if a horizontal force (a) F = 1N (b) F = 1.96 N (c) F = 2.5 N is applied on a block Solution Maximum force of friction is the limiting friction f = 0.2 × 1 × 9.8 N = 1.96 N sm (a) For F = 1 N, F < f sm So, body is in rest means static friction is present and hence f = F= 1 N s (b) For F = 1.96 N, F = fsm = 1.96 N. The block is about to slide, therefore f = 1.96 N (c) For F = 2.5 N, So F > f sm Now body is sliding and kinetic friction acts. Therefore f = f = kN = k mg = 0.15 × 1 × 9.8 = 1.47 N k Example Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Length of a uniform chain is L and coefficient of static friction is between the chain and the table top. Calculate the maximum length of the chain which can hang from the table without sliding. Solution Let y be the maximum length of the chain that can hang without causing the portion of chain on table to slide. Length of chain on the table = (L – y) Weight of part of the chain on table M L y g L M Weight of hanging part of the chain yg L For equilibrium with maximum portion hanging, limiting friction = weight of hanging part of the chain M L y g M yg y L L L 1 22 E
JEE-Physics Example An insect crawls on the inner surface of hemispherical bowl of radius r. If the coefficient of friction between an insect and bowl is and the radius of the bowl is r, find the maximum height to which the insect can crawl up. Solution The insect can crawl up, the bowl till the component of its weight tangent to the bowl is balanced by limiting frictional force. Fn 0 N mg cos ...(i) F 0 fsm mgin ...(ii) Force of limiting friction f = N ...(iii) ...(iv) sm From equation (i), (ii) and (iii), tan = h r r cos r 1 1 1 2 Example A body of mass M is kept on a rough horizontal ground (static friction coefficient = s). A person is trying to pull the body by applying a horizontal force F, but the body is not moving. What is the contact force between the ground and the block. Solution Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Therefore Mg R Mg 1+ 2s Example A block rest on a rough inclined plane as shown in fig. A horizontal force F is applied to it (a) Find the force of normal reaction, (b) Can the force of friction be zero, if yes when? and (c) Assuming that friction is not zero find its magnitude and direction of its limiting value. 23 E
JEE-Physics Solution (a) Fy 0 N mg cos F sin (b) Fx 0 F cos mg sin F mg tan (c) Limiting friction fsm = µN = µ (mgcos + Fsin); It acts down the plane if body has tendency to slide up and acts up the plane if body has tendency to slide down. Example Two blocks with masses m1=1 kg and m2 = 2 kg are connected by a string and slide down a plane inclined at an angle =45° with the horizontal. The coefficient of sliding friction between m1 and plane is 1=0.4 and that between m2 and plane is 2=0.2. Calculate the common acceleration of the two blocks and the tension in the string. Solution As 2 < 1, block m2 has greater acceleration than m1 if we separately consider the motion of blocks. But they are connected so they move together as a system with common acceleration. So acceleration of the blocks : a = m1 m2 g sin 1m1g cos 2m2g cos m1 m2 1 2 10 1 0.4 1 10 1 0.2 2 10 1 22 2 2 2= = ms–2 12 32 For block m2 : m2gsin – 2m2g cos –T = m2a T = m2gsin – 2m2g cos m2a = 2×10× 1 1 – 2× 22 = 2N 2 – 0.2 × 2 × 10 × 2 32 32 Example Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 A block of mass m rests on a rough horizontal surface as shown in figure (a) and (b). Coefficient of friction between block and surface is . A force F = mg acting at an angle with the vertical side of the block. Find the condition for which block will move along the surface. 24 E
JEE-Physics Solution For (a) : normal reaction N = mg – mg cos frictional force = N = (mg – mg cos ) Now block can be pulled when : Horizontal component of force > frictional force i.e. mg sin > (mg – mg cos ) or 2 sin cos (1 cos ) 22 or 2 sin cos 2 sin2 or cot 22 2 2 For (b) : Normal reaction N = mg + mg cos = mg (1 + cos ) Hence, block can be pushed along the horizontal surface when horizontal component of force > frictional force i.e. mg sin > mg(1 + cos ) or 2 sin cos 2 cos2 tan Example 22 22 A body of mass m rests on a horizontal floor with which it has a coefficient of static friction . It is desired to make the body move by applying the minimum possible force F. Find the magnitude of F and the direction in which it has to be applied. Solution Let the force F be applied at an angle with the horizontal as shown in figure. Fy 0 N = mg – F sin ...(i) N = mg – F sin ...(i) Fx 0 F cos > f F cos > N [as f = N] ...(ii) sm sm Substituting value of N from equation (i) in (ii), F mg ...(iii) (cos sin ) Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 For the force F to be minimum (cos + sin ) must be maximum, mg maximum value of cos + sin is 1 2 so that Fmin 1 2 with = tan–1 () Example A book of 1 kg is held against a wall by applying a force F perpendicular to the wall. If µS = 0.2, what is the minimum value of F ? E 25
JEE-Physics Solution The situation is shown in fig. The forces acting on the book are– ` For book to be at rest it is essential that Mg = fs But fs max = µSN and N = F Mg = µSF F Mg = 1 9.8 = 49 N s 0.2 Example A is a 100 kg block and B is a 200 kg block. As shown in fig., the block A is attached to a string tied to a wall. The coefficient of friction between A and B is 0.2 and the coefficient of friction between B and floor is 0.3. Then calculate the minimum force required to move the block B.(g =10 m/s2). Solution When B is tied to move, by applying a force F, then the frictional forces acting on the block B are f1 and f2 with limiting values, f1 = (µS)AmAg and f2 = (µS)B (mA + mB)g Then minimum value of F should be (for just tending to move), F = f1 + f2 = 0.2 × 100 g + 0.3 × 300 g = 110 g = 1100 N Example In the given figure block A is placed on block B and both are placed A on a smooth horizontal plane. Assume lower block to be sufficiently long. s=0.2,k=0.1 10kg B 20kg F The force F pulling the block B horizontally is increased according to smooth law F = 10t N (a) When does block A start slipping on block B? What will be force F and acceleration just before slipping starts? (b) When F is increased beyond the value obtained in part (a), what will be acceleration of A ? (c) Draw acceleration-time graph. Solution Direction of friction forces Block A moves forward always, due to friction, therefore friction on it must be in Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 A forward direction. f B f F Friction between two adjacent surfaces are equal and opposite because they make Newton's is third law action reaction pair. Range of Value of friction Before slipping starts, friction is static f < 20 N s After slipping starts, friction is kinetic f = 10 N k 26 E
JEE-Physics Maximum possible acceleration A can accelerate only due to friction, its maximum possible acceleration is a (when f = f = 20 N) AM s sm mAg=100N A =A maA=10aAM Block A fsm=20N S o 20 = 1 0 a a = 2 m / s 2 N1=100N AM AM Sequence of slipping : Since ground is smooth, block B first starts slipping on the ground and carries A together with it. When acceleration of A & B becomes equal to a , Block A starts slipping on B. AM ( a ) Just before the moment A starts slipping, both were moving together with acceleration a . AM Considering them as a one body. A A (mA+mB)aAM=60 F=10t B B (On a smooth stationary surface we will not show the normal forces i.e. FBD of combined block showing horizontal forces only). Value of F F = 60 N and Time 10t = 60 t = 6s ( b ) If F is increased beyond 60 N, A slides and kinetic friction acts on it. Now acceleration of A A= A 1 0 = 1 0 a a = 1 m / s 2 fk=10 A 10aA A ( c ) When F < 60 N, both are moving with same acceleration a. We treat them as one body. AA 30a So 10t = 30a a = 1 t 3 B F=10t= B This acceleration increases to a = 2 m/s2, when F = 60 N at t = 6 s. Thereafter A starts slipping and its AM acceleration provided by kinetic friction, drops to a constant value a = 1 m/s2. However acceleration of B keeps A on increasing according to equation 10 B 20aB 11 F=10t 1 0 t – 1 0 = 20a a = t B B 2 2 B= Graph between acceleration and time Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 E 27
JEE-Physics Example Block A is placed on another block B, which rests on a rough horizontal ground. Horizontal force F pulling the block B is increased gradually. A s=0.2, k=0.1 10kg F B 20kg s=0.3, k=0.2 (a) Find the maximum value of F so that no motion occurs. (b) Find maximum F so that A does not slide on B. (c) If F is increased beyond the value obtained in part (b) what are acceleration of both the blocks ? Explain your answer in terms of F. (d) If F is increased according to law F =10t N draw a–t graph Solution Directions of friction forces Range of values of frictional forces A A f = 10 N (A is slipping) 1k f1 f = 20 N (A is not slipping) 1s B F B f1 f2 F f = 60 N (B is slipping) 2k f2 Before B starts slipping After B starts slipping f < 90 N (B is at rest) 2s Maximum possible acceleration : A can move only due to friction. Its maximum possible acceleration is Block A A =A 10aAm aAm=2 m/s2 f1 sm=20 Sequence of slipping : When F > f block B starts slipping on ground and carries block A together with 2s , it till its acceleration reaches value a . Thereafter A also starts slipping on B. AM ( a) F = 90 N ( b ) When A does not slide on B, both move with the same acceleration (a ) and can be treated as one body, which Am can have maximum acceleration a = 2 m/s2. AM A A (10+20)× 2 F =B B F – 60 = 60 F = 120 N f2k=60 ( c ) When F is increased beyond F = 120 N, block A starts sliding and friction between A & B drops to f = 10 Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 1K N. Both the blocks now move with different acceleration so we treat them separate bodies. Now acceleration A also drops to a constant value a . A Acceleration of A : A = A 10aA 10 = 10 a a = 1 m/ s2 A A Acceleration of B : f1k = 10 20aB So F–70 = 20aB a B F 70 f1k=10 20 F= f2k=60 28 E
JEE-Physics ( d ) If F = 10t, values of acceleration of both the blocks in different time intervals are as under: • F < 90 N t < 9 s a = a = 0 AB • 90 N < F < 120 N 9 s < t < 12 s t a = a = 2 A B3 In the interval both the blocks move as one body F=10t = 30a a 10t 60 t 2 30 3 60 • F > 120 N t > 12s a = 1; aB t 3.5 A 2 Example Block A is placed on another block B, which rests on a rough horizontal ground. Horizontal force pulling A is increased gradually A s=0.6, k=0.5 10kg F B 10kg s=0.2,k=0.1 (a) Find maximum F so that none of the blocks move. Which block starts sliding first ? (b) Express acceleration of each block as function of F for all positive values of F. (c) If F=10t draw a-t graph Solution Range of values of friction forces Directions of friction forces f1 F f < 60 N 1s f1 f2 f = 50 N 1k f < 40 N 2s f = 20 N 2k Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 M a x i m u m p o s s i b l e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f B : B l o c k B a c c e l e r a t i o n d u e t o f r i c t i o n o n l y . I t s m a x i m u m a c c e l e r a t i o n i s B f1s=60 B 10aBm 6 0 – 2 0 = 1 0 a a = 4 m / s 2 f2k=20 = m Bm B Sequence of slipping : Smaller, limiting friction is between B and ground so it will start sliding first. Then both will move together till acceleration B reaches its maximum possible values 4 m/s2. Thereafter A starts sliding on B E 29
