ICY SCIENCE QUARTERLY MAGAZINE VOL 1 ISSUE 1

EXTANT LIFE ON MARS? THE MARS SOCIETY THE BIG SPACE BALLOON ASTROCAMP SUN DOGS ICY SCIENCE PUBLICATION: WWW.ICYSCIENCE.COM: WINTER 2013/14

2 5 Editors Note 6 How Quantum Mechanics Can Create Many Worlds Of Possiblility 8 Will DrillingFind Extant Life On Mars? 12 Aurora 18 The Big Space Balloon 32 Rovers And Space Ships Everywhere 40 Astrocamp 48 The Imaginary Number 54 E=MC2 58 Sundogs: Fact or Fiction? 65 Astronomy For The Absolute ORION IMAGE: MIKE GREENHAM ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

3 CONTENTS MAGAZINE Beginner 70 Astronomy & Science Edution in India 75 Women,Astronomy » p.8 And UKWAIN Launch 85 Lets Talk Interview With Frase Cain » p.17 » p.12 98 ISSET 102 Reign of the Radio Leoinid meteor capture. » p.32 ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

4 EDITOR: Contact: E: [email protected] David Bood TWITTER: @DavesAstronomy W: www.icyscience.com Special Thanks OAS2013 COMP CODE Dan Lucus Nicole Willett (Mars Society) Mars Society Sophia Nsar The Big Space Ballon Company Joolz Wright Adrian Jannetta MORE SPECIAL THANKS Julian Onions Danny Owen (ISSET) Henna Khan Michael knowles Mary Spicer UKWIAN Roy Alexander Fraser Cain (Unverse Today) Mike Greenham ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

5 WELCOME TO ICY SCIENCE ICY SCIENCE Welcome to the new ICY SCIENCE online magazine. the magazine Icy Science is a quarterly free magazine to read and download. No material may is packed with articles from the be copied or used on other media outlets without written consent. Science, Astronomy and Space worlds. LOOK UP.... Free monthly Astronomy Newsletter includes sky notes The magazine will be out quar- terly with the frst edition out in December 2013. NEXT EDITION FEB 2014 Merrry Xmas to All ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

6 Decisions,Decisions, Decisions How Quantum Mechanics Can Create Many Worlds of Possibility By Dan Lucas Many of us have grown up in a world entrenched in Science Fiction. We surround ourselves with tales of aliens, artifcial intelligence, and parallel universes. From a young age – and without even realising it – these ideas of alternate realities become part of our understanding of the world. Engrained into children’s tales like ‘The Chronicles of Narnia’, where an alternate reality exists beyond a wardrobe; or exposure to cartoons such as ‘Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles’ which depicts its villains as having travelled from a ‘Dimension X’, complex scientifc ideas are suggested and become integral to our knowledge of the Universe. Then we become adults, and these con- cepts begin to encapsulate our imagina- tion. Tales like Stephen Kings’ ‘The Dark Tower’ has its characters visiting difer- ent Earths by travelling through difer- ent doorways and shows like ‘Sliders’ saw its protagonists encounter many difer- ent incarnations of themselves that have been exposed to diferent experiences Sliders as they slid from Universe to Universe on their journey. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

7 This idea of alternate reality forms a key part of quantum mechanics. As I explained in my article ‘How a Simple Cat in a Box Can Alter How You View the Universe’, the outcome of an experiment is determined by the observer. Until that outcome is observed, all possible out- comes occur simultaneously. Once an observation has been made, all other outcomes are no longer possible. It is at this point where the system is described as having collapsed. It is this collapse into one outcome where quantum mechanics suggests an alternate reality could exist. An idea known as the Many World’s would be played out in a diferent reality. In terms of Interpretation of quantum mechan- quantum mechanics, this notion that every outcome ics suggests that not only are alter- occurs prevents the system from collapsing. The nate realities possible, but they could observer still only observes one single outcome, actually be infnite in number. Every but an alternate reality is created for each potential time you’ve ever wondered what outcome not observed. would have happened if you had HT TP : / / EN . WIKIPEDIA . OR G / WIKI / made a diferent decision – such as MANY-WORLDS_INTERPRETATION which cereal to buy, or whether your life would be better had you taken a So what does this mean for us as individuals? Well diferent job – all possible outcomes not a great deal to be fair. We’ll never see these alter- nate realities, because then that would be our reality which creates a whole impossible paradox, and we’ll never be able to fnd just how diferent things could have been. But isn’t it nice to think that somewhere out there, you always made the right decision? ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

8 Will Drilling FindExtant Life on Mars? BY NICOLE WILLETT, THE MARS SOCIETY I attended the online NASA/JPL Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) meeting that was held on July 23, 2013. The meeting’s purpose was to discuss the Mars 2020 rover and many other Mars explo- ration issues. Many people wonder why NASA keeps sending rovers to Mars without stating that they will unequivocally search for extant life. The term extant means, still in existence. We know that MSL Curiosity has the equipment to detect life and that Mars 2020 will have many of the same instruments. However, Jack Mustard, Brown University professor, who presented at the MEPAG meeting, stated, “To date, the evidence that we have from observations of Mars and Martian samples is that we don’t have the clear indication that life is at such an abundance on the planet that we could go there with a simple experiment like Viking As we anxiously await the analysis from Curiosity’s second drill sample, which was taken on May 20, 2013, we can discuss the search for present life on Mars ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