JEE-Physics ( a ) Till the F reaches the limiting friction between block B and the ground none of the blocks move. AF B =0 F = 40 N f2 Sm=40 (b) If F < 4 0 a = a = 0 ...(i) A B If F > 40 N, block B starts sliding and carries A together with it with the same acceleration till acceleration reach to 4 m/s2. At this moment A starts slipping. Before this moment we may treat both of them as single body. A FA 20aAB F – 20 = 20a a aA aB F 20 B =B AB AB 20 20 When A starts sliding on B, a = a =4, from the above equation, we have F = 100 N. AB When F 100 N block A also starts slipping on B and friction between A & B drops to value 50 N. Now since they move with different acceleration we treat them separately. F 10aA F 50 A =A Block A aA 10 50 Block B 50 10aB a B 50 20 3 m/s2 B =B 10 20 a (m/s2) t–5 = (c) F < 40 N t < 4 s a = a = 0 a AB 5 A 40 < F < 100 4 < t < 10 t 3 aB a = a = –1 4 10 1 t (s) A B2 0 a =t –5, a = 3 m/s2 100 < F t > 10 AB Example Block A is placed on B and B is placed on block C, which rests on smooth horizontal ground as shown in the figure. Block A is pulled horizontally by a force F which increases gradually. A Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 =0.1 10kg B 20kg =0.2 C 30kg F =0 (a) Decide sequence of slipping. (b) If F is increased gradually find acceleration of each block for all values of F. (c) If F = 15t N, draw a–t graph. 30 E
JEE-Physics Solution Direction of friction forces : Range of values of friction forces A f1 f1 f < 10 N (A does not slides on B) 1 B F f1 = 10 N (A slides on B) f2 f < 60 N (B does not slides on C) C 2 f2 f = 60 N (B slides on C) 2 Maximum possible acceleration : Blocks A and B move due to friction forces only, we find their maximum possible acceleration. Block A A = A 10aAm a = 1 m/s2 Am f1sm=10 Block B 10 20aBm a Bm 60 10 2.5 m / s2 B =B 20 60 (a) Sequence of slipping Since ground is smooth the block C starts sliding first A starts slipping on B secondly till that moment all the three blocks move with same acceleration, which can achieve maximum value of a = 1 m/s2. AM Thirdly B starts sliding on C, till that moment B & C move with the same acceleration a = 2.5 m/s2 Bm ( b ) Before A starts slipping, all the three were moving with the same acceleration a = 1 m/s2. We therefore AM treat then as a single body. A A 60aABC F B aABC 60 =B C F C When A starts sliding a < a F < 1 F < 60 N AB C AM 60 When F 60 N, block A starts slipping on B and its acceleration decided by friction f , achieves a constant value 1 a = 1 m/s2. A Now, F is increased beyond 60 N and B and C will continue to move together till their acceleration a becomes BC aBm = 2.5 m/s2, when slipping between B and C starts. Till this moment, we treat B and C as one body. Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 10 B B (20+30)aBC aBC F 10 C F= C 50 When slipping between B & C starts : a = a F 10 = 2.5 F 135 N BC Bm 50 When F > 135 N, block B also starts slipping on C. Now acceleration of A & B achieves the maximum value a = 2.5 m/s2 and acceleration of block C is decided by F. Bm E 31
JEE-Physics 60 F = C 30aC F 60 C F – 60 = 30 aC aC = 30 Acceleration of blocks for different values of force. • F 60 N a = a = a = a = F A B C ABC 60 • 60 < F 135 N a = a = 1 m/s2, a = a = a = F 10 A Am B C BC 50 • 135 < F a = a =1, a = a = 2.5, and a = F 60 A Am B Bm C 30 (c) If F = 15t a(m/s2) • F 60 t 4 s Ft t–2 a = a = a = = = 0.25t 0.5 A B C 60 4 = • 60 < F 135 4 < t 9 a = 1 m/s2 a A C F 10 2.5 0.3t–0.2 aB 2 aA a = a = = 0.3t – 0.2 1 0.25t t(s) BC 50 • 135 < F 9 < t a = 1 m/s2 A 4s 9s a = 2.5 m/s2 B F 60 aC = 30 = 0.5t – 2 Inertial and Non-inertial Reference Frames Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 A body is observed in motion, when it changes its position or orientation relative to another body or another set of bodies. A frame of reference consists of a set of coordinate axes fixed with the body relative to which the motion is observed and a clock. The coordinate axes are required to measure position of the moving body and the clock is required to measure time. All the kinematical variables position, velocity, and acceleration are measured relative to a reference frame; therefore depend on the state of motion of the reference frame and we say that motion is essentially a relative concept. When the reference frame and a body both are stationary or move identically, the body is observed stationary relative to the reference frame. It is only when the reference frame and the body move in different manner, the body is observed moving relative the reference frame. Now think about the whole universe where the planets, stars, galaxies and other celestial bodies all are in motion relative to each other. If any one of them can be assumed in state of rest, we can attach a reference frame to it and define motion of all other bodies relative to it. Such a body, which we assume in state of rest with respect to all other bodies in the universe, is known in absolute rest and the reference frame attached to it as most preferred reference frame. Unfortunately, the very notion of the reference frame and the idea motion as a relative concept, make it impossible to find a body anywhere in the universe at absolute rest. Therefore, the idea of absolute rest and a preferred reference frame become essentially meaningless. Now we can have only two categories of reference frames. In one category, we can have reference frames that move with uniform velocities and in the other category; we can have reference frames that are in accelerated motion. To understand the above ideas let us think an experiment. Consider a closed container on a goods train either at rest or moving with constant velocity v on a level track. The floor of the container is smooth and a block is o placed in the center of the container. We observe the situation relative to two reference frames, one fixed with 32 E
JEE-Physics the ground and other fixed with the container. Relative to the ground frame both the container and the block are at rest or move together with the same velocity and relative to the container frame the block is at rest as shown in the figure. vo a t=0s 1 at 2 2 vot 1 at2 a vot 1 at2 2 2 1 at2 t s Uniformly moving container accelerates 2 Container accelerates from restNode-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Now let the driver of the train accelerates the container at uniform rate a. If the train were initially at rest, relative to the ground, the block remains at rest and the container moves forward. Relative to the container the block moves backwards with the same magnitude of acceleration as with the container moves forward. If the train were initially moving uniformly, relative to the ground the block continues to move with the same original velocity and train accelerates and becomes ahead in space. Relative to the container the block appears moving backward with acceleration that is equal in magnitude to the acceleration of the container. Now consider a man sitting on a fixed chair in the container. He is always stationary relative to the container. If he does not look outs side, in no way he can know whether the container is at rest or moving uniformly. However, he can definitely say whether the container accelerates or not, by observing motion of the block relative to the container. Because net forces acting on the block are still zero, therefore observed acceleration of the block can only be due to acceleration of the container as per Newton’s laws of motion. Now we can conclude that there can be only two kinds of reference frames either non-accelerated or accelerated. The reference frames that are non-accelerated i.e. at rest or moving with uniform velocities are known as inertial reference frames and those in accelerated motion as non-inertial reference frames. Inertial Reference Frames and Newton’s laws of motion In Newton’s laws of motion, force is conceived as two-body interaction that can be the only agent producing acceleration in a body. As far as we observe motion of a body from an inertial frame, any acceleration observed in a body can only be due to some forces acting on the body. All the three laws are in perfect agreement with the observed facts and we say that all the laws holds true in inertial reference frames. Non-Inertial Reference Frames and Newton’s laws of motion A body if at rest or in uniform velocity motion relative to some inertial frame net forces acting on it must be zero. Now if motion of the same body is observed relative to a non-inertial frame, it will be observed moving with acceleration that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the acceleration of the non-inertial frame. This observed acceleration of the body is purely a kinematical effect. But to explain this observed acceleration relative to the non-inertial frame according to Newton’s laws of motion, we have assume a force must be acting on the body. This force has to be taken equal to product of mass of the body and opposite of acceleration vector of the non-inertial frame. Since this force is purely an assumption and not a result of interaction of the body with any other body, it is a fictitious force. This fictitious force is known as pseudo force or inertial force. E 33
JEE-Physics Until now, we have learnt the idea that how we can apply Newton’s yy laws of motion in non-inertial frame to a body in equilibrium in inertial x ao x A B frame. Now it is turn to discuss how we can apply Newton’s laws of Reference frames A is an inertial frame and B motion to analyze motion in non-inertial frame of a body, which is in is a n o n in e rtia l fr a m e . accelerated motion relative to an inertial frame. Consider a net physical force F in positive x-direction applied on the box. Here by the term physical force, we refer forces produced by two body interactions. Relative to inertial frame A, the box is F = ma ma observed to have an acceleration / m defined by the second a F law of motion and a force equal in magnitude and opposite in A n e t ph y sic a l fo rce im p a rts a c ce le ra tio n to the box in inertial frame A. direction to F can be assigned to the body exerting F on the box constituting Newton’s third law pair. All the three laws of motion hold equally well in inertial frame A. F Fo maB Relative to non-inertial frame B, the box is observed moving in A net physical force and pseudo force imparts a cce le ra tio n to th e b ox in n on -in e rtia l fra m e B . x-direction with acceleration a B a a o , which can satisfy Newton’s second law, only if the fictitious force Fo mao is assumed acting together with the net physical force F as shown in the figure. Now we can write modified equation of Newton’s second law in non- inertial frame. F Fo maB F Fo ma B From the above discussion, we can conclude that in non-inertial frames Newton’s second law is made applicable by introducing pseudo force in addition to physical forces. The pseudo force equals to the product of mass of the concerned body and the acceleration of the frame of reference in a direction opposite to the acceleration of the frame of reference. Practical inertial frame of reference Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 The definition of an inertial frame of reference is based on the concept of a free body in uniform velocity motion or absolute rest. It is impossible to locate a body anywhere in the universe, where forces from all other bodies exactly balance themselves and lead to a situation of uniform velocity motion according to the first law. Thus, we cannot find anywhere in the universe a body, to which we attach a frame of reference and say that it is a perfect inertial frame of reference. It is the degree of accuracy, required in analyzing a particular physical situation that decides which body in the universe is to be selected a preferred inertial frame of reference. The earth and other planets of the sun are rotating about their own axis and revolving around the sun and the sun is moving too. In fact, all celestial bodies in the universe the sun, its planets, other stars, our galaxy the Milky Way, and other galaxies are in accelerated motion whose nature is not known exactly. Therefore, none of them can be used as a perfect inertial frame of reference. However, when the acceleration of any one of the above-mentioned celestial bodies becomes negligible as compared to the accelerations involved in a physical situation, a frame of reference attached with the corresponding celestial body may be approximated as an inertial frame of reference and the physical situation under consideration may be analyzed with acceptable degree of accuracy. The centripetal acceleration due to rotation of the earth at any point on its surface varies from zero at the poles to a maximum value of approximately 0.034 m/s2 at the equator. The physical phenomena, which we usually observe describe motion of a body on or near the earth surface such as motion of transport vehicles, short- 34 E
JEE-Physics range missiles, an oscillating pendulum etc. In these phenomena, the acceleration due to rotation of the earth may be neglected and a frame of reference attached at any point on the earth surface may be considered as a preferred inertial frame of reference. If the moving body is at considerable distance from the earth as in the case of satellites, long-range missiles etc., the effect of rotation of the earth become significant. For these situations or like ones we can attach the frame of reference at the earth’s center and consider it as an inertial frame of reference. In astronomical field and space exploration programs, we require very high accuracy. Therefore, a frame of reference attached to distant stars is used as an inertial frame of reference. These stars are situated at such a vast distance from the earth that they appear as a motionless point source of light thus closely approach to the condition of absolute rest. Example A pendulum of mass m is suspended from the ceiling of a train moving with an acceleration 'a' as shown in figure. Find the angle in equilibrium position. Solution Non–inertial frame of reference (Train) Tcos T ma mg' mg O' ma a Tsin F.B.D. of bob mg F.B.D. of bob w.r.t. train. (physical forces + pseudo force) : with respect to train, bob is in equilibrium Fy = 0 T cos = mg and Fx = 0 T sin = ma tan a tan 1 a g g Example The weight of a body is simply the force exerted by earth on the body. If body is on an accelerated platform, the body experiences fictitious force, so the weight of the body appears changed and this new weight is called apparent weight. Let a man of weight W = Mg be standing in a lift. We consider the following cases : (a) (b) (c) (d) a > g a=0 a a<g g g g g Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 W´ = M(g – a) W´ = –M (g – a) (Negative) W´ = Mg W´ = M(g + a) Case If the lift moving with constant velocity v upwards or downwards. In this case there is no accelerated (a) motion hence no pseudo force experienced by observer inside the lift. So apparent weight W´ = Mg Actual weight. E 35
JEE-Physics ( b ) If the lift is accelerated upward with constant acceleration a. Then net forces acting on the man are (i) weight W = Mg downward (ii) fictitious force F0=Ma downward. So apparent weight W´ = W + F0 = Mg + Ma = M(g + a) ( c ) If the lift is accelerated downward with acceleration a < g . Then fictitious force F0 = Ma acts upward while weight of man W = Mg always acts downward. So apparent weight W´=W+F0 = Mg – Ma = M(g–a) Special Case : If a = g then W´ = 0 (condition of weightlessness).Thus, in a freely falling lift the man will experience weightlessness. ( d ) If lift accelerates downward with acceleration a > g . Then as in Case c . Apparent weight W´ =M(g– a) is negative, i.e., the man will be accelerated upward and will stay at the ceiling of the lift. Example A spring weighing machine inside a stationary lift reads 50 kg when a man stands on it. What would happen to the scale reading if the lift is moving upward with (i) constant velocity, and (ii) constant acceleration? Solution (i) In the case of constant velocity of lift, there is no fictitious force; therefore the apparent weight = actual weight. Hence the reading of machine is 50 kgwt. (ii) In this case the acceleration is upward, the fictitious force ma acts downward, therefore apparent weight is more than actual weight i.e. W´= m (g + a). Hence scale shows a reading = m (g + a) = mg 1 a 50 50a kg wt. g g g Example Two objects of equal mass rest on the opposite pans of an arm balance. Does the scale remain balanced when it is accelerated up or down in a lift? Solution Yes, since both masses experience equal fictitious forces in magnitude as well as direction. Example A passenger on a large ship sailing in a quiet sea hangs a ball from the ceiling of her cabin by means of a long thread. Whenever the ship accelerates, she notes that the pendulum ball lags behind the point of suspension and so the pendulum no longer hangs vertically. How large is the ship’s acceleration when the pendulum stands at an angle of 5° to the vertical? Solution T cos T The ball is accelerated by the force T sin5°. Therefore T sin5° = ma 5° Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Vertical component F = 0, so T cos5° = mg T ma 5° ma FBD of ball T sin By solving a = g tan 5° = 0.0875 g = 0.86 m/s² mg mg 36 E
JEE-Physics Example Consider the figure shown here of a moving cart C. If the coefficient of friction between the block A and the cart is µ, then calculate the minimum acceleration a of the cart C so that the block A does not fall. Solution The forces acting on the block A (in block A’s frame (i.e. non inertial frame) are : For A to be at rest in block A’s frame i.e. no fall, We require W = fs mg = µ(ma) Thus a = g Example A block of mass 1kg lies on a horizontal surface in a truck, the coefficient of static friction between the block and the surface is 0.6, What is the force of friction on the block. If the acceleration of the truck is 5 m/s2. Solution Fictitious force on the block F = ma = 1 × 5 = 5N While the limiting friction force F = sN = Smg = 0.6 × 1 × 9.8 = 5.88 N As applied force F lesser than limiting friction force. The block will remain at rest in the truck and the force of friction will be equal to 5N and in the direction of acceleration of the truck. Dynamics of Circular Motion a Velocity vector points always tangent to the path and continuously change its P direction, as a particle moves on a circular path even with constant speed and give rise to normal component of acceleration, which always points toward ac the center of the circular path. This component of acceleration is known as centripetal (center seeking) acceleration and denoted by a . Moreover, if speed C c The centripetal and tangential accelerations also changes the particle will have an additional acceleration component along Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 the tangent to the path. This component of acceleration is known as tangential acceleration and denoted by a The centripetal acceleration accounts only for continuous change in the direction of motion whereas the tangential acceleration accounts only for change in speed. v Consider a particle moving on circular path of radius r. It passes point O P with velocity v at the instant t = 0 and point P with velocity v at the instant t r s o O C traveling distance s along the path and angular displacement as shown in the figure. Kinematics of this circular motion is described in terms of linear variables as well as angular variables. E 37
JEE-Physics Kinematics of Circular Motion An g u la r Va r ia b l es Lin e a r V a r ia b l e s Distance traveled s A n g ula r disp la ce m e n t ds Angular velocity d Speed v dt dt d d2 d dv d2s dv Angular acceleration dt2 dt d Tangential acceleration a dt dt2 v ds v2 Centripetal acceleration aC r Relations between angular and linear variable in circular motion Distance traveled s = r Speed v = r Tangential acceleration a = ar Centripetal acceleration aC v2 2r v r Application of Newton’s law in Circular Motion v Consider a particle of mass m moving with uniform speed v in a circle Fc mac of radius r as shown in figure. It necessarily posses a centripetal acceleration and hence there must be a net force F FC acting always towards the center according to the second law. This net force F acting towards the center is known as centripetal force. C F ma FC maC When a particle is whirled with the help of a string in a horizontal circle, the required centripetal force is the tension in the string. The gravitational attraction between a satellite and the earth, between moon and the earth, between the sun and its planets, and the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and electrons are the centripetal forces and provide the necessary centripetal acceleration. Now consider a particle moving on circular path with varying speed. The net acceleration has two components, the tangential acceleration and the centripetal acceleration. Therefore, the net force must also have two components, one component in tangential direction to provide the tangential acceleration and the other component towards the center to provide the centripetal acceleration. The former one is known as tangential force and the latter one as centripetal force. v ma v ma Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 F T F T ma T ma T C C F F C C Particle moving with increasing speed. Particle moving with decreasing speed. When the particle moves with increasing speed the tangential force acts in the direction of motion and when the particle moves with decreasing speed the tangential force acts in direction opposite to direction of motion. To write equations according to the second law, we consider the tangential and the radial directions as two 38 E
JEE-Physics mutually perpendicular axes. The components along the tangential and the radial directions are designated by subscripts T and C. F = ma CC F = ma TT Example In free space, a man whirls a small stone P of mass m with the help C of a light string in a circle of radius R as shown in the figure. Establish R the relation between the speed of the stone and the tension developed in the string. Also, find the force applied on the string by the man. v P Solution. The system is in free space therefore no force other than the tension acts on the stone to provide necessary centripetal force. The tension does not have any component in tangential direction therefore tangential component of acceleration is zero. In the adjoining figure it is shown that how tension (T) in the string produces necessary centripetal force. Applying Newton’s second law of motion to the stone, we have mv2 FC ma C T ma C R CT ma c The end where man holds the string is stationary and tension applied by the string to this end is T towards the stone, therefore the man must apply a force equal to the tension in magnitude but in a direction away from the stone. mv2 T R Example A boy stands on a horizontal platform inside a cylindrical container of radius R resting his back on the inner surface of the container. The container can be rotated about the vertical axis of symmetry. The coefficient of static friction between his back and the inner surface of the container is s. The angular speed of the container is gradually increased. Find the minimum angular speed at which if the platform below his feet removed, the boy should not fall. Solution. As the container rotates at angular speed the boy moves in a circular path of radius R with a speed v = R. Since the angular speed is increased gradually the angular acceleration can be ignored and hence the tangential acceleration of the boy too. Thus, the boy has a centripetal acceleration of 2R, provided by the normal reaction N applied by the wall of the container. The weight of the boy is balanced by the force of static friction. All these force are shown in the adjoining figure where the boy is shown schematically by a rectangular box of mass m. fs y x N m2R Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 mg Fx ma x N m2R ...(i) Fy ma y fs mg ...(ii) Since force of static friction cannot be greater than the limiting friction SN, we have fs sN ...(iii) g From the above equations, the minimum angular speed is min sR E 39