9 [had] and detect that [life is] there.” the Russian Federal Space agency. Mustard went on to explain that it It is a mission that includes an makes more sense fnancially and orbiter and lander planned for scientifcally to search for past life 2016 and a rover with a drill that instead of current life. He believes can reach two meters beneath that we must continue studying the toxic surface, planned for the past geology of the planet 2018. The 2018 mission objective mission. In a paper published in in order to better understand is to search for past or present the journal Astrobiology on April whether past life existed on Mars. life on Mars. During the MEPAG 5, 2013, Dr. Chris McKay, Dr. Carol .As indicated above the Mars 2020 meeting, the question was asked, Stoker, and other leading scien- rover will not search for extant “What if ExoMars fnds life, and tists stated, “The search for evi- life. Some people do not under- how will that afect Mars 2020?” dence of life on Mars is the primary stand why we must wait seven The answer was given by Jim motivation for the exploration of years to launch a rover similar to Green, Director of NASA Planetary that planet. The results from pre- MSL with a sample return cache Science, who stated, “It would be vious missions and the Phoenix that will sit on the planet for an a great problem to have.” This mission in particular, indicate that unknown period of time with no also started a discussion about the ice-cemented ground in the plan as to how it will be returned whether this would be a “Sputnik north polar plains is likely to be to Earth. However, there are moment” and possibly encourage the most recently habitable place other missions planned for Mars a new race for humans to Mars. that is currently known on Mars.” which may search for and possi- The goals of the Icebreaker Life bly fnd current life on Mars. Two The Icebreaker Life mission could mission include: such missions are ExoMars and also be funded for a 2018 launch the Icebreaker Life Mars mission. under the Discovery/New Frontier (1) Search for specifc biomole- ExoMars is collaboration between program, a separate funding cules that would be conclusive the European Space Agency and scheme like the 2016 Insight evidence of life. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

10 (2) Perform a general search for to required elements to support including a drill that will reach organic molecules in the ground life, energy sources, and possible a meter below the surface, an ice. toxic elements. instrument called the Signs of Life Detector (SOLID), an Alpha (3) Determine the processes of (6) Compare the elemental com- Particle X-ray Spectrometer, a Wet ground ice formation and the role position of the northern plains Chemistry Lab, and many other of liquid water. with midlatitude sites.” [http:// instruments. This combination of online.liebertpub.com/doi/ instruments may potentially alter (4) Understand the mechanical abs/10.1089/ast.2012.0878] how we view life in the universe. properties of the Martian polar Journal Astrobiology 4/5/2013 The SOLID instrument has the ice-cemented soil. ability to detect compounds with This mission is very similar to the a biological origin such as whole (5) Assess the recent habitability Phoenix lander but will have more cells and complex organic mole- of the environment with respect advanced scientifc equipment, cules. It has an advanced digital camera and what is known as a “lab on a chip” that can perform various chemistry tests using ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

11 equipment the size of microchips. The technological advances being made are greatly improving the feld of robotic explora- tion and experimentation in ways never thought possible in the past. In the Journal Astrobiology a paper was published by McKay, Stoker and other leading scientists on April 5, 2013. The frst lines of the abstract stated, “The search for evidence of life on Mars is the primary motivation for the exploration of that planet. The results from previous missions and the Phoenix mission in particular, indicate that the ice-cemented ground in the north polar plains is likely to be the most recently habitable place that is currently known on Mars.” The Icebreaker Life mission will search for bio- markers in the same region near the north pole of Mars where the Phoenix Lander executed its mission in 2008. A biomarker is any molecule that indicates the presence of life, such as an enzyme. These biological molecules carry organic biochemical information. The Icebreaker drill is capable of drilling one meter into the sub- surface of the Red Planet in order to search for biomarkers. The ice shavings retrieved from the drill would be analyzed for mol- ecules that are too complex to be present from a non-biological source. It is important to drill below the surface in order to retrieve samples that have not been exposed to the radiation and perchlo- rates (salts) that exist on the surface of Mars. The radiation and per- chlorates could potentially destroy any biomarkers or biological material present, hence the importance of a subsurface mission. [Images: NASA, ExoMars, Astriobio.net] ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

12 Image Credit: Anneliese Possberg, possi@possi. de (www. possi.de) ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

13 AURORA BY SOPHIA NASR No one can deny the beauty of and Aurora Australis to “dawn of aurorae, a stunning display of the south”. Now, let’s get to the colorful lights dancing gracefully formation of aurorae. In addition about the sky. Usually these beau- to emitting light which travels tiful sky lights can only be seen at at c = 3.00*10^8 m/s and takes high latitudes. But how do these about 8 minutes to reach Earth, beautiful aurorae form in the sky? the Sun also spits out plasma Why can they only be seen from during solar storms which travels extreme northern or southern lat- at much slower speeds. During itudes? How are the various colors such storms, the Sun sends out a produced? First, let’s get familiar- ized with the naming of aurora with respect to the part of the hemisphere in which they occur. In the northern hemisphere, they are called Aurora Borealis, or northern lights. In the south- fow of highly charged particles, ern hemisphere, they are known sometimes directed at the Earth. as Aurora Australis, or southern These charged particles travel at lights. From Latin, Aurora Borealis speeds of up to 8 million km/h translates to “dawn of the north”, ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

14 I have yet to observe aurorae in person, but (about 5 million mi/h), or about 2.22*10^6 m/s, much this is defnitely on my list of things I must slower than light speed c. It takes about 40 hours for the do at least once in my life! The next time you storm to reach the Earth. When these charged particles get to see aurorae, keep in mind that you are penetrate the Earth’s ionosphere and collide with atoms observing a beautiful physics phenomenon in the atmosphere, the atoms become “excited” and reach unfolding before your eyes. Now that is what higher energy levels. Excited atoms will then “de-excite” I call awesome! and go down to lower energy levels, during which photons are released and produce aurorae in the sky. The Earth’s magnetic feld plays a role in this phenomenon as well—it is responsible for aurorae being visible only from extreme northern and southern latitudes. The Earth’s magneto- sphere helps shield the Earth from the solar storm, but only succeeds in shielding mid-latitude to equatorial regions of the Earth. The fow of charged particles then follows the magnetic feld lines and is directed towards the poles, where the majority of aurorae are produced. Aurorae do sometimes reach lower latitudes as well, usually when the sunspot count is high during solar maximum. The colors produced depend on the kind of atom the charged parti- cles come in contact with. Striking oxygen atoms produces Top Image: Wikipedia Further Reading: green and red aurorae, while colliding with nitrogen atoms http://www.northernlightscentre.ca/northern- creates blue and purple/violet aurorae. The most common lights.html http://science.howstufworks.com/nature/cli- color formed is green, while the rarest are red and blue. mate-weather/atmospheric/question471.htm 5-minute video: http://www.universetoday. Aurorae form at altitudes ranging from 80 to 640 kilome- com/87436/video-how-does-the-aurora-bore- ters (50 to 400 miles) above the Earth’s surface. alis-form/ ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