JEE-Physics Example A motorcyclist wishes to travel in circle of radius R on horizontal ground and increases speed at constant rate a. The coefficient of static and kinetic frictions between the wheels and the ground are and . What maximum sk speed can he achieve without slipping? Solution. The motorcyclist and the motorcycle always move together hence v they can be assumed to behave as a single rigid body of mass equal a to that of the motorcyclist and the motorcycle. Let the mass of this a body is m. The external forces acting on it are its weight (mg), the normal reaction N on wheels from ground, and the force of static C friction fs. The body has no acceleration in vertical direction therefore; the normal reaction N balances the weight (mg). C N = mg ...(i) The frictional force cannot exceed the limiting friction. fsm sN ...(ii) During its motion on circular path, the only external force in c horizontal plane is the force of static friction, which is responsible to F provide the body necessary centripetal and tangential acceleration. f ma These conditions are shown in the adjoining figure where forces in vertical direction are not shown. s ma F = ma ...(iii) F ma C C mv2 CC FC ma C r ...(iv) The above two forces are components of the frictional force in tangential and normal directions. Therefore, we have fs F2 FC2 m a 2 a 2 ...(v) C The centripetal acceleration increases with increase in speed and the tangential acceleration remains constant. Therefore, their resultant increases with speed. At maximum speed the frictional force achieves its maximum value (limiting friction f ), therefore from eq. (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), and (v), we have sm v r2 1 sg 2 a2 4 Circular Turning of Roads When vehicles go through turnings, they travel along a nearly circular arc. There must be some force which will produce the required centripetal acceleration. If the vehicles travel in a horizontal circular path, this resultant force is also horizontal. The necessary centripetal force is being provided to the vehicles by following three ways: • By friction only. • By banking of roads only. • By friction and banking of roads both. In real life the necessary centripetal force is provided by friction and banking of roads both. • By Friction only Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Suppose a car of mass m is moving at a speed v in a horizontal circular arc of radius r. In this case, the necessary centripetal force to the car will be provided by force of friction f acting towards centre. Thus, f = mv f =N = mg r max Therefore, for a safe turn without sliding mv2 fmax mv2 mg v rg r r 40 E
JEE-Physics • By Banking of Roads only N Friction is not always reliable at circular turns if high speeds and sharp turns are involved. To avoid dependence on friction, the roads are banked at the turn so that the outer part of the road is some what lifted compared to the inner part. mg v2 rg N sin = mv2 and N cos mg tan v rg tan r • Friction and Banking of Road both N f If a vehicle is moving on a circular road which is rough and banked also, then three forces may act on the vehicle, of these the first force, mg i.e., weight (mg) is fixed both in magnitude and direction. The direction of second force, i.e., normal reaction N is also fixed (perpendicular to road) while the direction of the third force, i.e., friction f can be either inwards or outwards while its magnitude can be varied upto a maximum limit (fmax = N ). So, the magnitude of normal reaction N and direction plus mv2 magnitude of friction f are so adjusted that the resultant of the three forces mentioned above is towards the r centre. Conical Pendulum If a small particle of mass m tied to a string is whirled in a horizontal circle, as shown in figure. The arrangement is called the 'conical pendulum'. In case of conical pendulum the vertical component of tension balances the weight while its horizontal component provides the necessary centripetal force. Thus,, mv2 T sin r and T cos mg v = rg tan Angular speed v g tan rr So, the time period of pendulum is T = 2 = 2 r L cos g tan = 2 g Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Example Find the maximum speed at which a car can turn round a curve of 30 m radius on a level road if the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road is 0.4 [acceleration due to gravity = 10 m/s2] Solution Here centripetal force is provided by friction so mv2 mg v = rg = 120 11 ms–1 max r E 41
JEE-Physics Example For traffic moving at 60 km/hr, if the radius of the curve is 0.1 km, what is the correct angle of banking of the road ? (g = 10 m/s2) Solution In case of banking tan v2 Here v= 60 km/hr = 60 × 5 ms–1 = 50 ms–1 r = 0.1 km = 100 m rg 18 3 50 / 3 50 / 3 5 5 So tan 100 10 = 18 tan 1 18 Example A hemispherical bowl of radius R is rotating about its axis of symmetry which is kept vertical. A small ball kept in the bowl rotates with the bowl without slipping on its surface. If the surface of the bowl is smooth and the angle made by the radius through the ball with the vertical is . Find the angular speed at which the bowl is rotating. Solution Ncos=mg and Nsin = mr2 but r =R sin Nsin = mRsin2 mR2 (mR2) cos = mg g = R cos Example N A car is moving along a banked road laid out as a circle of radius r. (a) What should be the banking angle so that the car travelling at speed v needs no frictional force from the tyres to negotiate the turn? (b) The coefficients of friction between tyres and road are s = 0.9 and k mg Solution = 0.8. At what maximum speed can a car enter the curve without sliding towards the top edge of the banked turn? N mv2 v2 (a) N sin = r and Ncos=mg tan = rg mg Note : In above case friction does not play any role in negotiating the N turn. (b) If the driver moves faster than the speed mentioned above, a friction force must act parallel to the road, inward towards centre of the turn. mv2 f Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Fcos+Nsin= and Ncos = mg + fsin mg r For maximum speed of f = N N cos sin = mv2 and N cos sin = mg r v2 sin cos v= sin cos rg rg = cos sin cos sin 42 E
JEE-Physics SOME WORKED OUT EXAMPLES Example #1 With what acceleration 'a' shown the elevator descends so that the block of mass M exerts a force of Mg on the weighing machine? [ g= acceleration due to gravity] 10 a M weighing machine (A) 0.3 g (B) 0.1 g (C) 0.9 g (D) 0.6 g Solution Ans. (C) N a Mg Mg Mg 10 FBD of block : Mg – N = Ma; Now according to question N = so a = 0.9 g 10 M Mg Example #2 An astronaut accidentally gets separated out of his small spaceship accelerating in inter-stellar space at a constant acceleration of 10 m/s2. What is the acceleration of the astronaut at the instant he is outside the spaceship? (A) 10 m/s2 (B) 9.8 m/s2 (C) 0 m/s2 (D) could be anything Solution Ans. (C) When the astronaut is outside the spaceship, the net external force (except negligible gravitational force due to spaceship) is zero as he is isolated from all interactions. Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Example #3 If the string is pulled down with a force of 120 N as shown in the figure, then the acceleration of 8 kg block would be (A) 10 m/s2 (B) 5 m/s2 120N 8kg (D) 4 m/s2 E (C) 0 m/s2 43
JEE-Physics Ans. (B) Solution 120 FBD of 8 kg block a 120 80 = 5 m/s2 a = 8 8g Example #4 In the shown situation, which of the following is/are possible? F1 m1=60kg K=1000 N/m m2=40kg F2 smooth horizontal\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ surface (A) Spring force = 52 N, if F1 = 40 N and F2 = 60 N Ans. (A,B,D) (B) Spring force = 52 N, if F1 = 60 N and F2 = 40 N (C) Spring force = 0, if F1 = F2 = 100 N (D) Spring force 0, if F1 = 0.2 N and F2 = 0.3 N Solution If F1 F2, then system will move with acceleration so spring force 0 F2 F1 20 1 m/s2 If F1 = 40 N & F2 = 60 N then a = m1 m2 5 100 1 and spring force = F1 + m1a = 40 + 5 (60) = 52 N If F1 = 60 N & F2 = 40 N then spring force = 52 N Example #5 As shown in figure, the left block rests on a table at distance from the edge while the right block is kept at the same level so that thread is unstretched and does not sag and then released. What will happen first ? m m (A) Left block reach the edge of the table (B) Right block hit the table (C) Both (A) & (B) happens at the same time (D) Can't say anything Solution Ans. (A) Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 Net force in horizontal direction is more for left block so it will reach the edge of the table first. Example #6 The force exerted by the floor of an elevator on the foot of a person standing there is less than the weight of the person if the elevator is (A) going up and slowing down (B) going up and speeding up (C) going down and slowing down (D) going down and speeding up Solution Ans. (A,D) If N < mg then N = m (g–a) elevator is going down with acceleration or elevator is going up with retardation. 44 E
JEE-Physics Example #7 If a body is placed on a rough inclined plane, the nature of forces acting on the body is(are) (A) gravitational (B) electromagnetic (C) nuclear (D) weak Solution Ans. (A,B) When a body is placed on a rough inclined plane, it is acted upon by a reactional force due to plane [electromagnetic in nature], a frictional force due to roughness of plane [ electromagnetic in nature] and a gravitational force (due to its weight). Example #8 AB C F1 m1 m2 For shown situation let m F2 3 N = Normal reaction between A & B smooth 1 N = Normal reaction between B & C 2 Which of the following statement (s) is/are correct ? (A) I f F > F the n N N an d F < N1N2 < F (B) If F < F then N > N 1 12 21 1 2 1 2 2 (C) If F = F then N = N (D ) If F = F then N N 12 12 1 1 2 2 Solution Ans. (A, B, C) If F > F , the system moves towards right so N < F , N < N & F < N 12 1 12 1 2 2 F < N or N < F 21 21 If F < F , the system moves towards left so N < N 12 12 If F = F , the system does not move. 12 Example #9 to 11 A smooth pulley P0 of mass 2 kg is lying on a smooth table. A light string passes round the pulley and has masses 1 kg and 3kg attached to its ends. The two portions of the string being perpendicular to the edge of the table so that the masses hang vertically. Pulleys P1 and P2 are of negligible mass. [ g=10m/s2] P0 Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 9 . Tension in string is (B) 6 N P1 (D) 18 N (A) 12 N P2 (D) 6 m/s2 A (D) 8 m/s2 1 0 . Acceleration of pulley P0 is 1kg (A) 2 m/s2 (B) 4 m/s2 B 3kg 1 1 . Acceleration of block A is (B) 4 m/s2 (A) 6 m/s2 (C) 24 N (C) 3 m/s2 (C) 3 m/s2 E 45
JEE-Physics Solution 9. Ans. (B) Let acceleration of P0 = a0; acceleration of A = a1; acceleration of B = a2 By constraint relations a0 = a1 a2 ...(i) 2 Now for pulley P0 : 2T = 2a0 T = a0...(ii) For block A : 1 g – T = 1(a1) 10 – T = a1...(iii) For block B : 3g – T = 3 (a2) 30 – T = 3a2...(iv) By putting the values of a0, a1 & a2 in equation (i) T = 10 T 10 T T = 6N 3 2 10. Ans. (D) Acceleration of pulley; a0 = T = 6 m/s2 11. Ans. (B) Acceleration of block A; a1 = 10–T = 10–6 = 4 m/s2 Example 12 Five situations are given in the figure (All surfaces are smooth) AB II AB F I F m 2m F F 2m m III AB 2F IV AB F F m 2m 2F 2m m V AB F F m 2m Column–I Column–II Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 (A) Accelerations of A & B are same (P) I (B) Accelerations of A & B are different (Q) II (C) Normal reaction between A & B is zero (R) III (D) Normal reaction between A & B is non zero (S) IV (T) V 46 E
JEE-Physics Solution A n s . ( A ) ( P, R , S , T ) ; ( B ) ( Q ) ; ( C ) ( Q , R , S ) ; ( D ) ( P, T ) FF I : a = a = 0 & N 0 II : a = , a = & N = 0 A B A 2m B m F 2F F 2F F F III : a = , a = = & N = 0 IV : a = , a = & N = 0 A 2m m B m A m B 2m m 2F & N 0 V : a = a = A B 3m Example #13 to 15 A body of mass 10 kg is placed on a smooth inclined plane as shown in figure. The inclined plane is moved with a horizontal acceleration a. 10kg a = 4m/s2 37° 1 3 . The normal reaction between block and inclined plane is :- (A) 92 N (B) 44 N (C) 56 N (D) Can't be determined 1 4 . The tension in thread is :- (B) 44 N (C) 56 N (D) Can't be determined (A) 92 N 1 5 . At what acceleration 'a' will the body lose contact with the inclined plane ? (A) 10 m/s2 (B) 13.33 m/s2 (C) 3.33 m/s2 (D) 6.66 m/s2 Solution 13. Ans. (C) FBD of block w.r.t. inclined plane Fx 0 T cos 37° – N sin 37° – ma = 0 N y T Fy 0 37° 4T – 3N = 200 ..........(i) 37° x ma N cos 37° + T sin 37° – 10g = 0 4N + 3T = 500 .........(ii) 10g By solving equation (i) & (ii) , N = 56 newton Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 14. Ans. (A) From above equation, T = 92 newton 15. Ans. (B) ma T To lose contact, N = 0 37° mg mg 3 10 a = 40 13.33m / s2 tan 37° = 49 3 ma E 47
JEE-Physics Example #16 A block of unknown mass is at rest on a rough horizontal surface. A force F is applied to the block. The graph in the figure shows the acceleration of the block w.r.t. the applied force. acceleration Applied force (m/s2) F(N) 3 2 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 -2 The mass of the block and coefficient of friction are (g = 10 m/s2) (A) 2 kg, 0.1 (B) 2 kg, 0.2 (C) 1 kg, 0.1 (D) can't be determined Solution Ans. (B) F mg a 1 F g Acceleration of block, a = m m 11 From graph ; slope = m 2 m 2kg and y-intercept; – g = –2 = 0.2 Example #17 A body is placed on an inclined plane. The coefficient of friction between the body and the plane is . The plane is gradually tilted up. If is the inclination of the plane, then frictional force on the body is (A) constant upto = tan1() and decreases after that m (B) increases upto = tan1() and decreases after that (C) decreases upto = tan1() and constant after that (D) constant throughout Solution Ans. (B) Friction force F = mgsin if tan–1() and F = mgcos if tan–1() which increases upto = tan–1() and then decreases. Example #18 Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 A block is placed on a rough horizontal surface and a horizontal force F is applied to it as shown in figure. The force F is increased from zero in small steps. The graph between applied force and frictional force f is plotted by taking equal scales on axes. The graph is (A) a straight line of slope 45° rough m F (B) a straight line parallel to F-axis (C) a straight line parallel to f-axis (D ) a str a i ght li n e of slop e 4 5° for s mal l F a nd a str ai gh t li ne p ar al lel to F - a xi s fo r la rge F. 48 E
Solution JEE-Physics Ans. (D) f 45° F Example #19 A force F pushes a block weighing 10 kg against a vertical wall as shown in the figure. The coefficient of friction between the block and wall is 0.5. The minimum value of F to start the upward motion of block is [ g = 10 m/s2] =0.5 10kg 37° F (A) 100 N (B) 500 N 500 Solution (C) N (D) can't be determined 3 Ans. (B) 4 Fcos37° N N = Fcos37° = 5 F and to start upward motion Fsin37° = 10 g + N 3 F 100 0.5 4 F F = 500 N 37° 10g mN 5 5 Fsin37° F Example #20 A block is first placed on its long side and then on its short side on the same inclined plane (see figure). The block slides down in situation II but remains at rest in situation I. A possible explanation is Situation–I m Situation–II m Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 (A) The normal contact force is less in situation-II. Ans. (C, D) (B) The frictional force is less in situation-II because the contact area is less. (C) T he shor ter side is smoother. (D) In situation-I, frictional force is more. Solution This is due to less frictional force or low friction coefficient. E 49
JEE-Physics Example #21 For the situation shown in the figure below, match the entries of column I with the entries of column II. [ g = 10 m/s2] =0.8 A 10kg F1 F2 =0.4 B 15kg F3 =0.1 C 25kg Column I Column II (A) If F1 = 160 N, F2 = 0 & F3 = 0, then (P) There is no relative motion between A & B (B) If F1 = 140 N, F2=0 & F3 = 0 N, then (Q) There is no relative motion between B & C (C) If F1 = F2 = 0 & F3 = 45 N, then (R) There is a relative motion between A & B (D) If F1 = 0, F2 = 160 N and F3 = 0, then (S) There is a relative motion between B & C (T) There is a relative motion between C & ground Solution A n s . ( A ) ( Q , R , T ) ; ( B ) ( Q , R , T ) ; ( C ) ( P, Q ) ; ( D ) ( S , T ) Maximum frictional force between A and B = (0.8) (10) (10) = 80 N Maximum frictional force between B and C = (0.4) (25) (10) = 100 N Maximum frictional force between C and ground = (0.1) (50) (10) = 50 N Therefore there is no relative motion between B and C if F2 = 0 & F3 =0 To star t motion (F1 + F2 + F3)min = 50 N To star t slipping between B and C (if F3=0), (F1 + F2)min = 150 N If F2 = F3 =0 then to start slipping beween A & B F 1 min = 87.5 N Node-6\\E:\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\NLM\\English\\Theory.p65 50 E
JEE-Physics PRACTICAL PHYSICS SIGNIFICANT FIGURES The significant figures (SF) in a measurement are the figures or digits that are known with certainty plus one that is uncertain. Significant figures in a measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in which we have confidence. Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is its accuracy and vice versa. Rules to find out the number of significant figures : • I Rule : All the non-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SF. • II Rule : All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 10806 has 5 SF. • III Rule : All the zeros to the left of first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g.00108 has 3 SF. • IV Rule : If the number is less than 1, zeros on the right of the decimal point but to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4 SF. • V Rule : The trailing zeros (zero to the right of the last non-zero digit) in a number with a decimal point are significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF. • VI Rule : When the number is expressed in exponential form, the exponential term does not affect the number of S.F. For example in x =12.3=1.23 × 101=0.123 × 102 =0.0123 × 103=123 × 10–1 each term has 3 SF only. • VII Rule : In a number without decimal, zeros to the right of non-zero digit are not significant, but when same value is recorded on the basis of actual experiment, they becomes significant. Ex. 15600 has 3 SF but 15600 mA has 5 SF GOLDEN KEY POINTS • To avoid the confusion regarding the trailing zeros of the numbers without the decimal point the best way is to report every measurement in scientific notation (in the power of 10). In this notation every number is expressed in the form a × 10b , where a is the base number between 1 and 10 and b is any positive or negative exponent of 10. The base number (a) is written in decimal form with the decimal after the first digit. While counting the number of SF only base number is considered (Rule VI). • The change in the unit of measurement of a quantity does not affect the number of SF. For example in 2.308 cm = 23.08 mm = 0.02308 m each term has 4 SF. Example Write down the number of significant figures in the following : (a) 165 3SF (following rule I) ( b ) 2.05 3 SF (following rules I & II) (c) 34.000 m 5 SF (following rules I & V) ( d ) 0.005 1 SF (following rules I & IV) NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 ( e ) 0.02340 N m–1 4 SF (following rules I, IV & V) ROUNDING OFF To represent the result of any computation containing more than one uncertain digit, it is rounded off to appropriate number of significant figures. Rules for rounding off the numbers : • I Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is more than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by one. e.g. 6.87 6.9 • II Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is less than 5, than the preceding digit is unaffected and is left unchanged. e.g. 3.94 3.9 • III Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is 5 then the preceding digit is increased by one if it is odd and is left unchanged if it is even. e.g. 14.35 14.4 and 14.45 14.4 E1
JEE-Physics Example The following values can be rounded off to four significant figures as follows : (a) 36.879 36.88 ( 9 > 5 7 is increased by one i.e. I Rule ) (b) 1.0084 1.008 ( 4 < 5 8 is left unchanged i.e. II Rule ) (c) 11.115 11.12 ( last 1 is odd it is increased by one i . e. III Rule ) (d) 11.1250 11.12 ( 2 is even it is left unchanged i.e. III Rule ) (e) 11.1251 11.13 ( 51 > 50 2 is increased by one i . e. I Rule ) • If one digit is rounded off then compare with 5. • If two digits rounded off then compare with 50. Ex. 2.360 2.4 , 2.350 2.4 & 2.250 2.2 • If three digits rounded off then compare with 500. Rules for arithmetical operations with significant figures • Rule I : In addition or subtraction the number of decimal places in the result should be equal to the number of decimal places of that term in the operation which contain lesser number of decimal places. e.g. 12.587 – 12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 ( second term contain lesser i.e. one decimal place) • Rule II : In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or quotient is same as the smallest number of SF in any of the factors. e.g. 5.0 × 0.125 = 0.625 = 0.62 Note : First carry out actual addition or subtraction then round off. ORDER OF MAGNITUDE Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent that quantity. This power is determined after rounding off the value of the quantity properly. For rounding off, the last digit is simply ignored if it is less than 5 and, is increased by one if it is 5 or more than 5. GOLDEN KEY POINTS • When a number is divided by 10x (where x is the order of the number) the result will always lie between 0.5 and 5, i.e. 0.5 N/10x < 5 Example Order of magnitude of the following values can be determined as follows : (a) 49 = 4.9 × 101 101 Order of magnitude = 1 (b) 5 1 = 5.1 × 101 102 Order of magnitude = 2 (c) 0.049 = 4.9 × 10–2 10–2 Order of magnitude = –2 (d) 0.050 = 5.0 × 10–2 10–1 Order of magnitude = –1 (e) 0.051 = 5.1 × 10–2 10–1 Order of magnitude = –1 Example The length, breadth and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 area and volume of the sheet to correct number of significant figures. Solution • Length () = 4.234 m • Breadth (b) = 1.005 m • Thickness (t) = 2.01 cm = 2.01 × 10–2 m Therefore area of the sheet = 2 ( × b + b × t + t × ) = 2 ( 4.25517 + 0.0202005 + 0.0851034) = 2 ( 4.255 + 0.0202 + 0.0851) = 2 (4.360) = 8.7206 = 8.721 Since area can contain a maximum of 3 SF (Rule II of article 2) therefore, rounding off, we get :Area = 8.72 m2 Like wise volume = × b × t = 4.234 × 1.005 × 0.0201 m3 = 0.0855289 m3 Since volume can contain 3 SF, therefore, rounding off, we get : Volume = 0.0855 m3 2E