15 IC 1101 Let’s talk about size (astronomically speaking). Our galaxy is 100,000 light-years across. That’s pretty big, but it’s not the biggest galaxy in our astronomical “neighborhood”. The Local Group (our “neighborhood”) is comprised of 54 galaxies (dwarf galaxies included) that are gravitationally bound to each other. The biggest in the group Andromeda, 2.5 million light-years away from us, visible to the naked eye as a fuzz patch (in dark skies) in the constellation Andromeda, and some 220,000 light-years across. Okay, our Milky Way still holds its own as the second largest galaxy in our Local Group. Our Local Group is a whopping 10 MILLION light-years across! That is huge, Now, let’s turn our attention to the largest known galaxy in the universe. Way out in the distance, 1.07 billion light-years away in the constellation Virgo, in the large galaxy cluster Abell 2029, lies an enormous galaxy: IC 1101. This gargan- tuan elliptical is over half the diameter of our entire Local Group of 54 galaxies—nearly 6 MILLION light-years across! But wait, there’s more! The Milky Way contains roughly 200 billion stars. IC 1101, by contrast, contains an estimated 100 TRILLION. Absolutely MIND-BLOWING!!! but it makes sense considering it’s a group of 54 gal- axies. Just to give an idea of the types of galaxies out there, there are three major classifcations: dwarf galax- ies, spiral galaxies, and giant elliptical galaxies. Dwarf galaxies are small, like the Milky Way’s satellite galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. These can be as small as 200 light-years across and are not much larger than star clusters. Spiral galaxies, like our Milky Way and Andromeda, are the most common types of galaxies. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

16 They have spiral arms, with blue regions representing active star formation, and yellowish regions popu- lated with old stars where star formation has ceased. Giant elliptical galaxies are the largest, spherical to nearly fat in shape, and are yellowish in hue because they are populated with old stars where star forma- tion has nearly ceased. These are usually a result of mergers and collisions between galaxies. IC 1101 is a giant elliptical. Now let’s get to the how—how IC 1101 became so large, that is. The size of IC 1101 is the result of numerous collisions and mergers between other much smaller galaxies, galaxies about the size of our very own Milky Way, and our familiar galactic neighbor Andromeda. Over time, it grew bigger and bigger as it continued to merge with neighboring galaxies. Now, as we see it, it is nearly a monstrous 6 million light-years across! Keep in mind that at 1.07 billion light years distant, we are looking at IC 1101 as it looked just over a billion years ago. Who’s to say what its size is today, or what its state is, for that matter! If it hasn’t continued colliding and merging with other galaxies, its stars will fade, as there is very little star formation occurring. If it has, then it’ll be even larger! Speaking of mergers and collisions, aren’t Andromeda and our very own Milky Way destined for the same fate some 3.5 billion years from now, merging into one elliptical galaxy?? Food for thought. ~Sophia Nasr Further reading and information on IC 1101: http://astounde.com/the-largest-galaxy-in-the-universe-ic-1101/ http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/ic-1101-the-largest-galaxy-ever-found/ http://amandabauer.blogspot.ca/2009/02/biggest-galaxy-in-universe.html http://astrobob.areavoices.com/2013/07/14/munchkin-milky-way-meets-mega-monster-galaxy-ic-1101/ 5 minute video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UE8yHySiJ4A “All Science, All the Time”: https://www.facebook.com/AllScienceAllTheTime ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

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18 THE BIG SPACE BALLOON SPACE BALLOON space sciences, providing a low cost platform for companies & the space industry to carry out research & development at the edge of space. The aim is for Big Space Balloon to act as platform to feet, into the Earths Stratosphere. The Big Space test out new technologies in the Balloon - The Mission space environment, such as the The balloon’s envelope will printed Solar-cells on the balloon be up to a 100 metres in diame- The Big Space Balloon is a envelope. ter. Potentially using a super pres- project which aims to launch These could pave the way for sure balloon envelope design, the Worlds biggest crowd based a new way of powering future which can enable a sustained high altitude research balloon, spacecraft or space stations, period of flight of several days designed to fly to the edge of produced and deployed at rela- over thousands of miles. The Big space and explore the highest tively low cost compared to tra- Space Balloon will carry a sci- regions of the earth’s atmosphere ditional space based solar cell entific capsule to undertake a to an altitude of up to 130,000 units, which are both expensive range of experiments regarding ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

19 to manufacture and require The hope is that the Big Space The intention is to pressurise highly engineered deployment Balloons science capsule could be the top section of the science mechanisms. re-used in further missions, many capsule to an inhabitable envi- There’s also the possibility of of Nasa’s and ESA’s scientifc pay- ronment to see how these mate- using the technology developed loads go on to make multiple rials perform in the space environ- in interplanetary balloon mis- fights, and some of technology ment, technology used in build- sions. At an altitude of around developed for this project could ing the science capsule, could 120,000 feet plus, the Atmosphere be used in other space missions. be scaled up to build a manned is very similar in density to that at Although the Big space space vehicle in the future. ground level on Mars, one of the Balloon is an un-manned project, instruments the science capsule the science capsule aims to be Be part of something big may carry could be to detect a fairly large structure, approx 2 micro organisms in the earths metres in diameter by 2 metres The Big Space Balloon has the upper atmosphere, technology high, so could demonstrate the potential to be the Worlds biggest that could be then transferable potential of this technology for scientifc outreach program. to a future Mars or Venus mission possible manned space flight The project is aiming to vehicles. have a large element of public ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