JEE-Physics ERROR IN MEASUREMENTS The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as the error of measurement. CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as follows :- Systematic or Controllable Errors : Systematic errors are the errors whose causes are known. They can be either positive or negative. Due to the known causes these errors can be minimised. Systematic errors can further be classified into three categories : ( i ) Instrumental errors : These errors are due to imperfect design or erroneous manufacture or misuse of the measuring instrument. These can be reduced by using more accurate instruments. (ii) Environmental errors : These errors are due to the changes in external environmental conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or magnetic and electrostatic fields. (iii) Observational errors : These errors arise due to improper setting of the apparatus or carelessness in taking observations. Ex. parallax error. • Random Errors : These errors are due to unknown causes. Therefore they occur irregularly and are variable in magnitude and sign. Since the causes of these errors are not known precisely they can not be eliminated completely. For example, when the same person repeats the same observation in the same conditions, he may get different readings at different times. Random errors can be reduced by repeating the observation a large number of times and taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations. This mean value would be very close to the most accurate reading. Note :- If the number of observations is made n times then the random error reduces to (1/n) times. Ex. : If the random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is 'x' then the random error in the arithmetic mean of 500 observations will be x/5. • Gross Errors : Gross errors arise due to human carelessness and mistakes in reading the instruments or calculating and recording the measurement results. For example : (i) Reading instrument without proper initial settings. (ii) Taking the observations wrongly without taking necessary precautions. (iii) Exhibiting mistakes in recording the observations. (iv) Putting improper values of the observations in calculations. These errors can be minimised by increasing the sincerity and alertness of the observer. REPRESENTATION OF ERRORS : Errors can be expressed in the following ways :- Absolute Error (a) : The difference between the true value and the individual measured value of the quantity is called the absolute error of the measurement. Suppose a physical quantity is measured n times and the measured values are a , a , a ........a . 123 n a1 a2 a3 ..............an 1 n n n The am ai arithmetic mean (a ) of these values is m i 1 NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (a ) can be taken as the true value. m Then the absolute errors in the individual measured values are – a1 = a – a 1 m a2 = a – a 2 m an = a – a m n The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error (a)m or a of the a1 a2 ........... a n 1n n n i1 a i value of the physical quantity a, a m So, if the measured value of a quantity be 'a' and the error in measurement be a, then the true value (a ) can t be written as a = a a t E3
JEE-Physics • Relative or Fractional Error : It is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute error ((a)m or a) to the true value or the mean value (a or a ) of the quantity measured. m Relative or fractional error = Mean absolute error (a)m or a Mean value am a When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error, Percentage error = relative error × 100 percentage error= m ean absolute error 100% = a 100% true value a • Propagation of errors in mathematical operations (a) If x = a + b, then the maximum possible absolute error in measurements of x will be x = a + b (b) If x = a – b, then the maximum possible absolute error in measurement of x will be x = a + b a x a b (c) If x = b then the maximum possible fractional error will be x = a + b (d) If x = an then the maximum possible fractional error will be x = n a xa (e) anbm x = n a +m b +p c If x = cp then the maximum possible fractional error will be x a b c x 1 a (f) If x = log a then the maximum possible fractional error will be = e x xa GOLDEN KEY POINTS • Systematic errors are repeated consistently with the repetition of the experiment and are produced due to improper conditions or procedures that are consistent in action whereas random errors are accidental and their magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from the knowledge of the measuring system and conditions of measurement. Systematic errors can therefore be minimised by improving experimental techniques, selecting better instruments and improving personal skills whereas random errors can be minimised by repeating the observation several times. • Mean absolute error has the units and dimensions of the quantity itself whereas fractional or relative error is unitless and dimensionless. • Absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in other cases. Example Following observations were taken with a vernier callipers while measuring the length of a cylinder : 3.29 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.31 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.27 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.30 cm. Then find : NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 (a) Most accurate length of the cylinder. (b) Absolute error in each observation. (c) Mean absolute error (d) Relative error (e) Percentage error Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error. Solution (a) Most accurate length of the cylinder will be the mean length = 3.28875 cm = 3.29 cm (b) Absolute error in the first reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm Absolute error in the second reading = 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm Absolute error in the third reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm Absolute error in the forth reading = 3.39 – 3.31 = –0.02 cm 4 E
JEE-Physics Absolute error in the fifth reading = 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm Absolute error in the sixth reading = 3.29 – 3.27 = 0.02 cm Absolute error in the seventh reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm Absolute error in the last reading = 3.29 – 3.30 = –0.01 cm (c) Mean absolute error = 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 = 0.01 cm 8 (d) Relative error in length = 0.01 = 0.0030395 = 0.003 3.29 (e) Percentage error = × 100 = 0.003 × 100 = 0.3% So length = 3.29 cm ± 0.01 cm (in terms of absolute error ) = 3.29 cm ± 0.30% (in terms of percentage error ) Example The initial and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6 ± 0.2)°C and (78.3 ± 0.3)°C. Calculate the rise in temperature. Solution Given 1 = (40.6 ± 0.2)°C and 2 =(78.3 ± 0.3)°C Rise in temperature = 2 – 1 = 78.3 – 40.6 = 37.7°C. = ± (1 + 2) = ± (0.2 + 0.3) = ± 0.5°C Rise in temperature = (37.7 ± 0.5)°C Example The length and breadth of a rectangle are (5.7 ± 0.1) cm and (3.4 ± 0.2) cm. Calculate area of the rectangle with error limits. Solution = (5.7 ± 0.1) cm and b = (3.4 ± 0.2) cm Given A = × b = 5.7 × 3.4 = 19.38 cm2 Area A b 0.1 0.2 0.34 1.14 1.48 A b 5.7 3.4 5.7 3.4 19.38 A 1.48 A 1.48 19.38 1.48 Area = (19.38 ± 1.48) sq/cm 19.38 19.38 Example NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 A body travels uniformly a distance (13.8 ± 0.2) m in a time (4.0 ± 0.3) s. Calculate its velocity with error limits. What is the percentage error in velocity ? Solution s 13.8 Given distance s = (13.8 ± 0.2) m and time t=(4.0 ± 0.3) s, velocity v = =3.45ms–1=3.5 ms–1 t 4.0 v s t 0.2 0.3 0.8 4.14 4.49 0.0895 v s t 13.8 4.0 13.8 4.0 13.8 4.0 v = ± 0.0895 × v = ± 0.0895 × 3.45 = ± 0.3087 = ± 0.31 v = (3.5 ± 0.31) ms–1 v Percentage error in velocity= × 100 = ± 0.0895 × 100 = ± 8.95% = ± 9% v E5
JEE-Physics Example A thin copper wire of length L increase in length by 2% when heated from T to T . If a copper cube having side 12 10 L is heated from T to T what will be the percentage change in 12 (i)area of one face of the cube (ii) volume of the cube. A L S o l . (i) Area A=10L × 10 L = 100 L2, % change in area = × 100 = 2 × × 100 = 2 × 2% = 4% AL (ii) Volume V=10 L × 10 L × 10L=1000 L3 V L % change in volume = × 100 = 3 × × 100 = 3 × 2% = 6% VL Conclusion : The maximum percentage change will be observed in volume, lesser in area and the least (minimum) change will be observed in length or radius. LEAST COUNT The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with an instrument is called the Least Count (LC) of the measuring instrument. Least Count of vernier callipers : Suppose the size of one Main Scale Division (MSD) is M units and that of one Vernier Scale Division (VSD) is V units. Also let the length of 'a' main scale divisions is equal to the length of 'b' vernier scale divisions. aM = bV V a M M – V = M – a M = b a M b b b The quantity (M– V) is called Vernier Constant (VC) or Least Count (LC) of the vernier callipers. L.C. M V b a M b Example One cm on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20 divisions of vernier scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale. What will be the least count of callipers ? Solution 20 division of vernier scale = 8 division of main scale 1 V. S .D. = 8 M.S.D = 2 M.S.D. NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 20 5 L.C. = 1 M.S.D.–1 V.S.D. = 1 M.S.D. – 2 M.S.D. = 1 2 M.S.D. 5 5 = 33 × 0.1 cm = 0.06 cm (1 M.S.D.= 1 cm = 0.1 cm) M.S.D. = 55 10 Note : for objective questions L.C. = M – V = b a M = 20 8 1 cm = 3 cm = 0.06 cm b 20 10 50 6 E
NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 JEE-Physics Zero Error If there is no object between the jaws (i.e. jaws are in contact), the vernier should give zero reading. But due to some extra material on jaws or bending of jaws even if there is no object between the jaws, it gives some excess reading. This excess reading is called zero error. ZERO CORRECTION Zero correction is invert of zero error. Actual reading = observed reading – excess reading (zero error) = observed reading + zero correction Zero correction = – (zero error) Example The figure shows a situation when the jaws of vernier are touching each other. Each main scale division is of 1 mm 5th division of vernier scale coincides with a main scale division. 1 L.C. = 10 = 0.1 mm. Zero error = + 5 × 0.1 = 0.5 mm. This error is to be subtracted from the reading taken for measurement. Also, zero correction = – 0.5 mm. Example The figure shows a situation when the jaws of vernier are touching each other. Each main scale division is of 1 mm 4th division of vernier scale coincides with a main scale division. 1 L.C. = 10 = 0.1 mm. Zero error = – (10–4) × 0.1 = – 0.6 mm . This error is to be added in the reading taken for measurement. Also, zero correction = + 0.6 mm. E7
JEE-Physics • Least Count of Screw Gauge & Spherometer : Pitch 2 h L.C. = Total no. of divisions on the circular scale Radius of curvature = where pitch is defined as the distance moved by the screw head when the circular scale 6h 2 is given one complete rotation. i.e. where 1 2 3 3 h= difference of readings taken on curved surface & that on flat surface. Pitch = Distance moved by the screw on the linear scale No.of full rotations given Note : With the decrease in the least count of the measuring instrument, the accuracy of the measurement increases and the error in the measurement decreases. • Precision of a measurement The precision of a measurement is determined by the least count of a measuring instrument. The smaller is the least count larger is the precision of the measurement. • Accuracy of a measurement Accuracy of an instrument represents the closeness of the measured value to actual value. • Zero Error If there is no object between the jaws (i.e. jaws are in contact), the screw gauge should give zero reading. But due to extra material on jaws, even if there is no object, it gives some excess reading. This excess reading is called zero error. * All the instruments utilizing threads have back-lash error which belongs to random category. Example Find the thickness of the wire. Solution It is giving 7.67 mm in which there is 0.03 mm excess NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 Excess reading (zero error) = 0.03 mm reading, which has to be removed (substracted) so actual reading = 7.67 - 0.03 = 7.64 mm E • Zero correction Zero correction is invert of zero error : Zero correction = – (zero error) Actual reading = observed reading – zero error = observed reading + zero correction 8
JEE-Physics SOME IMPORTANT EXPERIMENTS 1 . Determination of g using a simple pendulum : A simple pendulum is an arrangement consisting of a small metal ball with a fine string suspended from a fixed point so that it can swing freely. • Arrangement The equation for the periodic motion of a simple pendulum as determined by Galileo is T 2 . Here, is the length of the pendulum, g is acceleration due g to gravity and T is time period of periodic motion. To determine g, rearrange the above equation to get, g 4 2 T2 • Procedure (a) Determine the time for 20 complete swings for six different lengths. (The length means the distance between point of suspension and centre of the ball). (b) Repeat the time measurement five times for each length, making sure to get consistent readings. (c) Determine the average time for 20 swings for each length. Then, calculate the time of one swing. (d) Compute the acceleration due to gravity for each pendulum length. (e) Calculate the mean g and the percentage error in g for each length. (f) Plot length versus time graph and length versus time squared, graph. Example In an experiment to determine acceleration due to gravity, the length of the pendulum is measured as 98 cm by a meter scale of least count of 1cm. The period of swing/oscillations is measured with the help of a stop watch having a least count of 1s. The time period of 50 oscillations is found to be 98 s. Express value of g with proper error limits. Solution As T = 2 g Now, time period of 50 oscillation is 98 s. 98 Time period of one oscillation is 50 = 1.96 s. We have g 4 2 = 4 × (3.14)2 × 0.98 = 10.06 m/s2 As T = 2 g T2 1.96 1.96 Let us find the permissible error in the measurement. NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 4 2 We have g 2T , g = 10 × 1 2 1 ( Least count of meter scale is 1 cm As g T2 g T 98 98 and least count of stop watch is 1s), g = 0.3 m/s2 So, final result can be expressed as (10.1 ± 0.3) ms–2. • Precautions (i) The oscillations amplitude should be kept small (10° or below) as the formula for time period is applicable for small angular displacements. (ii) While measuring the length and time periods, an average of several readings should be taken. (iii) The instruments used should be checked for zero error. E9
JEE-Physics • Factors Affecting the Time Period : The time period of a simple pendulum is affected by following factors. (i) Time period is clearly a function of the length of pendulum. From the formula, it is clear that T or T2 .The graphical variation is shown here T T2 T (a) (b) (c) 11 T2 (ii) Time period is a function of acceleration due to gravity. T g or T2 g Following graphs represent the above variation T2 T (a) (b) (c) g 1/g 1/g (iii) Time period is independent of mass of ball used in the pendulum. A wooden ball or a steel ball will have same time period if other factors are same. (iv) The time period of a simple pendulum is independent of amplitude (provided amplitude is small). This type of motion is called isochrones motion. 2 . Verification of Ohm's law using voltmeter and ammeter : According to ohm's law, the current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the conductor provided the physical conditions like temperature and mechanical strain etc are kept constant. V = IR, where R is a constant called resistance • Arrangement : The figure shows the arrangement used to verify ohm's law. It consists of a cell of emf E, connected to a fixed resistance R and a variable resistance R (rheostat). H An ammeter is connected in the circuit to measure current I and a voltmeter is connected across the fixed resistance R to measure potential difference V, • Procedure : Following steps are to be followed. NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 (a) Close the switch S and note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter. (b) Repeat the above process for different values of variable resistance R . V H (c) Plot a graph between V and I by taking V along y-axis and I along x-axis. V I (d) Slope or gradient of this graph is I = constant. This shows that V I. Example In the circuit shown, voltmeter is ideal and its least count is 0.1 V. The least count of ammeter is 1 mA. Let reading of the voltmeter be 30.0 V and the reading of ammeter is 0.020 A. We shall calculate the value of resistance R within error limits. 10 E
JEE-Physics V 30.0 S o l . V = 30.0; I = 0.020 A; R = = 1.50 k I 0.020 RH V R V I Error : As R = VR A I R VI R R V I = 1.50 × 103 0.1 0.001 = 0.080 k. V I 30.0 0.020 3 . Determi nat ion of Young's Mo dulus by Searle's Method : When a deforming force is applied to deform a body, it shows some opposition. This opposition is called stiffness. Young's modulus is a physical quantity used to describe the stiffness of a body. It is the ratio of stress applied to strain produced, where stress applied is force applied per unit area and strain is the ratio of change in length to original length Y F x F Here, F is applied force, A is area of cross-section, is length A Ax and x is increase in length. Arrangement : The arrangement consists of two wires. One of the wires is a Compensating Experimental reference wire loaded with a fixed weight. The other wire is the test wire, on wire wire which variable load is applied. The reference wire is used to compensate for the thermal expansion of the wire. The extension in the test wire is measured Cross Metallic bars frame with the help of a spherometer and a spirit level arrangement. Spirit • Procedure : level Spherometer The following steps are required to measure the young's modulus. Dead Slotted (a) Using micrometer determine the radius of the wire. weight weight Using the formula for area of circle = r2, calculate the area. (b) Measure the length of the wire . (c) Note down the load applied F and corresponding increase in length x. (d) Convert load in kg to weight in newton by the formula 1 kgf = 9.81 N (e) Plot a graph of extension x (along x-axis) against weight (along y-axis). (f) The slope of this graph is the ratio F . x F (g) Find Y using the formula Y . Ax NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 Example In an experiment for measurement of young's modulus, following readings are taken. Load = 3.00 kg, length = 2.820 m, diameter = 0.041 cm and extension = 0.87. We shall determine the percentage error in measurement of Y. Solution If Y = Young's modulus of wire, M = mass of wire, g = acceleration due to gravity, x = extension in the wire, A= Area of cross-section of the wire, = length of the wire. Y Mgx Y M x A Y 0.01 0.01 2 0.001 0.001 0.064 Y 100 6.4% A Y M x A Y 3.00 0.87 0.041 2.820 Y E 11
JEE-Physics 4 . Measurement of specific heat of a liquid using a calorimeter : Specific heat of a substance is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by one degree Celsius. It is given by S Q where m ' Q is the heat supplied, m is the mass of substance and is the rise in temperature. Arrangement : The arrangement consists of a joule calorimeter (JC) with a churner C, thermometer(T), variable resistor R , cell of emf E, an ammeter, a voltmeter and a switch. H + V– CT – A + RH JC ES Procedure : The following steps are required. (a) Weigh the empty calorimeter with churner C. This is m . C (b) Weigh the calorimeter with the liquid in it. The difference in two masses gives the mass of liquid. This is m. (c) Make the set up shown. Keeping the switch open, note the reading of the thermometer 1. (d) Close the switch S for a time t and continuously stir the liquid. At the time of opening the switch, note the reading of thermometer 2, voltmeter V and ammeter I. (e) Calculate heat supplied to the colorimeter using H = VIt. (f) Calculate rise in temperature using = 2 – 1 + d .....Here d is the correction applied for radiation loss. d t is the fall in temperature when the calorimeter and its contents are left to cool down for time . 2 (g) Let S be the specific heat of calorimeter and S be the specific heat of liquid, then the heat supplied is C Q = mS + mcSc S Q m c S c 1 VIt m S m m c c Precautions : Following precautions must be taken. (i) Correction due to radiation loss d must be taken into account. (ii) The stirring of liquid should be slow. (iii) While reading voltmeter and ammeter, parallax should be removed. 5 . Focal length of a convex lens/concave mirror using u-v method : NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 When an object is placed at a distance u in front of a convex lens/concave mirror, it forms an image at a distance v from the lens/mirror. The two values u and v are related to each other. For a convex lens, the relationship is 1 1 1 . For a concave mirror, the relationship is 1 1 1 . vu f vu f Arrangement : The lens/mirror is fixed on an optical bench with a scale marked on it to measure the distance of object and image. The lens or mirror is fixed. There are two other stands in which two pin shaped objects are fixed. One of these is the object pin. This acts as an object. The other one is called image pin. It is used to locate the image position. When there is no parallax between the image pin and image seen in the lens/mirror, the image pin represents the position of the image. 12 E
JEE-Physics Procedure : Following steps are to be followed. (a) Fix the lens on the lens stand. (b) Place object pin in front of the lens. Measure the distance between the two. The value of u will be negative of the above distance. (c) Place the image pin on the other side of the lens at such a distance from the lens, so that there is no parallax between image pin and image seen in the lens. The value of v will be the distance between the lens and image pin. (d) Compute the focal length of the lens using lens formula 1 1 1 . v u f 11 For a concave mirror, the shape of (e) Plot a graph between u and v and and . uv For a convex lens, the shape of graphs obtained are shown. graphs obtained are shown. v1 v1 v v (a) u (b) 1 (a) u (b) 1 u u NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 (f) In the u-v curve, we draw a line at 45° as shown in figure.This line intersect the curve at point P. PB and PA are parallel to axes. Here OA = OB = 2f. So, focal length f OA 2 v P B Ou 45° A E 13
JEE-Physics Example In an experiment to measure the focal length of a concave mirror, it was found that for an object distance of 0.30 m, the image distance come out to be 0.60 m. Let us determine the focal length. Solution By mirror formula, 1 1 1 u 0.30m 1 1 1 1 3.0 f = 0.20 m v u f v 0.60m f 0.30 f 0.60 0.60 As 1 1 1 df dv du df (0.20)2 0.01 0.01 f v u f2 v2 u2 (0.60)2 (0.30)2 df = 0.0055 0.01 m Focal length f = (0.20 ± 0.01) m. • Precaution : Following precautions must be taken. (i) Both u and v should be measured carefully on the bench. (ii) While locating the image, parallax should be removed. 6 . Determination of speed of sound using resonance column : It is a simple apparatus used to measure speed of sound in air with the help of a tuning fork of known frequency. The resonance column is an air column closed at one end. Its length is variable. It is based on the phenomenon of standing waves. A vibrating tuning fork is held near the open end of the tube which is partially empty. The air- column vibrates with the frequency of tuning fork. As the length of air column is increased from zero onwards, a stage is reached when very intense sound is observed. At this stage the natural frequency of the air-column matches with the frequency of tuning fork. This state is known as resonance. At resonances, the vibration of air column can be like any of the following figures. • Arrangement : The arrangement is shown in the figure. It consists of a metallic tube and a connected glass tube. There is a reservoir containing water. This is connected to the metallic tube by a rubber pipe. Parallel to the glass tube is a scale to measure the length of air-column. e e 1 2 Fig. 1 Fig. 2 • Procedure : Following steps are used in the experiment. NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 (a) Hold the vibrating tuning fork at the open end of the column and start increasing the length of the air column by adjusting the height of reservoir. (b) Determine the first resonating length 1. This is the length at which an intense sound is observed. (c) Determine the second resonating length . This is the length at which an intense sound is observed again. 2 (d) Compute the wavelength. It can be calculated as shown. From the figure-1 it is clear that 1 e ...(i) 2 e 3 ...(ii) 4 4 14 E