20 THE BIG SPACE BALLOON SPACE BALLOON engagement and the project if all goes well, the project is still cells printed onto the fabric, or will ofer people the chance to in its early stages so the main fexible photovoltaic strips com- see them selves at the edge of focus at the moment is on the bined with the polythene strips, space with the “Face in Space fund raising and increasing public a UK company Eight19 are cur- Competition”. awareness of the project which rently developing these type of The free to enter competition in-turn will lead to a main sponsor. solar cells. ofers up to 10,000 members of Stratospheric Balloon Technology Plastic (polymer) solar cells are the public the chance to have a Most large stratospheric bal- much cheaper to produce than mini-image of themselves printed loons are made from a light- conventional silicon solar cells onto the science capsule, to be weight polythene usually around and have the potential to be pro- photographed at the edge of 20-30 microns thick, NASA and the duced in large quantities. space with the latest in high-def- Japanese have experimented with Experts from the University inition cameras. composite polythene’s which can of Sheffield’s Department of We have already started to be as thin as 5 microns. The Big Physics and Astronomy and the receive 100’s of entrants from Space Balloon is aiming to use a University of Cambridge have around the world. polythene based fabric of around created a method of spray-coat- The balloon could be launched 30 microns thick, this will either ing a photovoltaic active layer by in the summer / autumn of 2015 have fexible solar photovoltaic an air based process – similar to ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

21 spraying regular paint from a can – to develop a cheaper technique http://www.shef.ac.uk/news/nr/solar-photo- voltaic-pv-spray-painting-lidzey-1.251912 which can be mass produced. Professor David Lidzey from the University of Sheffield said “Spray coating is currently used to metres of lifting gas ( Helium or cubic metre at sea level, air weighs apply paint to cars and in graphic Hydrogen ) as the balloon climbs 1.2kg, so the diference between printing. We have shown that it and the air thins, the atmospheric the two gases gives helium 1kg can also be used to make solar also pressure drops, once you get of lift at sea level ( 1.2 – 0.1786 = cells using specially designed to around 30km the atmospheric 1.022kg ) per cubic metre. plastic semiconductors. Maybe in pressure is about 100th com- Helium is used most because the future surfaces on buildings pared to the air pressure at sea it is inert and therefore very safe, and even car roofs will routinely level, so it efectively equals that but it can also be relatively expen- generate electricity with these of the Helium or Hydrogen in the sive compared to Hydrogen. The materials”. balloon and you loose the buoy- current crude price of Helium is ( see web site ) ancy efect and stop climbing. around $75 per 1000 cubic feet. http://www.shef.ac.uk/news/ The Buoyancy force is from The gas we finally use will nr/solar-photovoltaic-pv-spray- using a lighter than air gas, such depend on the launch site and painting-lidzey-1.251912 as Helium or Hydrogen, which the type of gas available their This has the potential to will both have low molecular masses. and the associated costs, their turn the balloon envelope into Helium weighs 0.1786 kg per may be higher launch safety costs a giant power generating unit which could produce up to 180Kw of electricity. The Big Space Balloon will start with approx. 4000 cubic ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

22 THE BIG SPACE BALLOON SPACE BALLOON and insurance premiums in using Hydrogen compared with Helium, making the cost of Hydrogen not worth the potential risk. It is possible to climb higher than this by heating the gas in balloon by making use of solar radiation ( sunlight) causing the gas to expand further, but this then requires a bigger balloon envelope for the gas to expand into, the balloon material needs envelope will be designed to have We are not looking to break to be thinner to reduce its weight, a volume of around 400,000 cubic any altitude records with the Big which in-turn increases the risk of metres when fully infated at our Space Balloon as the main aim the balloon fabric ripping. target altitude of approx. of 30km is to try out new technologies, (120-130,000 feet ) such as the solar balloon skin, but The Big Space Balloons the higher the better in terms of ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

23 testing out this technology and or 27 kilometres per hour. pressure and super pressure. carrying out scientific experi- The volume of the Balloon and Zero pressure balloons are ments in a space environment. the amount of lifting gas in rela- the most common type of large Ascent time is usually around tion to the weight of the vehicle, stratospheric balloon, they are 3 hours, initial ascent speed can determines the maximum alti- designed to release their lifting be around 3 metres per second tude you can achieve, i.e a lighter gas once they have achieved this then reduces as the atmo- balloon fabric and science capsule there maximum infation size and sphere thins and the buoyancy will mean the Big Space Balloon the lifting gas begins expanding becomes proportionally less, could go higher, although as further in the sunlight, to avoid for each 5.5 km you ascend, the stated earlier this isn’t a priority the balloon envelope bursting or atmospheric pressure halves so at the moment. ripping. when you reach an altitude of The heating of balloon by By adjusting the total weight 5,500 metres, the air pressure is solar radiation from the Sun and of the balloon and payload in rela- only about one half of what it the atmospheric temperature and tion to the balloon envelope size was at sea level, half of the Earth’s moisture in the air can also efect and amount of lifting gas, you can atmosphere is already below you, the altitude reached. determine the approx altitude at 11,000 meters air pressure is The balloon will then contract you wish to achieve. only about one quarter of that at in the night-time when the lifting The balloons payloads of sea level and at an altitude of 30 gas cools, resulting in a loss of alti- Zero pressure types are designed km you have risen above 99% of tude. This loss in Altitude will vary to release ballast (usually sand) the Earth’s atmosphere. according to the type of balloon during the night time cycle, this The speed of most strato- design we fnally use. allows the balloon to climb again spheric balloons will be deter- Main types of large strato- due to having reduced its weight. mined by wind speed which at an spheric balloons When the balloon gets altitude of 30km is approximately There are two main types of heated by the sun again during 15knots ( 7.5 metres per second) large stratospheric balloons, zero the daytime cycle, more lifting ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

24 THE BIG SPACE BALLOON SPACE BALLOON loose some altitude during the gas is released to avoid bursting ground by the defated balloon night-time cycle when the lifting the balloon envelope, after 2 or 3 envelope and hopefully allows gas cools, but will climb again day-night cycles the balloon will you to more accurately determine once heated by the sun during have released all of its ballast and the landing site. the daylight cycle. will have lost a certain amount of I’m keen to use the super pres- lifting gas, so will begin to loose The super pressure balloons sure design as it ofers the poten- its useful altitude, ( certain scien- are designed to stay afloat for tial of a much longer fight time, tifc missions are based on being much longer than zero pressure possibly allowing the balloon at defned altitudes ). balloons, potentially up to several to fly for several weeks, but if A panel is then cut open in weeks giving you much more this proves to be to difcult, we the balloon fabric, usually done fight time per balloon launch. may use the zero pressure type by electrically heating an-embed- Super pressure balloons work balloon. ded wire, to release enough gas by being designed to with-stand to descend the balloon, at around the additional pressure created The main technical challenge 5,000 feet the capsule is released from being heated by solar radia- with super pressure designs are from the balloon to descend using tion, avoiding the need to release that the balloon envelope needs a separate parachute, this avoids any lifting gas and carry an ballast, to be strong enough to withstand the payload being dragged on the the super pressure balloon does ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

25 The Science Capsule This allows fairly complex and the extra pressure of sunlight bespoke structures to be manu- heating, but light-weight enough The total payload including factured straight from the com- to give you a good altitude, there the science capsule is approxi- puter, avoiding wastage of raw is no fnal design for super pres- mately 1 metric tonne, (1000kg) materials and additional fabrica- sure balloons as the research is this is made up of around 500kg tion jigs or molds. on-going as material technolo- for the science capsule itself with gies develop. the other 500kg for scientific The German company Voxljet equipment. have developed a 3D printer The weight of the balloon capable of producing objects up material is also a factor which I’ve The material for the science to 2 metres in diameter using a estimated to be around 1000kg capsule is yet to be fnalized, but Nylon based powder printer. for the Big Space Balloon. I’m very interested in using the The balloon will have a surface manufacturing process known These machines work by area of approximately 32,000 as Additive Layer Manufacturing adding a thin layer of powder to metres square, each square metre (ALM) or 3D Printing. a platform which is at the top of of balloon material will need to Single products can be created container box, a laser then fuses be no more than 32g in weight, ( from a fne powder of metal (such the powder together to form a a £1.00 weighs 7.5g ). as titanium, stainless steel or alu- thin section of the object you minium), nylon or carbon rein- wish to print. forced plastics. The platform is then lowered ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

26 THE BIG SPACE BALLOON SPACE BALLOON University Laser Sintered Aircraft) plane is an unmanned air vehicle (UAV) whose entire structure has been printed, including wings, integral control surfaces and access hatches. It was printed on an EOS EOSINT P730 nylon laser a fraction of a milometer into the At the end of the process the sintering machine, which fab- box, another thin layer of powder box is full of both Nylon powder ricates plastic or metal objects, is then spread across the plat- & your printed object, so excess building up the item layer by form, the laser then fuses this new powder is then vacuumed of to layer. powder to the existing section to reveal the object, this powder Scientifc Research form a new section on top, to start can then be re-used for new 3d The project can hopefully be building up the object. objects. used for a range of space related This process is repeated mul- • This method of 3D print- / upper atmosphere research, but tiple times until you have created ing was used by a team at as yet I’m not able to detail these your 3D object & / or the platform Southampton University to build as its yet to be decided. has reached the bottom of the the worlds biggest 3D printed But these could include container box. glider. The SULSA (Southampton ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

27 research involving the Earths atmosphere, such as investing levels of pollution in the strato- sphere and how these effect global warming. Testing out earth observation technology such as high defni- tion imaging devices for later use range of balloon related scientifc phenomena like the Aurora in orbital space craft. missions ). Borealis that can occasionally The use of Lasers in space, to Prof Robertus Erdelyi is destroy our mode satellites, tele- see if these could be used to track Head of the Solar Physics and communication systems or even and possibly remove small space Space Plasma Research Centre may preventing us to make a debris by reducing its orbital at Shefeld University and is cur- simple phone call? velocity and causing it fall to earth rently developing instruments to Their is no way of steering faster. detect Plasma emissions from the stratospheric Balloons, so it will The detection of micro orga- Sun, which we aim to include in be carried with the wind. nizations high in the earths atmo- the Big Space Balloons science At the altitudes were aiming sphere to see how far up life , such capsule. towards the thin air at these levels as Bacteria’s, can survive. The atmosphere of the planets means that the winds have very At 30km the Earths atmo- in the Solar System strongly inter- little force, but balloons can be sphere is very similar in density act with huge magnetised plasma carried for several thousand miles. to that at ground level on Mars, fows originating from the Sun, The winds are easterly during so equipment for detecting life on and often associated with massive the summer and westerly during Mars could be tested by the Big solar plasma eruptions and mag- the winter. Depending on where Space Balloon. netised solar tornadoes, causing we launch, time of year and how ( Please see our website for a ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

28 THE BIG SPACE BALLOON SPACE BALLOON long the balloon stays afoat will determine where the balloon lands, hopefully it’ll be over land!. But it could in theory circumnavigate the globe which would be rather cool. The recent BRRISON project was a NASA mission that sent a balloon carrying a telescope and instru- ments high above Earth to study Comet ISON. The Balloon Rapid Response for ISON (BRRISON) – carried a 0.8 m telescope and optical and infrared sensors to study the comet from above nearly all of Earth’s atmosphere. Launch Sites We are currently looking into various launch sites, the best at the moment would be to use the Esrange space centre, in Kiruna, Sweden, as they are equipped for large stratospheric balloon launches and are rel- atively close compared to established launch sites in the US and Antarctica, although it would be nice to launch from the UK if possible, but it can get very busy above us and there’s a higher risk of the balloon drifting and descending over populated areas. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

29 Rich Curtis – Project Director The Big Space Balloon is an idea I’ve been working on for a couple of years, I’m part of the generation that grew up during the Apollo missions with the mighty Saturn V rockets, Skylab, Soyuz and then the Space Shuttle, so I’ve had a life long interest in space and space technology. My background is in construction design for the housing market so I’m used to working on large build- ing sized projects, I’ve combined these interests in the Big Space Balloon project. My reason for choosing a balloon are several really; a big stratospheric balloon allows you to lift a rea- sonably substantial payload of up to several tonnes into a space environment. • Balloons also allow you to put relatively large payloads into a space environment at a lower costs compared to a rocket, which can easily run into 100’s of £millions per launch. • Balloon payloads as 3D printing, to build a substantial be involved in the project can also be launched many vehicle and to send it on its way to the directly through the manu- times allowing modifica- edge of space and see the images of facture of the balloon enve- tions, improvements and the Big Space Balloon fying above the lope and the science capsule upgrades to the on-board earths atmosphere, against the black- or the through supplying equipment with each ness of space. scientific equipment, again launch. this is in the early stages and The biggest challenge will be the theirs a lot to do. It would also be very fabrication of the balloon envelope exciting to use some of the due to its size, I’m in the process of latest technologies such building partnerships with organisa- tions and companies who could either ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

30 THE BIG SPACE BALLOON SPACE BALLOON Our team includes: John Ackroyd - Designer & Consultant Engineer, who has worked on a range of balloon based projects including Balloon projects; the frst being the “Endeavor” round the world project for Julian Nott, design- ing the pressurized crew capsule which was molded in Kevlar East Cowes, on the Isle of Wight, as well as the pressurised capsules for Richard Branson and Per Lindstrand’s high altitude crossings of the Atlantic and Pacifc, and their round the world attempts; as well as Per’s high altitude capsule in which he reached 65,000 feet in Texas. Other projects include the extraordinary Earthwinds R.T.W. balloon, working in the USA for several years and more recently the mega balloon (worlds largest infatable) used at the opening ceremony of the 2010 commonwealth games. Andy Elson - Balloonist and Engineer, Andy has been involved in a huge range of balloon projects including several record breaking balloon attempts including piloting the world’s frst hot air balloon fight over Mt Everest 1991, working as both designer and co-pilot with Colin Prescot on the Brietling Orbiter II balloon fight from Switzerland to Burma in 1998. He was also involved with the QinetiQ1 balloon as both pilot and balloon fabricator, Andy still has the main equipment in storage, used in the fabrication of the huge balloon envelope made for their attempt ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

31 on the manned high altitude balloon record in 2003. Dr. Andras Sobester - Andras is a member of the Computational Engineering and Design research group within the School of Engineering Sciences at the University of Southampton. Undertaking research in a range of areas including Design optimization Aircraft design, High altitude fight. Andras is involved with the ASTRA (Atmospheric Science Through Robotic Aircraft initiative), Exploring Earth’s atmosphere using high altitude unmanned instrument platforms. I’ve also spoken with the director at Cameron balloons, Alan Noble, who along with their partner company Linstrand balloons, both have the manufacturing know-how to fabricate a balloon on this scale. The project is still in the preliminary stage, so the prime focus at the moment will be on fundraising, the estimated cost of project is between £1,500,000 to £2,000,000 pounds. The exact funding is not fnalized at the moment as it depends on the fnal material costs and whether we fund any scientifc equipment or whether this is provided by partners, but I am currently looking into a range of options & am determined to make this happen. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

32 ROVERS AND SPACESHIPS EVERYWHERE! BY: NICOLE WILLETT, CHUCK MCMURRAY AND THE MARS SOCIETY Rover and Engineering Design Competitions from The Mars Society- 5th grade thru Undergraduate The Mars Society is host to three (3) design chal- lenges. They range in age from middle school thru college level. The middle and high school level chal- lenge was launched at the 16th Annual Mars Society Convention this past August. It is called the Youth Rover Challenge. One of the undergraduate chal- lenges is called the University Rover Challenge and it has had several very successful seasons so far. The fnal challenge was also launched at the convention in August. It is an international student design com- petition. The Youth Rover Challenge (YRC) is a multi- tier robotics education development program that is hosted, sponsored and operated by The Mars Society. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

33 The program commenced on August 6th, 2013 to commemorate the one year anniversary of the landing of NASA’s Curiosity Rover. YRC is a STEM related edu- cational efort that is designed for schools and organizations with students or members in grades 5-12 to have the chance to build and compete at a global level with a LEGO Mindstorms NXT 2.0 based robotic rover and competition arena intended to simulate the surface of Mars. The sandbox where the robotic rover operates is intended to be replicated so participants can operate the com- petition locally at your school, home or club. The Rover built for the competi- tion is pre-designed to accomplish specifc experiments (tasks) similar to what Mars Rovers accomplish today on the surface of Mars and other harsh environ- ments on remote places on Earth. The competition is operated on-site at your self-built sandbox and the fnal operation of the feld tasks are then videotaped and sent to each teams personalized YRC site for submission. Teams that have submitted videos that show the fnal operation of the rover completing the tasks under a time limit are then ranked against other teams. The YRC is designed to prepare students for the University Rover Challenge that has operated suc- cessfully for the last 7 years directed by The Mars Society. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

34 ROVERS AND SPACESHIPS EVERYWHERE! The University Rover Challenge (URC) is the world’s premier robotics competition for college students. The URC has ofcially kicked of its 2014 competition. This competition challenges students to design and build the next generation of Mars rovers which will one day work alongside astronauts on the Red Planet. Teams spend the academic year designing, building and testing their robotic creations. They will compete at the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) in the remote, barren desert of south- ern Utah in late May, 2014. The challenge features multiple tasks, including an Equipment Servicing Task that incorporates infat- able structures, and a more aggressive incarnation of the popular Terrain Traversing Task. URC is unique in the challenges that it presents to students. Interdisciplinary teams will tackle robotics, engineering and feld science domains, while gaining real-world systems engineering and project management experience. University teams inter- ested in participating can view the URC2014 rules online. The ofcial registration process will open in early November; however ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

35 teams are encouraged to begin their work now. The Mars Society recently announced the launch of an international engineering competition for student teams to propose design concepts for the architec- ture of the Inspiration Mars mission. The contest is open to university engineering student teams from anywhere in the world. Inspiration Mars Executive Director Dennis Tito and Program Manager Taber MacCallum were present for the announcement. “Inspiration Mars is looking for the most creative ideas from engineers all over the world,” said Tito. “Furthermore, we want to engage the explorers of tomorrow with a real and exciting mission, and demonstrate what a powerful force space exploration can be in inspiring young people to develop their talent. This contest will accomplish both of those objectives.” The requirement is to design a two-person Mars fyby mission for 2018 as cheaply, safely and simply as possible. All other design variables are open. Alumni, professors and other university staf may participate as well, but the teams must be predominantly composed of and led by students. All competition presentations must be completed exclusively by stu- dents. Teams will be required to submit their design reports in writing by March 15, 2014. From there, a down-select will occur with the top 10 fnalist teams invited to present and defend their designs before a panel of six judges chosen (two each) by the Mars Society, Inspiration Mars and NASA. The presentations will take place during a public event at NASA Ames Research Center in April 2014. Designs will be evaluated using a scoring system, allocating a maximum of 30 points for cost, 30 points for technical quality of the design, 20 points for operational simplicity and 20 points for schedule with a maximum total of 100 points. The frst place team will receive a prize of $10,000, an all-expenses paid trip to the 2014 International Mars Society Convention and a trophy to be presented by Dennis Tito at that event. Prizes of $5,000, $3,000, $2,000 and $1,000 will also be awarded for second through ffth place. All designs submitted will be published, and Inspiration Mars will be given non-exclusive rights to make use of any ideas contained therein. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

36 ALL IMAGES MARS SOCIETY ROVERS AND SPACESHIPS EVERYWHERE! Commenting on the contest, Mars Society President Dr. Robert Zubrin said, “The Mars Society is delighted to lead this efort. This contest will provide an opportunity for legions of young engineers to directly con- tribute their talent to this breakthrough project to open the space frontier.” ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

37 MARS ARCTIC 365 The Mars Society’s one-year Mars surface simulation mission in northern Canada ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

38 NGC6960 BY MIKE GREENHAM ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

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40 Astrocamp: A personal refection BY Joolz Wright I have never been to any other star party so I don’t profess to be an expert on what ingredients make up a suc- cessful one...all I know is, like anything else in life..you always remember your frst. The Astrocamp in the Brecon Beacons was my frst in September 2012. Armed with an antiquated refector telescope, I spent my frst weekend in a tent since I left the Girl Guides and dragged my young son along too! I didn’t know anyone, apart from con- vincing a good friend and her son...and a handful of astronomers I had met through Twitter. I never regretted it. This September was my third visit to the Astrocamp and I can honestly say it just gets better every time. Arrival on the frst day is always a very busy one. Any fraught journeys there are soon forgotten when you see the familiar faces from previous camp and arrivals throughout the day are peppered with friends: old and new... It certainly breaks the ice when my son announces to freshly met astronomers the outburst of my road rage... word for word. Well, it is very stressful towing a caravan for over 3 hours! I always think one of the successes of the Astrocamp is that due to a very active and friendly social networking presence no one ever really feels like a stranger (even when you want the ground to swallow you up!) This September camp saw the return of the BBC Sky at Night team and things soon got underway with Chris Lintott judging an astronomy themed cake competition. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

41 The bringing of cakes by various camp attendees has very quickly become a bit of a tradition and this year my daughter had made and decorated a fabulous shuttle cake. I was a very proud mum when her cake was announced the winner, and even featured on the Sky at Night programme! My girl was actually my saviour after my attempt at decorating it with the Awesome Astronomy Animated characters (also the camp organisers) melted! No one wants to see a cake looking like the result of a drunken brawl...do they? The campsite is set up in a way which leaves a central area for observing. This is “the common” and is a place where many set up their scopes with a view to sharing celestial delights at the eyepiece. There are also dedicated astro-imaging areas for those who need less interrup- tion to really take advantage of the inky black skies. Some set up scopes next to their tents or vans, it really is a great mix and at Astrocamp there are no hard and fast rules except for the usual star camp etiquette. I had decided to set up my 127 Skywatcher Mak (on an EQ GoTo mount) by my van on the frst night, a major upgrade from my telescope at the frst Astrocamp! I had a great Polar Alignment tutorial from another astro earlier on in the evening, so I was convinced it was all going to go well! How wrong I was! By the time it was dark enough to Polar Align my telescope decided to stop slewing. I put it down to a battery failure and decided to concentrate on my DSLR. Again, another astro patiently taught me how to focus, using the zoom facility on live view and I spent most of the evening capturing some wide feld shots of the Milky Way! Another frst! ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

42 A fabulous night was had with many objects and a fabulous comprehensive guide from one of the clearly visible with the naked eye such as camp organisers, Damien Phillips/ @dephelis (you may the Double Custer and M31 recognise him from my cake!!). Although the wonderful There is always so much going on at clear skies meant the sun washed out the accompanying Astrocamp during the day too. screen presentation, all was not lost, as Damien gave small groups hands on tutorials throughout the event duration. The days were flled with some amazing These particularly included how to image using a webcam views of the sun using the array of solar followed by the processing methods and recommended scopes and filtered scopes/ binoculars stacking software. It was a very welcome activity for many on the common. We were even treated beginners and those wanting to try new techniques. No on day two, to the most spectacular sun Astrocamp would be complete without the unmissable halo! An imaging workshop was also held Astro Pub-quiz! This September was no exception. With on the common with some great advice the most amazing telescope prizes you would be bonkers ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

43 not to enter! Even the BBC Sky at Night team entered...and no guesses as to where they came on the leader board! They walked away with the most coveted of prizes...a free down- load to the wonderful Awesome Astronomy podcast! Really must swot harder for the next one... Another highlight of the weekend was Jenifer Millard’s fascinating talk on exo-planets with some amazing facts and great audience participation, including a demonstration of the evo- lution of the known Universe using a “clothes line” and pegged images! A great Q and A session saw the youngest preschool camp attendee ofering...”I have a question...what’s this?”...Followed by a crack- ing shadow puppet onto the projection screen! It really was an informative and fun packed after- noon for all ages! Before you knew it, it was dusk once more and it really is a truly magical place on the common. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

44 Everyone had set up their scopes and once Polaris had been clocked, the frst sighting of any celestial light would be greeted with the comforting sound of slewing scopes and voices calling out new targets. How could you not be mesmerised by that view... The second evening brought some very unwelcome cloud cover and rain...just to show that there isn’t always a clear sky at Astrocamp, although it has a pretty good track record! This was used as an excuse to catch up with other astro-pals as there was no “scope driving” to be done! Tweeting absent friends and red torch portraits were the frivolities of the evening, with the Sky at Night team asking for a window of quietness whilst they flmed their closing shot, and great fun was had! An early night was also most welcome! ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

45 The following day was spent with more glorious skies and solar observing and with the astro imaging ses- sions running, it really was a relaxed atmosphere accumulating in an \"astro high tea\" with everyone on the common sharing sandwiches, snacks and tea, of course! Below: (Image by Alex Speed) Night was soon around again and with a borrowed power pack I made another attempt at using my scope on the common and after a few very frustrating false starts I was up and running. A very helpful and much more expe- rienced observer came to my rescue in the form of a 13 year old young lady when my scope was playing up and without her I would probably have given up after a failed ffth attempt at star alignment! There were lots of beau- tiful frsts, with views of the Wild Duck Cluster, Owl (ET) Cluster and Alberio. I could not believe how beautiful a double star could look at the eyepiece...and wondered why I hadn’t attempted to view it before then. Old favou- rites such as the Double Cluster and Andromeda to name just two were all the more vibrant in the darkest of skies. More shared views through some great telescopes and fantastic moments such as the excitement when a fellow astro captured three galaxies in one feld of view, will be very difcult to forget! With the Milky Way stretching from one horizon to another there is so much to take in. A good part of the night was spent sitting in a chair just using ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

46 eyes as equipment of choice, with great company. With a long journey ahead in the morning I reluctantly bunked down around 3 am with fantastic images of the wonderful sights I had seen still in my head. All too soon and it was time to leave...but what a great experience. The date of the next camp was displayed and all I can say is it cannot come soon enough! (Image Paul Hill) (left) ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

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48 THE IMAGINARY NUMBER THE COMPLEX NUMBERS Numbers are so familiar to us that it might seem unimaginable that there was a time when the very concept didn’t exist. Indeed the invention of numbers is lost in antiquity. Historians of mathematics speculate that the origin of numbers was probably connected with real problems of life at the time, like describing whether there was one animal, or more than one animal as food source (or a threat). A certain level of abstraction was required to use numbers. Three rabbits, three stars and three rocks only share the common property of three- ness. Manipulation of number – with no connection to physical objects – was a great intellectual leap. BEYOND THE COUNTING NUMBERS Negative numbers arrived on the scene much later. Trading and commerce meant that proft and loss should be accounted for properly. Negative numbers were used to represent an absence or a loss. Despite that neg- ative numbers were not immediately accepted by mathematicians. Early practitioners of algebra would often discard negative values when they appeared as solutions. After all it’s easy to picture three people in a room. Or two. Or one. Or even none. But what does minus one person in a room look like? One of my students recently suggested it would be like a ghost. There may be grounds for rejecting negative numbers as the solution to a particular problem but in other situations their use may be perfectly acceptable. Negative numbers eventually found their place in our number system because they can be solutions of equa- tions – just as valid as their positive namesakes. Likewise the history of zero is just as fraught with controversy and confusion. Zero initially served as a placeholder in the representation of number. For example, it is the zeros which tell you about the size of the numbers 15 and 105 and 1005. But zero as a number in its own right took a long time to gain acceptance. Just like negative values, the solutions to some equations can be zero. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

49 The negative and positive numbers (integers and all the values between them) along with zero can be rep- resented on a numberline stretching infnitely in both directions For most people that’s the end of the story – we usually don’t need other types of number to survive in life. Or do we? Impossible Square Roots Mathematicians of the Renaissance, armed with algebraic methods and newly invented symbols, began to tackle a difcult equation: the cubic. A cubic equation contains the variable multiplied by itself three times (compare with a quadratic equation which has the variable “squared” --- multi- plied with itself twice). A method for solving quadratic equations was well known. Mathematicians eventually found a method for solving cubic equations. A simple cubic equation is x^3-15x-4=0. Mathematicians applied the algorithm for solving it and one of the intermediate steps generated this fearful expression: ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014

50 The exasperating thing about the cubic equation was actually has simple solution: ���=4. But the method was generating the complicated expression shown here which contains, among other things, a square- root of a negative number. Why is the square-root strange? Well, mathematicians had long thought that only positive numbers (and zero) could have a square-root. For example, since 9×9=81 then the square-root of 81 is 9. The square-root could also be -9 because −9×−9=81. Similarly 4 is 2 or -2. There are no numbers, positive or negative, that when multiplied with itself, gives a negative number. Therefore expressions like −121 had no sensible meaning and mathematicians were puzzled by its presence. Instead of rejecting the square-roots of the negatives the Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli (1526 - 1572) embraced them and manipulated them using the rules of algebra. He was able to change the solution into something a little simpler: The solution still contains square roots of negative numbers, but the second one subtracts and cancels the frst leaving just x=2+2=4, which was the expected answer. Whatever the square-roots of negative numbers were, they obeyed the rules of arithmetic and algebra and led to “real” solutions. ICY SCIENCE | WINTER 2013- 2014