JEE-Physics Here is wavelength of sound and e is end correction (height of the antinode above the open end) [Given by Lord Rayleigh] Subtracting – = = 2( – ) 21 2 21 (e) Using the formula v = f, compute the speed of sound. (f) Compute the end-correction from equation (i) and (ii) 1 e , 2 e 3 2–3 1–2e=0 e = 2 31 4 4 2 (g) Compute the error in end-correction by comparing it with Reyleigh's formula e = 0.6 R. Where R is internal radius of resonance tube. Example The internal radius of a 1 m long resonance tube is measured as 3.0 cm. A tuning fork of frequency 2000 Hz is used. The first resonating length is measured as 4.6 cm and the second resonating length is measured as 14.0 cm. We shall calculate the following Solution (i)Maximum percentage error in measurement of e, as given by Reyleigh's formula. (Given error in measurement of radius is 0.1 cm) e = 0.6 R = 0.6 × 0.1 = 0.06 cm Percentage error is e 100 0.06 100 3.33% e 0.6 3 (ii) Speed of sound at the room temperature. = 4.6 cm, = 14.0 cm, = 2( – ) = 2(14.0 – 4.6) =18.8 cm, v=f = 2000 × 18.8 = 376 m/s. 1 2 2 1 100 (iii) End correction obtained in the experiment. e 2 31 14.0 3 4.6 0.1cm. 22 (iv) Percentage error in the calculation of e with respect to theoretical value. NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 Percentage error = 0.6 3 0.1 100 94.44% 0.6 3 Example In the circuit shown, voltmeter is ideal and its least count is 0.1 V. The least count of ammeter 1 mA. Let reading of the voltmeter be 30.0 V and the reading of ammeter is 0.020 A. We shall calculate the value of resistance R within error limits. Solution V 30.0 V = 30.0,I = 0.020 A, R 1.50k I 0.020 RH VR Error : As R V R V I R = R V I I R V I V I 0.1 0.001 A 30.0 0.020 = 1.50 × 103 0.080 k So, resistance is (1.5 ± 0.08) k. E 15
JEE-Physics 7 . Determination of resistivity of a metal using : (i) Meter bridge (ii) Post office box • Meter bridge : The resistance of a metal wire depends on its length, area of cross-section and resistivity of the metal. The formula is R = .Here, is the resistivity. Its unit is -m (ohm-meter). To measure its resistivity, we A use a meter bridge. The working of a meter bridge is based on Wheatstone bridge principle. The circuit shown is called Wheatstone bridge. B PQ II AGC RS D When P R , there is no flow of current in the branch BD. At this state, galvanometer shows zero deflection. Q S • Arrangement : The arrangement consists of a 100 cm long wire connected between A and C. It is tapped at point B by a sliding contact called jockey. R is a known resistance. S is the resistance wire whose resistivity is to be determined. A cell and a variable resistance R are connected to supply current in the circuit. H • Procedure : Following steps are used in the experiment. (a) Plug the key and slide the jockey on wire AC to locate point B where the galvanometer does not show deflection. Note down the length . (b) P R 100 100 Compute the resistance S using the formula Q S . Here, P=wire × A , Q = wire × A S = R (c) Compute the value of S by determining values of length . This can be done by using different values of R. (d) Calculate the percentage error in measurement of S. (e) Compute the resistivity by measuring length and area of cross-section of resistance wire S using the formula S= . NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 A Example In an experiment to determine an unknown resistance, a 100 cm long resistance wire is used. The unknown resistance is kept in the left gap and a known resistance is put into the right gap. The scale used to measure length has a least count 1 mm. The null point B is obtained at 40.0 cm from the left gap. We shall determine the percentage error in the computation of unknown resistance. Solution As shown in the figure. P , P Q 100 100 P (100 ) 0.1 0.1 P 100 40.0 60.0 × 100 = 0.42% P 100 P 16 E
JEE-Physics ( i i ) Post office box : This apparatus was initially used in post-offices for measuring the resistance of the telephone or telegraph wires, or for finding the faults in these wires. In post office box, the two arms AB and BC are connected in series. Each of these arms contain resistances 10, 100 and 1000 . In the third arm AD there are resistances from 1 to 5000 arranged in U shape. In order to insert keys in the arms AC and BD, the point A is connected to a tapping key k and the point B is connected to another tapping key k . The wire whose 12 resistance (S) is to be determined is connected in the arm CD. The galvanometer G is connected between B and D through the key k and the cell is connected between A and C through the key k . 21 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Working : First of all, from P a 1000 resistor is selected and from Q also 1000 resistor is selected Now by PR pulling plugs from R, a balance condition is obtained. As Q S [P = 1000 , Q = 1000 ] . So S = R P B A Q R K2 K1 C G S D E NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 R Now in order to increase the preciseness, P is selected to be 1000 and Q = 10 . In this case, S = 100 As the least count decreases, hence preciseness increases. E 17
JEE-Physics SOME WORKED OUT EXAMPLES Example#1 The circular scale of a micrometer has 200 divisions and pitch of 2mm. Find the measured value of thickness of a thin sheet. 10 0 1 2 3 50 0 40 0 (A) 3.41 mm (B) 6.41 mm (C) 3.46 mm (D) 3.51 mm Solution Ans. (B) Least count = No. pitch 2 0.01mm ; Reading = 3× 2 + (46–5) (0.01) = 6.41 mm of divisions 200 Example#2 The length of the string of a simple pendulum is measured with a meter scale to be 63.5 cm, the radius of the bob plus the hook is measured with the help of vernier caliper to be 1.55 cm. Select the incorrect statement :- (A) Least count of meter scale is 0.1 cm (B) Least count of vernier caliper is 0.01 cm (C) Effective length of pendulum is 65.1 cm (D) Effective length of pendulum is 65.2 cm Solution Ans. (C) From measurements least count of meter scale is 0.1 cm and least count of vernier calliper is 0.01 cm. Effective length of simple pendulum = 63.5 + 1.55 = 65.15 = 65.2 cm Example#3 A brilliant student of Class XII constructed a vernier calipers as shown. He used two identical inclines of inclination 37° and tried to measure the length of line AB. The length of line AB is A B 1mm 21 (B) 25 mm (C) 18 mm (D) None of these (A) mm 4 4 4 Ans. (B) NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 Solution Least count = 1 4 1 5 1 5 1 1 mm cos / 4 4 Length AB = (4) (5 ) 4 5 5 1 5 5 25 mm cos cos 4 4 4 4 Example#4 The side of a cube is (2.00 ± 0.01) cm. The volume and surface area of cube are respectively :– (A) (8.00 ± 0.12) cm3, (24.0 ± 0.24) cm2 (B) (8.00 ± 0.01) cm3, (24.0 ± 0.01) cm2 (C) (8.00 ± 0.04) cm3, (24.0 ± 0.06) cm2 (D) (8.00 ± 0.03) cm3, (24.0 ± 0.02) cm2 18 E
JEE-Physics Solution Ans. (A) Volume V=a3=8 cm3 . Also V 3 a V 3V a 3 8 0.01 0.12 cm3 V a a 2.00 Therefore V = (8.00 ± 0.12) cm3; Surface Area A = 6a2 = 6 (2.00)2 = 24.0 cm2. Also A 2 a A 2A a 2 24 .0 0.01 0.24 . Therefore A = (24.0 ± 0.24) cm2 A a a 2.00 Example#5 Two clocks A and B are being tested against a standard clock located in the national laboratory At 10:00 AM by the standard clock, the readings of the two clocks are shown in following table Day C lock A C lock B Is t 1 0:0 0 : 06 8:1 5:00 IIn d 1 0:0 1:13 8:1 5:01 I IIr d 8:1 5:04 IV th 9:5 9:0 8 8:1 4:58 Vth 1 0:0 2:15 8:1 5:02 9:5 8:1 0 If you are doing an experiment that requires precision time interval measurements, which of the two clocks will you prefer? (A) clock A (B) clock B (C) either clock A or clock B (D) Neither clock A nor clock B Solution Ans. (B) The average reading of clock A is, closure to the standard time and the variation in time is smaller for clock B. As clock's is zero error is not significant for precision work because a zero error can always be easily corrected. Hence clock B is to be preferred. Example#6 The main scale of a vernier callipers reads in millimeter and its vernier is divided into 10 divisions which coincides with 9 divisions of the main scale. The reading for shown situation is found to be (x/10) mm. Find the value of x. 0 12 3 0 12 3 cm cm Ans. 69 0 10 0 10 Solution Least count = 1mm = 0.1 mm; Zero error = –(10–6) × 0.1 = – 0.4 mm 10 Reading = 6 + 5 × (0.1) – (–0.4) = 6.9 mm NODE6\\E\\Data\\2014\\Kota\\JEE-Advanced\\SMP\\Phy\\Unit No-12\\Practical Physics\\Eng\\Sheet.p65 Example#7 Write number of significant digits (i) 62.3 cm (ii) 6.23 × 101 cm (iii) 20.000 (iv) 0.02 × 10–19 (v) 500.000 (vi) 0.5210 (vii) 896.80 (viii) 201 (ix) 1200 (x) 1200 N Solution Ans. (i) 3 (ii) 3 (iii) 5 (iv) 1 (v) 6 (vi) 4 (vii) 5 (viii) 3 (ix) 2 (x) 4 Example#8 Round off the following numbers to 3 significant digits- (i) 899.68 (ii) 987.52 (iii) 2.0082 (iv) 336.5 (v) 335.5 Solution Ans. (i) 900 (ii) 988 (iii) 2.01 (iv) 336 (v) 336 E 19
Search
Read the Text Version
- 1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8
- 9
- 10
- 11
- 12
- 13
- 14
- 15
- 16
- 17
- 18
- 19
- 20
- 21
- 22
- 23
- 24
- 25
- 26
- 27
- 28
- 29
- 30
- 31
- 32
- 33
- 34
- 35
- 36
- 37
- 38
- 39
- 40
- 41
- 42
- 43
- 44
- 45
- 46
- 47
- 48
- 49
- 50
- 51
- 52
- 53
- 54
- 55
- 56
- 57
- 58
- 59
- 60
- 61
- 62
- 63
- 64
- 65
- 66
- 67
- 68
- 69
- 70
- 71
- 72
- 73
- 74
- 75
- 76
- 77
- 78
- 79
- 80
- 81
- 82
- 83
- 84
- 85
- 86
- 87
- 88
- 89
- 90
- 91
- 92
- 93
- 94
- 95
- 96
- 97
- 98
- 99
- 100
- 101
- 102
- 103
- 104
- 105
- 106
- 107
- 108
- 109
- 110
- 111
- 112
- 113
- 114
- 115
- 116
- 117
- 118
- 119
- 120
- 121
- 122
- 123
- 124
- 125
- 126
- 127
- 128
- 129
- 130
- 131
- 132
- 133
- 134
- 135
- 136
- 137
- 138
- 139
- 140
- 141
- 142
- 143
- 144
- 145
- 146
- 147
- 148
- 149
- 150
- 151
- 152
- 153
- 154
- 155
- 156
- 157
- 158
- 159
- 160
- 161
- 162
- 163
- 164
- 165
- 166
- 167
- 168
- 169
- 170
- 171
- 172
- 173
- 174
- 175
- 176
- 177
- 178
- 179
- 180
- 181
- 182
- 183
- 184
- 185
- 186
- 187
- 188
- 189
- 190
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
- 205
- 206
- 207
- 208
- 209
- 210
- 211
- 212
- 213
- 214
- 215
- 216
- 217
- 218
- 219
- 220
- 221
- 222
- 223
- 224
- 225
- 226
- 227
- 228
- 229
- 230
- 231
- 232
- 233
- 234
- 235
- 236
- 237
- 238
- 239
- 240
- 241
- 242
- 243
- 244
- 245
- 246
- 247
- 248
- 249
- 250
- 251
- 252
- 253
- 254
- 255
- 256
- 257
- 258
- 259
- 260
- 261
- 262
- 263
- 264
- 265
- 266
- 267
- 268
- 269
- 270
- 271
- 272
- 273
- 274
- 275
- 276
- 277
- 278
- 279
- 280
- 281
- 282
- 283
- 284
- 285
- 286
- 287
- 288
- 289
- 290
- 291
- 292
- 293
- 294
- 295
- 296
- 297
- 298
- 299
- 300
- 301
- 302
- 303
- 304
- 305
- 306
- 307
- 308
- 309
- 310
- 311
- 312
- 313
- 314
- 315
- 316
- 317
- 318
- 319
- 320
- 321
- 322
- 323
- 324
- 325
- 326
- 327
- 328
- 329
- 330
- 331
- 332
- 333
- 334
- 335
- 336
- 337
- 338
- 339
- 340
- 341
- 342
- 343
- 344
- 345
- 346
- 347
- 348
- 349
- 350
- 351
- 352
- 353
- 354
- 355
- 356
- 357
- 358
- 359
- 360
- 361
- 362
- 363
- 364
- 365
- 366
- 367
- 368
- 369
- 370
- 371
- 372
- 373
- 374
- 375
- 376
- 377
- 378
- 379
- 380
- 381
- 382
- 383
- 384
- 385
- 386
- 387
- 388
- 389
- 390
- 391
- 392
- 393
- 394
- 395
- 396
- 397
- 398
- 399
- 400
- 401
- 402
- 403
- 404
- 405
- 406
- 407
- 408
- 409
- 410
- 411
- 412
- 413
- 414
- 415
- 416
- 417
- 418
- 419
- 420
- 421
- 422
- 423
- 424
- 425
- 426
- 427
- 428
- 429
- 430
- 431
- 432
- 433
- 434
- 435
- 436
- 437
- 438
- 439
- 440
- 441
- 442
- 443
- 444
- 445
- 446
- 447
- 448
- 449
- 450
- 451
- 452
- 453
- 454
- 455
- 456
- 457
- 458
- 459
- 460
- 461
- 462
- 463
- 464
- 465
- 466
- 467
- 468
- 469
- 470
- 471
- 472
- 473
- 474
- 475
- 476
- 477
- 478
- 479
- 480
- 481
- 482
- 483
- 484
- 485
- 486
- 487
- 488
- 489
- 490
- 491
- 492
- 493
- 494
- 495
- 1 - 50
- 51 - 100
- 101 - 150
- 151 - 200
- 201 - 250
- 251 - 300
- 301 - 350
- 351 - 400
- 401 - 450
- 451 - 495
Pages: