BAQ111_History-I(English)

Origin of Aryan Home 95  Vedangas were created to make Vedas more understandable. They were like Shiksha: How to pronounce the Vedic prayers in proper manner, Kalpa: Rules to perform sacrifice in a proper manner, Vyakaran: To know the proper grammar of Sanskrit language, Nirukta: Etymology of words, mentioned in the Vedas, Chanda: Various meters in which Vedic shlokas are structured to recite, Jyotish: It deals with proper time (Shakun) on which sacrifices should be preorganised. It also describes the topics of astronomy like Sun, Moon, and constellations and, on cycles of seasons, etc. Archaeological Sources Archaeological sources discovered for the Vedic Civilisation act as only a supplementary to the existing literary sources. The archaeological sources chiefly throw light upon the material life of the then people and the society. Scholars take the help of these sources to understand the pattern of settlements, the kind of pottery used, the tools and weapons practiced and the housing patterns.  The most essential aspects of archaeological excavations to study the civilisation were pottery, tools, weapons and monuments. Excavations were conducted in Punjab, northern Rajasthan, UP along the Indus and Ghagger Rivers over the last fifty years. They have unearthed many settlements which had existed roughly between 1700 BC to 600 BC. The essential materials excavated from these sites are pottery named ‘ochre coloured pottery’, Black and Red ware and ‘Painted Gray ware’ cultures. However, the pottery kinds do not reveal the whole culture of the people. The analysis of pottery rechiefs will help to understand the specific trait of the cultural assemblage of the age.  When a specific pottery becomes a distinct feature of a culture, that specific culture is known by the specifications of the pottery. The Ochre coloured pottery (OCP) culture is related with a specific kind of pottery. In the Ganga-Yamuna doab excavations were discovered more than 100 sites of this same characteristic pottery. The OCP culture is succeeded by Black and Red Ware (BRW) and painted Gray Ware (PGW) cultures. The material rechiefs of OCP culture are mostly in the form of pottery. These comprise jars, bowls etc. Archaeological rechiefs discovered at Atranjikhera, an OCP site suggest that CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

96 History-I the people of this culture had grown rice and barley. The OCP culture has been ascribed to an age between 2000 BC and 1500 BC.  Black and Red Ware (BRW) have been discovered at Atranjikhera in between OCP and PGW levels during the excavations conducted in the early 1960s. BRW is also discovered in Alangirpur and Hasthinapuri which was associated with PGW. The characteristic feature of Black and Red Ware is the black colour inside and near the rim on the outside and over the rest of the body red colour. Some of the pots are wheel made and some others are handmade.  The BRW recovered from Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have paintings, while those discovered in the doab region have no painting at all. From the BRW sites at Atranjikhera scholars found the materials like waste flakes, chips, heads of shell and copper, copper ring and fragments of comb made of bone.  PGW (Painted Gray Ware) sites were first excavated from Ahichatra in 1946. It is wide spread in North India. More than thirty sites of PGW culture have been unearthed so far including Bhagwanpura in Haryana, Rajasthan, Rupar in Punjab etc.; the pottery of this civilisation is wheels made and is gray in colour. The common kinds of pottery of this culture are bowls and dishes. The people of this age lived in circular or rectangular houses. Certain houses had more than a dozen rooms. Also materials made out of copper, bone, iron and glass are discovered in the PGW sites. All most all sites show the discovery of iron objects. Rechiefs of rice, barley and wheat were discovered at the sites of Hasthinapura and Atranjikhera. Early Vedic Age (C. 1500 – C. 1200 BCE) Early Vedic Age is also known as Rig Vedic Age which spanned over a millennium from 1800 BC to 800 BC. They first established down in the Sapta-Sindhu region or Panjab and its adjacent regions. Their rural culture is revealed in their socio-economic life. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 97 4.5 Social Life of the Aryans Social life of the Aryans was very simple and pure. They started living a well-established family life which was patriarchal i.e. in the family father was the head who exercised absolute control over his children. Usually joint family system prevailed among the Aryans. Wife assisted and actively participated in household affairs. In performing religious ceremonies presence of wife was unavoidable. Hospitality was considered religious duty of every Aryan. Position of Women: Women enjoyed a very high position in society. No religious rites could be performed without women. Women were both educated and highly civilized. They participated in philosophical debates and were also well versed in music and dancing. Girls had considerable freedom in selecting their life partners. There was no system of child marriage. There was also a desire on the part of married couples to have children because without children life was considered incomplete. There was a system of widow marriage. Polygamy was prevalent among the kings and the nobles. Women freely moved out of their houses and attended public functions. Females were always under the care of the males, both before and after marriage. The Rig Veda contains a story of a grihapati who left his wife and went away for practising penance but he was told by the god that he could not perform the penance without his wife. The women during the Rig Vedic period were sufficiently educated and took part in philosophical debates and discussions. Some of notable women scholars of this age were Apala, Visvavara and Ghosha. They were not only well versed in sacred texts but also composed several hymns. Women also took keen interest in music and dancing. The respectable position of the women during the early Vedic period is also evident from the absence of a system of child marriage during this period. In the matter of selection of their husbands the women were given complete freedom, though often the parents selected their partners. Dowry and bride prices were in vogue but these were generally resorted to only in cases where either of the partners had some physical defect. There are references in Vedic literature to prove that a bride price was given by a son-in- law who was not quite desirable. Similarly dowry was given by the parents of a girl who had some physical defect. Marriage was regarded as a sacred and divine institution and performed with the recitation of hymns. The marriage was indissoluble by any human action. Widows were allowed to re-marry, especially when they were without child. Certain limitations on marriages CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

98 History-I were in vogue. Thus, wedlocks between father and daughter or brother and sister could not take place. The main aim of the marriage was provision of a male child to continue the vansha or dynasty. Monogamy was the common form of marriage but polygamy was also prevalent amongst the members of higher classes. Generally, the kings and chiefs practised polygamy. Polyandry was non-existent. Though the women enjoyed position of great respect and equality with men, they were generally expected to live under the care of men throughout their life. Before marriage they lived under the care of their father. After their marriage they lived under the protection of their husbands. During old age, as widows, they were under the care of their sons. However, this should not give us the impression that the women were not permitted to move freely and were confined to the four walls of the house. They enjoyed complete freedom of movement. There are several references to prove participation of women in public functions, performances, and festive gatherings. Education Great importance was attached to education during the early Vedic period. However, educational institutions in the present sense of the term did not exist. The education was mainly oral. The common method of imparting education was that first the teacher recited a Mantra from Veda which was then repeated by the students in the Gurukula. The main purpose of the education was to sharpen the intellect of the person and develop his character. The education imparted was essentially religious in character. It is not known whether the people during the early Vedic age were conversant with the art of writing. Some scholars have expressed the view that the people did not know about the art of writing and the knowledge was transmitted orally to the succeeding generation. If that be true, it was indeed a stupendous feat of memory. But if we discount the above view and support the contention of other scholars that the art of writing was known to the people and people reduced to writing voluminous texts, it confronts us with another problem viz. what was the writing material used by the people. We have not come across anything definite on this point. Hence we can say that mystery still shrouds this issue and we cannot say anything for certain. Education was not the responsibility of the state and pupils stayed CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 99 at the ashrams were usually away from residential places and often the kings provided liberal financial assistance to these ashrams. At the Gurukula Ashram the child was provided free lodging and boarding. The students were not required to pay any fee, etc. They paid only guru dakshina on the completion of there education. The curriculum of education was quite extensive. Apart from the study of various religious works they were imparted training in military science, logic, medicine, astrology, arithmetic, grammar etc. Education was generally restricted to the higher castes and the teaching of the Vedas was generally confined to the Brahmins. The girls received education from women teachers. In their education great emphasis was laid on learning of music and dancing. Usually only the girls of rich families received education. Discourses and discussions were a common feature of education and were greatly helpful in removing doubts in the minds of pupils. Thus, education during the early Vedic period covered quite a wide field and aimed at physical, moral, intellectual as well as spiritual development of the students. Culture The culture of Early Vedic people was rural in nature. The people of early Vedic age lived in the villages and were essentially agricultural people. They were conversant with the art of cultivation of land and used several instruments like ploughs, harrows, mattocks and hoes for this purpose. They usually ploughed the fields with the help of a pair of the oxen bound to the yoke. Their plough share were probably made of wood. They were conversant with artificial means of irrigation and watered the land through artificial canals. They were also conversant with the sowing, harvesting and crushing. Generally they grew two crops a year. Their main crops were wheat and barley but subsequently they also started cultivating rice. They also used manures to increase production. The Aryans were essentially pastoral people and attached great importance to the cows. The Rig Veda contains numerous references about the cows. In fact the early Aryans fought most of their wars for the sake of the cows because they regarded them as the most valued possession and chief form of their wealth. This is evident from the fact that in their prayers they asked for increase of cattle. The cow was also the chief medium of exchange during the early Vedic period and the sacrificial priests were often rewarded for their services with cattle. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

100 History-I One of the main cause of the inter-tribal wars during this period was cattle and the word gavishti (search for cows), has been used for wars. The Rig Veda also makes a mention at one or two places that the cows are not be killed, which suggests that the economic importance of cow was evident to the people. However, the people did not regard cow as a sacred animal and often slaughtered them for food. In fact beef was regarded a delicacy and was offered to honoured guests. In addition to the cows, the people also domesticated animals like sheeps, goats, horses, etc. In addition to agriculture the early Aryans also practised several crafts. The Rig Veda makes reference to carpenters, charriot-rnakers, the weavers, the leather workers, the potters, etc. which suggests that all these crafts were being practised. People also knew about the art of metal- working because the term ayas has been used for copper or bronze. These metals were used for the making of implements as well as utensils. The other professions which were practised by the people, which find mention in the Rig Veda, include medicine, dancing, barbers. The physicians treated the patients with herbs and plants and probably also performed some sort of surgery. Magic and spells were also sued for treatment of patients, especially to drive away the evil spirits. The Varna or Caste System: When the Aryans came to India they were divided into three social classes, the warriors, the priests and the common people. At that time, professions were not hereditary nor were there any restrictions regarding marriage or dining within these classes. It is only when the Aryans came in contact with the non-Aryans and allowed them a place within their society, that the necessity to maintain class distinctions arose. However, the early Aryans divided the society only in two parts Dvija or twice born and Advija. All Aryans whether warriors, priests or common people were called dvija while non-Aryans and those of mixed blood were called Advija. The distinction was maintained only on the basis of culture but primarily on the basis of colour of skin or what is called varna in Sanskrit. However, during the later period of Rig Veda the fourfold division, that is, chaturvarna-system started to take its form. In the chapter 10 devoted, to Rig veda viz., Purushasukta it has been mentioned that God created Brahmanas Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras from his head, arms, thighs and feet, respectively. Among the Aryans, priestly class was called the Brahmana, the warriors were called the Kshatriyas, the common people devoted to agriculture, pastoral pursuits, trade and industry were called the Vaisyas and the Dasas or non-Aryans and people of mixed blood were assigned the status of the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 101 Sudras. Thus, the chaturvarna-system which has been gradually distorted in shape and meaning and replaced by the prevalent caste system in India, had its beginning during the later Rigved period. Besides, the sudras who were distinguished from the rest, there was no rigidity in the system. Change in varna was quite often possible with change in profession and there was no restriction on interdining and intermarriage within the three upper varnas of the society. The caste system was, however, perfected during the later Vedic age in various directions. The Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas emerged as the leading classes. The Brahmanas claimed superiority over all other varnas but the Kshatriyas remained their contenders. The Vaisyas, as the remaining Aryans were called, were no doubt much superior to the Sudras but their position steadily deteriorated while the position of the Sudras definitely went down. However, untouchability did not yet rear its ugly head. The tradition of gotra which meant that a man should normally marry a woman of equal birth, i.e., within his caste but not with the same gotra, was also developed. Yet, the caste system had not become rigid by that time. The caste of an individual was not solely determined by birth and the professions normally laid down for the different castes were not scrupulously followed in practice. The same way, barring the Sudras there was no prohibition to interdining and intermarriages among different castes. A man of an upper class could marry woman of lower class than himself. However, a male of a lower class could not marry a woman of an upper class than himself. Caste System: Caste system in the present sense of the term did not exist among Indo- Aryans. Of course there were classes but none was hereditary and people were classified in classes according to their vocation. A hymn in Rig Veda says, “I am a poet, my father is a physician, my mother grinds corn on stone. Being engaged in different occupations, we seek wealth and happiness, as cows seek food in different pastures.” Both Prof. Max-Muller and Mr. R.C. Dutta are of the view that caste system in the present sense of the term did not exist at all during Rig Vedic Age. Food and Dress: Milk and milk products were in common use. Wheat, barley, fruit and vegetables were usually used. They used Soma Rasa with joy and so was the position about honey. They used cotton and woollen clothes and also the skin of the animals. Both male and female CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

102 History-I used two garments. Ornaments were also used both by men and women. Precious stones were also used. Yava which probably meant wheat, barley and beans were the chief vegetarian food stuff of the Aryans. They made bread and cakes of flour. Milk and its various preparations, such as ghee, butter and curd together with fruits, vegetables and sugar-cane were also favourite commodities of food. The flesh of ox, sheep and goat was normally eaten. Horse flesh was eaten only on the occasion of horse sacrifice and so was the case with beef and there too only barren cows called vasas were sacrificed. However, during the later Vedic age, the killing of the cow gradually came into disfavour. Probably, rice was eaten by them while nothing can be said definitely about fish. Sura and Soma were favourite drinks of the Aryans. Probably Soma was bhang and it was a sacrificial drink while Sura was a popular intoxicating drink like wine or whisky and was brewed from grain. Both male and females wore practically the same dress. The upper garment was called adhivasa and the lower garment was called Vasa. Another undergarment called nivi was used probably by females only. An embroidered garment called pesus seems to have been used by female dancers. A special garment was worn by the bride at the marriage ceremony. Both cotton and woollen garments were used and were of different colours. Sometimes, garments were made of animal skins also. There was gradual improvement in the quality and variety of garments during the later Vedic age. Not only cotton and wool but now silk was also used for making garments. Besides, we now find the use of turban, undergarment and overgarment also. Shoes were also used by the people now. Several kinds of ornaments, both of gold and precious stones, were worn by members of both the sexes. Ear-ring, finger-ring, armlet, necklace etc. were normally worn by men as well as women. The Kurira was some kind of head-ornament worn specially by brides. Nishka, Rukma and Mani were other popular ornaments. During the later vedic age, besides gold and precious stones, the Aryans started to use silver for making ornaments. The science of medicine also made progress during the later Vedic age. Atharva Veda has mentioned that various diseases such as consumption, dysentry, ulcer, headache, jaundice etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 103 were treated. Fractures, wounds, and snake-bites were also attended by physicians. Both men and women oiled and combed their hair, which was plaited or braided. The men kept beard and moustache but sometimes also shaved them. During the early Vedic age, the Aryans had not built cities. They lived in villages. The houses were built of clay and bamboo. Roads were built and carts and chariots were the popular means of transport and communication though riding on horseback was also much in vogue. During the later Vedic age, the Aryans, however, built cities like Indraprastha, Hastinapur, Kosambi, Banaras etc. which grew up as principal cities. The chariot race, hunting, gambling and dicing, dancing and music were the main sources of entertainment of the Aryans. Music, both vocal and instrumental, was well known. The drum, the lute and the flute were very much familiar to them. Both men and women enjoyed themselves in festive assemblies with music and dance. During the later Vedic age, horse-racing was also added as a favourite amusement by the Aryans. Morality: The Aryans, on the whole, led a merry and easy going life but they also observed dutiful and moral life. Truth, honesty, good thoughts, good deeds, helping the poor, hospitality to guests, etc. were observed by them while theft, robbery, telling lies, sorcery, witchcraft, seductions were not only denounced but were punishable offences. They prayed to God Agni to urge them on to holy thought and to God Varuna to loosen the bonds of sin committed by them. The Aryans still practised high moral virtues. Good deeds and good behaviour formed the basis of their lives. Amusements: Chariot racing, gambling and racing were their main pastimes. They had love and interest in music and dancing. They also knew about many medicines and surgical art. They also performed primitive surgery and could cure blindness. They had very high moral standard and observed much social etiquette. Adultery was regarded sin by the society. There were no regular educational institutions in the present sense of the term. Education on the whole was oral. It aimed at developing character and was religious in nature. Teachers enjoyed high respect. Very often the father acted as a teacher to his sons. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

104 History-I The Four Ashramas: During the later Vedic age, the life span of 100 years of a man was divided into four equal parts of 25 years each and different duties were assigned to him in different parts of life. A man was expected to remain with his teacher for studies up to the age of 25 years, between 25 to 50 years of age he was expected to many and remain a householder, between 50 to 75 years of age he was expected to live in the jungle as an ascetic with his wife and between 75 to 100 years of age he was expected to pass his life alone as a hermit. These orders or Ashramas were called Brahmacharya, Grahastha, Vanprastha and Sanyasa respectively and for each order certain definite and different duties were assigned to the individuals. For example during the first order the primary duties of an individual were to get education, to obey his teacher and observe celibacy; during the second order he had to earn means of livelihood, get married, rear up children, and honour guests; during the third order he had to observe celibacy and concentrate on philosophic meditation; and during the fourth order he had to observe religious rituals and try to attain Nirvana. By dividing the life of an individual into these four orders, the Aryans had beautifully attempted to combine both the material and spiritual progress of man during one’s lifetime. Normally, every individual was expected to pass through these four orders but it was one’s free will to make a choice of any order any time once he had crossed the first one i.e., the Brahmacharya. This organisation of the four orders was a unique feature of the Aryan society. It provided an individual not only an opportunity to satisfy his physical desires and spiritual ambitions but also to benefit society by the knowledge, experience and sacrifice of ascetics and hermits. 4.6 Political System of the Rig Vedic Period The well regulated disciplined life in the society of Aryans gives the indication of a strong and centralised administration. The king or Rajan with the help of many officials organised the function of the government in a very smooth way. Rig Veda proves high political life of the Aryans which was revealed by the political institutions like Sabha and Samiti. Administrative Divisions  The patriarchal family was the lowest unit of the Rig Vedic administrative division. Kulapa or Kulapati was the head of the family. A number of families bound together by CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 105 ties of blood organised a clan, several class organised a district, and a number of districts composed a tribe, the highest political unit. Rig Veda gives reference about some administrative units such as ‘grama’, ‘vis’, and the ‘jana’.  The ‘grama’ consisted of several families. It was under a headman known as ‘gramani’. He as the head, used to lead the soldiers from his village to fight in the battle field. He attended the meetings of the ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’. Several villagers organised a ‘vis’. It was positioned under a ‘visapati’. He was a military leader.  A group of ‘vises’ organised a ‘jana’ (tribe) whose members were bound together by real or supposed ties of kinship. ‘Gopa’ was the head of one ‘jana’. Rig Veda mentions about various tribes such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Krivis, and Tritsus. But the tribes which attained great prominence are the Purus, Trigvasas, Yadus, Aus and Drahyus. Several Janas organised a ‘janapada’ or ‘kingdom’which was led by the ‘Rajan’ or the king. Form of Government Monarchy was the normal form of government. Kingship was hereditary. But there were also references of democratic form of government and their chiefs were elected by the assembled people. The King The king was named ‘Rajan’ the king enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe. Kingship was hereditary. He was helped by the priests as king in the both nomination and coronation ceremony. He wore attractive clothes with lavish ornaments and lived in a grand palace. The king had the duty to protect the life and property of his people. Rig Veda gives the reference about the role played by the king as ‘Indra’ in valour, ‘Mitra’ in kindness and ‘Varuna’ in virtues. The king was the head of the legislative, executive and judiciary body of the state. The sacred duty of the king was the protection of the tribes and the territory and chieftenance of priests for the performance of sacrifices. Chieftenance of law and order was his principal duty. He was chieftained justice with the help of Purohitas. He was as kind as Mitra (Sun), virtuous as CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

106 History-I Varuna and strong as Indra. Bali was the tax he collected from the people. The amount collected through tax was utilised for the developmental work of the subjects. Officials For the administrative convenience the king appointed following officials.  Purohita (priest) – The most powerful official was the Purohita. He was the principal adviser to the king. Purohita pre-organised all the ceremonial activities for the rise and growth of the king. He also organised coronation ceremony, holy recitation before a military campaign. King needed blessings from the Purohita in every great activity.  Senani (general) – Senani was the commander in chief who helped the king in military warfare.  Suta – Suta was chieftaining daily diary of the king.  Gramani – Gramani was the village headman.  Vispati – He was the head of the Vis which was the administrative unit consisted of many villages.  Bhagadugha – He was the revenue collector of the king.  Sangrahitri – He was the treasurer of the king. Popular Assemblies Sabha and Samiti were the two popular assemblies which we can find that the very names are mentioned in the Rig Veda. Though the king enjoyed substantial power yet he was not an autocrat. These two bodies helped the king in the work of law making and administration and often influenced the king with their decision.  The Sabha was a select body of elders. The head of the sabha was known as ‘Sabhapati’. The Sabha advised the king on administration. It also functioned as a court of law and tried the cases of criminals and punished them.  The Samiti was the most popular assembly and comprised common people. The head of Samiti was known as ‘Pati’. The Samiti chiefly dealt with the political business of the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 107 state. It also used to elect the king. In the early Vedic Age the Sabha and Samiti had a commendable role to play as the political organisation of the Aryans. Military Administration A large army was chieftained by the King. The army was chiefly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariots). The cavalry had also an essential role in the war. The ‘Senani’ was the commander in chief of all these combined armies. The soldiers used the weapons like bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears. These weapons were made up of irons. They also used head gear or helmet, metal dress and shields for self-defence. For the shelter of the army forts or ‘Pura’ were constructed by the king. The king was not attacking any country to extend his kingdom but he clashed for the defence of the kingdom. The soldiers were divided into many units for better administration. They were like as Sardha, Vrata and Gana. Judicial Administration The king was the head of the judicial administration. Delivery of justice was on the basis of laws and tradition of the society. The chief judge was named ‘Adhyaksha’. The village level cases were judged by the officials named ‘Gramavadi’. The law code was very strict and severe. Normal crimes of those times were burglary, stealing of cattle, snatching, default of loans, etc. Thus, due to the leadership of king or Rajan the political condition of the Rig Vedic society was an organised one. For the administrative convenience, the king was taking the help of many officials. Extensive welfare measures were taken by the king with the help of the officials and the tax collected from the people. 4.7 Economic Life of the Rig Vedic Period Economically the people were very well off. The land was productive and with little labour they could get much. The Aryans had rural economy and each village was in itself a self- sufficient unit. Agriculture: Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Oxen and yoke used for ploughing the field. They knew about irrigation and wheat and barley were their main produce. They also used manures to increase produce. Pastures were also for the animals. Their most CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

108 History-I valuable possession was cow and oxen. Cow was not killed as that was considered sacred. It was also one of the sources of exchange. They domesticated animals like horse, goat, sheep, buffalo and camel. Trade and Commerce: During those days markets were usually very busy, there was extensive external and internal trade. Barter system existed in those days for sale and purchase of commodities. The Coin, Nishka was a unit of value and in common circulation. Chariot horses and bullock carts were used in trade. Main commercial commodities were clothes and leather goods. Occupation: Agriculture was main occupation of the people. Domestication of animals, manufacturing arms and developing trade and commerce were some other occupations of the people of those days, sewing, weaving, carpentry, goldsmithy etc. were some other occupations. There was dignity of labour and the people could choose a profession which suited their taste. No profession was considered either high or low. 4.8 Religious Life of the Rig Vedic Period The people had very simple and pure religious life. They tried to interpret every aspect of their life in terms of religion. Aryan Gods: The Aryans worshipped Indra, Varuna and surya. There were no hereditary priests but head of the family acted as priest. Gods were of different kinds but there was no ranking among the gods. The gods were considered as source of strength and their worship was deemed desirable for meeting desires. Sacrifices: In those days the people used to perform daily sacrifices in which ghee and flesh were used. Since the Aryans had faith in the theory of Karma, therefore they made their sacrifices to please gods and to improve their lot. The sacrifices were simple. Worship of Nature: The Aryans had no temples where they could worship. They believed in the worship of nature. Surya, Indra, Agni and Prithvi were their common gods. Varuna was their sky god and Indra was rain god. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 109 Idea of one God: According to the Aryans, God is one; He was most powerful and strong and moved the universe. All other gods were only his images. They chanted hymns in their praise. There was no system of idol worship. Yajnas: In almost every Aryan family, Yajnas were performed daily. These Yajnas were very simple and did not take much time. Sometimes however, costly yajnas were also performed. These yajnas continued for days and sometimes for months together. They were the worshipper of nature. They personified and deified the benevolent and malevolent powers of nature and offered prayers to them. Indra: Indra was perceived as God of wars. Being pastoralist, cattle was considered as wealth among Vedic people. Hence, we find frequent incidence of cattle-raids and cattle- protection in this period. Naturally, ‘wars-on-cattle’ was a point of concern; hence, Indra grew in importance among all other gods. Varuna: According the belief of Vedic people, the whole universe runs with some kind of rules, called as ‘Rita’. Varuna was perceived as a controller of that ‘Rita’. Hence, to maintain the order in the Universe, Varuna was worshipped by the Vedic people. Agni (fire): It is perceived that ‘yajnya’ is a medium through which food can reach to the gods. Hence, to satisfy the gods, Vedic people used to give oblation into yajnyas. Naturally, yajnya held inevitable part in the daily/occasional religious rites/rituals of Vedic people. Domestic as well as communal activities were perceived as incomplete without the performance of yajnya. Hence, Agni (fire) was, perceived as a connecting link between people and god hence it was venerated by the Vedic people. They called it as the replica of Sun on the earth. Surya (Sun): Sun is worshipped as ‘Mitra’ (friend) by Vedic people. It is perceived as source of energy. In later period, the ‘Surya’ became prominent God and merged with the 'Vishnu'. Usha (Dawn): Usha is perceived by the Vedic people as the source of enthusiasm and inspiration. Many verses in Rig-Veda are devoted to the ‘Usha’. Prithvi (Earth): Prithvi was worshipped, as she is the mother of all living being So. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

110 History-I Yama: Yama is a god of death. He was worshipped not for his favour but to avoid him. Rudra: Rudra was a god of storms. Similar to Yama, he was worshiped to avoid his wrath. The religious concepts of the Vedic people were as follows: Vedic people were simple, nomadic pastoralists. They could not comprehend the ‘causation’ behind natural calamities. They personified these calamities/favors into gods. They either feared of them or expected regular favours from them. For this purpose, they worshipped these gods. Again, as they were simple people they thought the gods might reside in the sky or above the earth. We know that smoke from fire goes above to the sky. Hence, the Vedic people took ‘smoke’ as a connecting link between earth and sky i.e., the gods. Thus, we find the importance of Agni in their religious life. Connecting to that, Vedic people thought that if they submit food in the Agni, it, in the form of smoke, would reach to the gods. It would satisfy the gods and, either they favour them or stop troubling them. Agni became a medium between gods and the people. Hence, it became an inevitable part in the religious life of the Vedic people. Thus, the Fire/Agni became ‘sacrifice/yajnya’ and entire religious rites (and prayers) accompanied these yajnyas. Similar to Agni, Surya (Sun) is also important, as it is a symbol of yajnya in the sky. Hence, after some centuries, another minor God like ‘Vishnu’ merged with the Sun and became a prominent god among the others. The main corpus of Rig Veda is the collection of prayers to these gods. These prayers were recited at the sacrificial pyres. The sacrifices or yajnya perceived as the medium for the manifestation of one's faith upon his god. Generally, it was performed to get success in wars and to acquire cattle and sons. Every Vedic family or kula performed those scarifies at their home. It should be noted that these prayers and sacrifices were not performed for gaining spiritual bliss or satisfying ones philosophical thirst. It was performed clearly to achieve simple material benefits from those who were perceived as powerful and uncontrollable. 4.9 Let’s Sum up Rig Vedic Society looms large in the annals of mankind because of its glorious culture. Equality and peace in the society, organised political system, and simplicity in religion and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 111 wisdom in literature has made the society a glorious one. Aryans expanded their janapadas from north towards south and we can see the advent of so many janapadas in the later stage. These janapadas by the form of political and economic expansion created sixteen Mahajanapadas in the political sky of 600 BC India. Sl. No. RIG VEDIC RIVERS MODERN NAME 1. Sindhu Indus 2. Vitasta Jhelum 3. Askini Chenab 4. Purushni Ravi 5. Vipas Beas 6. Sutudri, Shutudri Satluj or Sutlej 7. Drishdvati Ghagghar We may thus conclude that the Aryans lived very pure, simple and contented life. Family was their main unit of life and agriculture their primary occupation. They loved purity and simplicity. 4.10 Summary  The decline of Indus Valley civilisation was not the end rather it saw the evolution of another glorious civilisation which showed its moral light and wisdom to the world till today. The name of the new civilisation was Vedic Civilisation and its people are known as Aryans.  As per the evidences, historians divided the Vedic Age into the Early Vedic Age or Rig Vedic Age (1500 BC - 1000 BC) and the Later Vedic Age (1000 BC - 600 BC).  It is difficult to ascertain the original position of the Aryans. Different scholars opined in different ways by giving their evidences and imaginations. So it’s a debatable issue that whether Aryans were Indian origin or came from outside.  The most significant theory which accepted for a long time was that the Aryans originally belonged to Central Asia. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

112 History-I  It is commonly assumed that the Aryans came to India in groups that established in the regions of North-Western Province in Pakistan and the Punjab which they had then named Sapt-Sindhu or the ‘land of seven rivers’.  Their social life was very simple and sacred. The rural way of life was very peaceful in nature. They had a strong family bond with significant moral character which made their village and state very strong.  Rig Vedic people had their simple rural life with a developed economy from which they enjoyed their life in peace and security. Their principal means of livelihood were agriculture and domestication of animals. The surplus economy from agriculture supplemented trade and commerce. A well regulated disciplined life in the society of Aryans us gives the indication of a strong and centralised administration. The king or Rajan with the help of many officials organised the function of the government in a very smooth way.  Monarchy was the normal form of Government. Kingship was hereditary. But there were also references of democratic form of government and their chiefs were elected by the assembled people.  Aryans were having a very simple religious life in their rural set up. They were basically worshipping many manifestations of nature such as the sun, the moon, the sky, the dawn, the thunder, the wind and the air. Many Vedic hymns were composed by the Aryans only to praise nature. Rig Veda gives the reference of thirty three gods and goddesses who were revered by the Aryans.  Vedic literature is the richest learning material of the world. The simple and moral living style of Aryans, wide learning in gurukula had given space to produce such a valuable literature in Sanskrit language that history cannot live without it.  The Aryans contributed their effort to create four Vedas; Rig, Yajur, Sam, Atharva. The word ‘Veda’ was derived from the term ‘Vid’ which means to know.  Other than Vedas, some other essential works were compiled by Vedic Aryans. These were fundamentally created to explain the thoughts and laws in the Vedas to make them CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 113 more understandable. These works were like Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas, and Shad-darshanas. 4.11 Key Words/Abbreviations  Aryan: The literary meaning of Aryan is the man of ‘noble character’, and the ‘free born’.  Vedic civilisation: Unlike the urban culture of Indus people, Vedic Civilisation had its remarkable rural features. They were very famous to contribute the language ‘Sanskrit’ which is named the mother of all languages in modern India.  Central Asia: The most significant theory which was accepted for a long time was that the Aryans originally belonged to Central Asia. In his “Lectures on the Science of Languages” Professor Max Muller, a German scholar of comparative languages remarked that the ancestors of the Indians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Germans and the Celts must have existed together originally.  Hungary: Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Its capital, Budapest, is bisected by the Danube River. Its cityscape is studded with architectural landmarks from Buda’s medieval Castle Hill and grand neoclassical buildings along Pest’s Andrássy Avenue to the 19th-century Chain Bridge.  Sapta Sindhu: According to AC Das, a Bengali historian, the original home of the Aryans was the Sapt-Sindhu or the Punjab. This point of view was put forward by him in his book named “Rig Vedic India”. The Sapta-Sindhu, land (of seven rivers) which was the name of Punjab was irrigated by seven rivers, viz. the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj and Saraswati. 4.12 Learning Activity 1. What are the various theories about the origin of the Aryans? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

114 History-I 2. Give a brief account on the sources of information about the Vedic age. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4.13 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions (a) Describe the Central Asian theory for the origin of Aryans. (b) Write a note on the Arctic Origin Theory of the origins of Aryans. (c) Explain the theory of Aryan origin from Sapta-Sindhu region. (d) Write a short note on the archaeological sources of Vedic Civilisation. (e) Describe the simple caste system of Early Vedic people. (f) Position of women in the Rig Vedic Age was very high. Explain. (g) Write a note on the transportation system in Rig Vedic Age. (h) Describe the military administration during the Rig Vedic Age. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Which of the following garments were used by the Early Vedic people? (a) Nivi (b) Vasa (c) Adhivasa (d) All of the above 2. Which among the following amusements were the pastimes of the Rig Vedic people? (a) Playing dice (b) Gambling (c) Wresling (d) All of the above 3. The sacred-thread ceremony before entering to the Gurukul was called (a) Manonayana (b) Upanayana (c) Uparanayana (d) None of the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 115 4. What was the head of the family in Rig Vedic age called (a) Kulapa (b) Kulapati (c) grihapati (d) All of the above 5. In Rig Vedic society (a) Brahmin dominated the castes (b) Sudras were the lowest and untouchable section (c) No caste system prevailed (d) None of the above 6. Which is the most ancient of all the Vedas? (a) Rig Veda (b) Sam Veda (c) Yajur Veda (d) Atharv Veda 7. How many hymns are there in Rig Veda? (a) 1029 hymns (b) 1028 hymns (c) 1027 hymns (d) 1025 hymns 8. Which Veda is a collection of melodies? (a) Rig Veda (b) Sam Veda (c) Yajur Veda (d) Atharv Veda 9. Which are also called the forest books? (a) Vedas (b) Aranyaka (c) Brahmana (d) Upanisads Answers: 1. (a), 2. (a), 3. (b), 4. (d), 5. (c), 6. (a), 7. (b), 8. (b), 9. (b). 4.14 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

116 History-I UNIT 5 LITERATURE AND EDUCATION OF VEDIC PERIOD Structure: 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Literature During Rig and Later Vedic Period 5.3 Education During Rig and Later Vedic Period 5.4 Political Life of the Later Vedic Period 5.5 Social Life of the Later Vedic Period 5.6 Economic Conditions of the Later Vedic Period 5.7 Religious Life of the Later Vedic Period 5.8 Summary 5.9 Key Words/Abbreviations 5.10 Learning Activity 5.11 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 5.12 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 117 5.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the political life of the Later Vedic People.  Analyse how social and religious features become complex in Later Vedic Period.  Elaborate the Economic Condition of the Later Vedic People.  Explain the importance of literature and education during Vedic period. 5.1 Introduction Literature is regarded as the mirror of contemporary society. It reflects the social conditions norms, practices laws, religion and many other aspects. In Rig Vedic Period, great importance was given to education in the society and later Vedic Period people understood the importance of education in the development of personality and society. It was during Later Vedic Period, much of the simplicity of the Rig Vedic religion was lost. The hold of the priestly class become more absolute. The priests developed complicated modes of worship. Sacrifices become more common. The rites and rituals became more difficult. Superstitions entered in the name of religion. Fear of evil spirits and witches came in. Philosophical and theological speculations became more complex. The rigid caste system cropped up. 5.2 Literature During Rig and Later Vedic Period The Upavedas like Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharva Veda and Shilpaveda, the Vedangas, The Sutras, Darshana-Sastras, Puranas, the Epics, Manu smritis etc. are a few important sources for the study of Later Vedic Civilization. On the basis of these sources new light can be thrown on the politico-social, economic, cultural and religious life of the then people. The Vedas are the oldest of the Hindu religious literature. The term ‘Veda’ has been derived from the original Sanskrit word ‘Vid’ which means knowledge or to know. The information gathered from the four principal Vedas help a great deal in the historical reconstruction of ancient CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

118 History-I India. From these Vedas, we can get valuable information on the polity, society, economy, and religious practices of the Vedic Aryans. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, as well as Sutra literature also came under the purview of Vedic literature. The Vedas The four Vedas, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda are known to be the earliest Hindu religious literature.  The Rig Veda is considered to be the most ancient of all the Vedas which gives us the historical information about the political system, social, economic, and cultural life of the Aryans. It is a collection of hymns by the Aitaraya and Kaushik Brahmans of the priestly families. These hymns were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. It contains 1028 hymns or Suktas and is divided into ten mandalas or chapters. The tenth is said to have been added later. It contains the famous Purushasukta hymn that explains the origin of four castes or Varnas. The oldest hymns are mainly found in the so-called family books – II-VII mandalas. Book IX is dedicated to God “Soma”. Gayatri mantra forms the foremost notable sacred hymn of the Rig Veda. The Rig Veda contains the hymns of gods and goddesses in a prosaic form.  The Sam Veda represents the hymns of Rig Veda in poetic forms. It derived its roots from the word “Saman” i.e., “melody”, is a collection of melodies. It has 1549 or 1810 shlokas which were sung on the holy occasion of Yajnas. Tandyamatha and Jaminiya Brahmans were concerned with the “Sam Veda”. These verses were meant to be sung at ‘Sam’, sacrifices by Udagatri priests. This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during the ancient period.  The Yajur Veda contains the procedure for conducting sacrifices and rituals. It has 40 chapters and 2000 mantras. Satpatha Brahman was concerned with this Veda. It describes the methods for performing different sacrifices. Its verses were recited by Adhasya priests. The Yajur Veda is broadly classified into two – the black or dark (Krishna) Yajurveda and the white or bright (Shukla) Yajurveda. The word black implies the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection of verses in Yajur Veda, in contrast to the white which implies the well arranged, ‘clear’ Yajur Veda. The first and most ancient CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 119 layer of Yajur Veda Samhita includes concerning 1875 verses that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rig Veda. The middle layer comprises the Satapatha Brahmana, one of the largest Brahmana texts in the Vedic collection. The youngest layer of Yajur Veda text includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy. These comprise the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Isha Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, and the Maitri Upanishad. This book also reflects on the social and religious condition of the then ancient India.  The Atharva Veda contains facts related to medicine, spells, charms, and rituals. This Veda is otherwise known as Brahma Veda. It comprises assorted subjects like magic, black-magic, superstitions, etc. In Atharva Veda, there are 20 mandalas, 731 suktas, and 5839 mantras. This book gives detailed information about the family, social, and political life of the Later Vedic period. Each ‘Veda’ has its own ‘Samhita’. Vedas are to be studied with caution for their historical merit. Apart from the Vedas, a number of other important works were compiled by Vedic Aryans, which were basically created to explain the thoughts and laws in the Vedas. Thus, these work as appendices of Vedas and were mostly in prose. These were comprised of Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas, and Shad-darshanas.  The Brahmanas explain the hymn of Vedas in an orthodox manner. They are written in prose and are ritualistic in nature. Every ‘Veda’ has several Brahmanas attached with it. The Brahmanas of Rig Veda are known as Aitaraya and Kaushik Brahmans. Taitteriya Brahman belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda and Shatpatha Brahman belongs to Shukla Yajur Veda. Gopatha Brahman belongs to Atharva Veda.  The word Aranyakas means the forest and these are also called the forest books were written mainly by hermits and students living in jungles. These are the concluding portions of Brahmanas and basis of the Upanishads. These books deal with the philosophical doctrines and mysticism and not with rituals. They emphasize on meditation rather than sacrifices. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

120 History-I  The word Upanishad is derived from the root Upanish which means to sit near someone which indicates a student sitting near his guru to learn. These treatises (with Guru and Shishya) specify the philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning. There are 108 “Upanishads” composed between 800 BC 600 BC and completed in 600 BC. The most popular eleven Upanishadas were Kena, Isa, Prasana, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aiteriya, Taitteriya, Kanth, Chandogya, Brihidaranyka, and Svetasvatra. These also give information about the social, religious and economic conditions of the Aryans. Vedangas In due course for proper study of the Vedas, supplementary sciences called the Vedangas were developed. They are six in number dealing with a different subjects, such as  Siksa-Vedanga deals with pronunciation, speech production or phonetics.  Jyotisha-Vedanga deals with astronomy, the science of heavenly bodies.  Kalpa-Vedanga is related to the rituals, meaning the manner of performing divine service or a book containing a body or code of ceremonies.  Vyakaran-Vedanga deals with grammatical treatises. It means grammar, the science of language, from the point of view of pronunciation inflection, syntax, and historical development. Panini did the greatest work on it.  Nirukta-Vedanga deals with etymology, which means the science or investigation of the derivation and original signification of words. Yaska did an elaborate study on it.  Chanda-Vedanga deals with metrical rules and literally means metrics and deals with the theory of measurement, the art or science of verification. In fact, all the 'Vedangas' gives us valuable information about the period. Sutras The oldest Sutra works are the Kalpasutras which deal with the rituals. There are four divisions of the Kalpasutras. These are the  Shrauta Sutra: the Shrauta Sutra describes Vedic sacrifices.  Griha Sutra: the Griha Sutra explains the household duties of a family man. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 121  Dharma Sutra: the Dharma Sutras deals with social duties as well as sacred and secular laws.  Sulva-Sutra: the Sulva-Sutra deal the rules for measurement of buildings of places like fire altars. All these are famous for their conciseness and can hardly be understood without the help of authoritative commentaries. Thus, the Sutras present a vivid picture of the social and religious life of the people of ancient India. Upavedas In addition to the Vedangas, there are four Upavedas dealing with secular topics such as – Ayurveda deals with botany and medical science. Dhanur Veda deals with the military science i.e., defense, war techniques and name of the different types of weapons, Gandharva Veda it is the sub veda of Sam Veda. It deals with musical subjects such as dances, musical instruments, and vocal music, Shilpa Veda it is the sub veda of Atharva Veda, and deals with the architecture and construction of buildings. They are famous for their conciseness and can hardly be understood without the help of authoritative commentaries. They are generally regarded as a part of the ‘Vedas’. Dharma Shastras The Dharma Shastras deals with the laws and judicial procedure of the Aryans. These Dharma Shastras contains an enormous mass of rules, laws, customs, and rites of the Vedic times. The Dharma Shastras like Manu Smriti, Vishnu Smriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and Narada Smriti, etc. throw light on the different forms of laws and judicial procedure of the Aryans. Indeed of all Dharma Shastras, the Manu Smriti is the most significant. Puranas The Puranas furnish interesting information about the past. They are eighteen in number which are written in the Sanskrit language. The Puranas are voluminous treatises embracing almost every possible subject – mythology, history, philosophy, and sacred law and more or less the real histories of ancient India. These Puranas were written during the period of third century AD to 1000 AD. Out of the eighteen Puranas, the most important Puranas are Matsya, Vayu, Brahmanda, Vishnu, Garuda, Markandya, etc. These Puranas throw valuable aspects including the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

122 History-I historical events and historical geography of our country. It also helps us to present a clear picture of the political, social, economic, and religious conditions of ancient India. Each Purana is divided into five parts, namely  Sarga (evolution of the Earth)  Pratisarga (recreation of the Earth)  Vamsa (list of Gods and Goddesses)  Manvantara (description of different ages like Duvapara, Kali etc.)  Vamsanucharita (genealogical list of the kings) The last part i.e., Vamsanucharita (genealogical list of the kings) are used as the source in history which give information about different dynasties like the Haryankas, Sisunagas, Mauryas, Sungas, Satavahanas, Guptas, etc. Six Schools of Indian Philosophy or The Six Darshans The six ‘Darshans’ were written between the Sixth century B.C. and at the time of Ashoka. These are given in the form of ‘Sutras’ or aphorisms. These works deal with philosophical teaching or aspects in the Vedas and cover the topics like theory, logic, unity of soul with God, atoms, Vedic rituals, the structure of the universe, etc. The six ‘Darshans’ were as follows  Sankhya Shastra: The Sankhya Shastra was written by Maharishi Kapila. Its fundamental principle is the Purusha and Prakriti i.e., Soul and Nature. Prakriti is developed by three kinds of Gunas or merits viz. Sattva means a source of good and happiness. Rajas means a source of activity and pain and Tamas means a source of ignorance, sloth, and apathy. This world is not real. Prakriti is eternal. Sankhya does not believe in the existence of 'God'. Prakriti and Purusha are independent of God.  Purva-Mimansa: It sought to explain and revive Vedas concerned with rituals. The earliest work of this school is said to be the Sutras of Jaimini and was written probably in the sixth century BC.  Vaisheshika-Shastra: The founder of this school was Uluka Kanada. The greatest of his commentators, Prashashtapad, perhaps lived in the sixth century. Vaisheshika is CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 123 concerned with the ‘padarthas’ which are divided into six categories – Dravya (Sunnya), Generality Vishesha (Particularly) and Samanvaya (inference). There are nine Dravyas and seventeen qualities. Kanada means eater of atoms, does not make any distinct reference to God.  Yoga-Shastra: The basic text goes to the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali (second century BC). The present form is attributed to Vyay, who lived seven centuries later. According to this Darshana there are the eight methods to achieve our goal (i.e. God). These are Yama (abstension), Niyama (observance), Asana (posture), Pranayama (regulation of breath), Pratyahar (withdrawal of the senses), Dhyana (fixed attention) and Samadhi (concentration). He also described the four types of yoga viz. Laya Yoga, Hath Yoga, Raj Yoga and Mantra Yoga.  Nyaya-Shastra: The founder of this school was Akshapada Gautam. Pakshilasvamin Vatsyayana, its main expositor, may be referred to the fourth century AD. It lays emphasis on Tarka or logic, which is the basis of all studies.  Uttar-Mimansa: These are also called Vedanta. Maharishi Badrayan is said to have formulated its main tenets in the early Christian centuries. Gaudapada was an important thinker of this school, who lived around the middle of the sixth century AD. Vedanta contains five hundred fifty five ‘Sutras’ divided into four chapters. The Epics  The two great epics i.e. the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the most famous books in Sanskrit literature gives us an insight into the social and political condition of the ancient people. They enlighten us about the movement of Aryans throughout Indian subcontinent, their relations with local or native communities and tribes, their political thoughts, institutions, society, social customs and traditions, forest tribes, economy etc.  It also deals with long-term processes like Aryanization of India, inception of urbanization, conflicts between two modes of economies (pastoralism and agriculture) etc. In short, to understand India during eighth to sixth century BC, these epics proved to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

124 History-I be important sources. Although they have the defect of an exaggeration, the two epics give us a full picture of the social, political and military conditions of India.  The Ramayana written by Maharishi Balmiki contains 24,000 Slokas or couplets and 48,000 lines and the Mahabharata written by Ved Vyas contains 100,000 Slokas or couplets and 200,000 lines. Both epics are respectively divided into seven books and eighteen chapters. The Mahabharata is undoubtedly one of the outstanding works of the world. Although, it is a prodigiously long story of inter-dynastic struggles, and indeed, the longest single poem of the world. It is rather an encyclopedia of traditions, legends and political-social institutions of India.  The Bhagavad Gita is a part of the Mahabharata. It is said to be the bedrock of Hinduism. It was not composed by Maharishi Vyas (author of Mahabharata) but he made subsequent additions to the epic. It has not been possible to precisely as certain about its date. Swami Vivekananda thinks that it was composed before the time of Buddha. Western scholars assign it to the fourth century AD.  The Bhagavad Gita stands out to be an epitome of the Hindu system of thought emphasizing the doctrines of Nishkama Karma i.e., work or efforts done without seeking any reward or fruit and ‘bhakti’ or loving faith in the grace of God. Although the central theme of the book is that man is nothing but a particle of the universal God and that he should work out his specified duty assigned by God. The book is highly philosophical and metaphysical and at the same time very practical in teaching people to practice dharma in their daily life. 5.3 Education During Rig and Later Vedic Period In the Rig-Vedic age great importance was given to education system in the society. Gurukulas were there to impart education to the students after their sacred thread ceremony. The Guru or the Acharya recited the hymns and the pupils had to repeat them with loud voice to remember easily. Entire instruction was given orally. The Vedic education aimed at proper development of mind and body (both sharpen the knowledge of the children and build a sound character among them). The disciples were taught about ethics, art of warfare, art of metal and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 125 concept of Brahma and philosophy, and fundamental sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts. Education played a vital role in building the pupils into better citizens in the Rig Vedic society. Education System During Later Vedic Period Later Vedic people understood the importance of education in the development of personality and society.  The hermitage of learned sages became the centre of education in this period. It is called as ‘Gurukul’. The rulers and affluent people provided generous donations and patronage to these centres. A child was expected to take education by residing with the teacher at the teacher’s place. He was provided food and shelter in the teacher’s place only.  With the sacrament of ‘Upanayana’ the child enters in to Gurukul. Such centres inclined to develop the overall personality of a child.  Here he was expected not only to learn but also to do manual work. Thus, he could cherish the respect for physical labour in the society.  The day at these centres started with cleaning the campus of hermitage, milking the cows, carrying wood, filling up water tanks etc. Then, the whole day went into learning. In the evenings, the pupil had to serve his teachers and then go to sleep.  Knowledge was imparted through oral-method i.e., learn by heart. Besides, discussions, debates, practicals were the educational aids of these centres.  The subjects comprised of Vedas and their appendices, are fare,, administration, political science, logic, trade, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, medicines, medical science, moral values etc. The teachers were of four types, viz. Acharya, Pravakta, Shrotiya and Adhyapak. 5.4 Political Life of the Later Vedic Period Briefly speaking in the political life of the later Vedic age considerable change had come. In addition to monarchy, there were also republics. The power and position of the King had considerably increased. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

126 History-I The King: According to Aitareya Brahamana political necessity was responsible for the origin of the King. The King was elected. Satapatha Brahaman believes that King was required by the people to bring law and order in the society. By now the concept that the King had divinity had considerably developed. Both the Puranas and Manu Smriti support the idea of divinity of King. But even up to this time, it must be remembered, that the king had not become absolute. He was required to respect the law of the land. Though there are references in Atharva Veda and Satapatha Brahamana that the king was selected yet there is not much to support it in practice. It is also clear that though at places there were elected monarchies yet hereditary monarchy was well known and quite widespread. Coronation: At the time of coronation the King was required to take certain oaths including the one that he will not transgress limits of his authority. But it appears that gradually the oath at coronation became a mere formality. Colonization: The Aryans had now started their expansion and began to penetrate and colonize other kingdoms. They had occupied Indo-Gangetic plain, crossed Vindhyas and penetrated deep into the South. It is also believed that the story of Ramayana is nothing but the expansion of Aryans from north to south. Sabha and Samiti: The institutions of Sabha and Samiti were still in existence. The Sabha had become considerably well known body. Its members were respected. But it had lost many of its powers which were transferred to the King. Both Sabha and Samiti now carried out the wishes of the king. Rise of Powerful Kingdoms: It appears that by now resistance of non-Aryans had come to an end and that the Aryans were now colonizing many territories. In place of small kingdoms now powerful kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha and Kasi had come into existence. The kings had now begun to assume the title of ‘Samrat’ and also began to perform ‘Ashvamedha Yajna’ to establish their undisputed authority. Position of the King: From the available literature it becomes amply clear that the position of the king had gone considerably higher. Sabha and Samiti now did not stand in his way. The king now maintained armies for maintaining law and order and to check foreign aggression. To CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 127 enable him to have arms, he was authorized to collect taxes on regular basis. He was supposed to take interest in the welfare of the people. The king was very prosperous and had both power and authority. He was supposed to impart justice and administer laws with the help of his officers. He was required to pay considerable attention to the organization of the army which consisted of infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants etc. It also appears that the King was required to maintain and develop latest war requirement and methods. Administrative Machinery: The King was the head of the whole administration. His three important assistants were Purohita, Senani and Gramin. Treasurer, collector, Charioteers were some other officers. Local governors were also appointed. It also appears that both in civil and military administration diplomacy were used to make the enemy bow. 5.5 Social Life of the Later Vedic Period The available records also threw sufficient light on the social life of the people of later Vedic age which may briefly be discussed as follows: Family: Family still continued to be the unit of life. It was considered that happy family was essential for the sake of life. Joint family system was quite common and many families having same parentage lived under the same roof. Patriarchal system still continued and the father headed the family. He had absolute and complete control over the members of the family. The Ashrams: During this period life was ordinarily divided into four Ashrams. First one was Brahmacharya Ashram in which an individual was required to remain a bachelor and pursue his study. Second was Grahasthya Ashram in which people lived a married life. Vanaprastha Ashram came next in which people were required to gradually withdraw from worldly life. Sanyasa Ashram came last in which a person was required to completely renounce the world. Each Ashram was of 25 years duration. To curb the rebellious nature of some people and strengthen the family institution and one’s social commitment, the system of ashram as provided to the society. In this system, a person’s life was divided into four parts and he was assigned some duties with respect to his age. Like: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

128 History-I Brahmacharya Ashrama During this ashram, the importance of education was stressed. In this ashrama, he was expected to spend his childhood at his teacher’s hermitage. The entrance in this ashrama sanctified with the religious sacrament (samskara) of ‘upanayana’ when he was 8 years old. After upanayana he was expected to remain in the teachers’ hermitage up to 12 to 14 years. Here, he learned various knowledge-systems of this period, viz. the Vedas, literature, warfare, political science, trade etc. Here, the singular method of instruction was followed i.e., learn-by-heart. He should learn, at the same time, provide manual labour to his teacher. Thus after his education now he was ready for the second phase of his life, Grihasta ashrama. Grihasta Ashrama During this ashram, he was expected to follow his duty in family and commitment towards society. He was expected to marry and became father of sons. Besides, he should perform those duties, which were assigned to him by the scriptures. Four purushararthas or duties assigned to him, like, dharma (socio-religious duties), artha (occupation), kama (marital life), moksha (to strive for union with God). He was expected to perform the first three duties during this ashrama; whereas, in the next two ashramas he was required to thirst for moksha, the fourth one. He should take care of his parents and committed to the society. In addition, through Vanaprastha ashrama and Sanyasa ashrama a space was provided for his rebellious nature. Vanaprastha Ashrama During this ashram, he was expected to relieve himself from all household tasks and assign his duties to his son. He could live in his house, but should spend more time in the seclusion, remembering God. Sanaysa Ashrama This is the last phase of his life. During this period, he was expected to leave his home and spent rest of his life in forests or at the feet of God. This system of ashrama helped a lot in the maintenance of social order in this period, like:  All the needs of human being were honoured and properly timed which made his life healthy and satisfactory. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 129  Through grihasta ashrama, the family institution was maintained and strengthened. It also took care of the aged people in the family. It became a support for the society. Hence, society also maintained through this ashrama. Thus with the completion by domestic and social duties, the entire Vedic society was maintained and sustained in this period.  Through last two ashrama, the tensions emerged among different generations resolved and the issue of generation gap was regularized. The system of Marriage Marriage was considered as main duty of Vedic people and hence it became a point of religious importance. After Brahmacharya Ashrama, a person entered into Grihastha Ashrama. He is expected by the canons to get married in this ashrama. We know that It is perceived that through marriage and giving birth to children one could became free from the ‘rina’ (lit. Loan = responsibility) of his parents. It was one of the 16 important religious sacraments (samskars) of Vedic religion. In this period, ‘inter-Varna’ marriages were disliked, whereas ‘similar- gotra/family marriages’ were forbidden. Hence, they had to marry in their own Varna but in other families than theirs. However, we find instances of 'inter-Varna' marriages in this period. The majority of such instances pressed Vedic jurists to devise some alternative system to accommodate and legalise such ‘inter-Varna’ marriages. Hence, they came forward with two types of legalized structures of marriages, viz. Anuloma marriage (between bridegroom from higher Varna and bride from lower Varna) and Pratiloma marriage (between bridegroom from lower Varna and bride from higher Varna). Besides, as we know, in this period, the Vedic people encountered other cultures in India. The Vedic society was deeply influenced by the customs and institutions of these people within some years. It shook the fundamental structure of the Vedic society. Hence, to assimilate these communities or their influences in their fold, they had to allow and accommodate the institutions of these people. Eight Types of Marriages We see eight types of marriages, which were prevalent in the society. These types clearly reflect contacts of Vedic people with different kinds of cultures like: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

130 History-I (1) Brahma-vivaha: The father gives his daughter’s hand to a knowledgeable and well- behaved bridegroom with proper rites and rituals. (2) Daiva-vivaha: The father gives the bride’s hand to the priest, engaged in sacrifice. (3) Prajapatya-vivaha: Here the father greets bridegroom and appeal to the couple to follow religious duties. (4) Arsha-vivaha: After receiving a pair of cattle from the groom, the father gives the bride’s hand to the bridegroom. (5) Gandharva-vivaha was a marriage-at-will i.e., through the consent of bridegroom and bride only. (6) Asur-vivaha: Bridegroom gives money to the father and relatives of the bride and purchases her for marriage. (7) Rakshasa-vivaha: Forceful abduction of a crying girl and marrying her. (8) Paishacha-vivah: A marriage performed with force – making the girl unconscious and violate her chastity. The Vedic jurists only recommended the first four types of marriage. However, to make the patriarchal system strict, the marriages-at-will disrespected by the jurists. Besides, there were references of inter-caste marriages like Anuloma (son of higher Varna with daughter of lower Varna) and Pratiloma (son of lower Varna with daughter of higher Varna) vivaha. Besides, at polygamy became a prominent feature of this period. Thus, the marriage system of Later Vedic people shows radical changes in erstwhile simpler society of early period. The ‘self-willed’ ‘domestic’ marriages of early period, were now controlled by many systems like patriarchy, society and religion. Thus, it became an important ‘institution’ of the society, and as prevalent until today. The Concept of Samskaras To provide socio-religious sanctions to every phases of physical and psychological development of a person and need for his social commitment, the jurists provided the system of samskara to the society. In every walk of his life, the person right from his embryo status up to his CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 131 death, was sanctified with such samskara, which, by tradition are 16. Some of them can be classified as follows: Embryo stage (to give support to the pregnant woman) Garbhadan: To pray for a good child simantonnayana to make the mind of pregnant woman peaceful and fresh. After birth jatkarma immediately after the birth of child, it is fed with honey and butter. After this samskara, it is allowed to feed by mother. Namkarana: On the 13 days after the birth, the child is named. Nishkramana: After four months, the child is allowed to be taken outside the home. Karnavedha: The ears of the child are pierced. Annaprashana: First bite of food by the child. Vapan: Child’s first hair was removed Brahmachary ashrama Upanayana: Before going to teacher’s hermitage for learning, a child should go through this sacrament. Keshanta; removal of hair before entering into education system. Samavartana: End of his education and Brahmacharya Asharama. Grihashta- Ashrama: Vivaha: Marriage, Aginiparigrahana: Placing sacrificial fire at home and worshiping it regularly Anteysthi: Funeral at the death of a person. Culture during the Later Vedic period As we know, Vedic people faced many cultural changes in the Later Vedic period. The religion became very complex in this period. Changes in Deities and ways of worship: The prominent deities in early period witnessed unimportance in this period. The gods like Indra, Varuna and Surya became unpopular. Whereas there emerged new gods like Vishnu, Rudra, Shiva. The people started worshipping such gods in a devotional way. Hence, we found the emergence of ‘Devotional worship’ or Bhakti in this period; however at primary stage. Due to social contacts with various types of cultures, new deities and rites found place in Vedic pantheon and rituals. This gave birth to various types of idol-worship, animism, magic, superstitions etc. in Vedic culture. Besides, magic, superstitions, concepts of women and blind faith became part of the religious life. Besides, to provide social sanctions to various changes in person’s life, the concept of 16 samskaras emerged. Whereas, to regulate the person’s life in society, similar to the ashramas, the concept of four purusharthas was put forth, viz. dharma, artha, kama and moksha. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

132 History-I Prominence of Sacrifices: The sacrifices varied and were codified with various types of rules and regulations, i.e., karmakanda. Earlier the were sacrifices perceived as a mere medium between a person and God. In this period, the sacrifices and their complicated rules became prominent. The people were told that if they follow the rules of scarifies, the gods would be compelled to bestow their favour on the performers. Obviously, the sacrifices took place in the name of god in the religion of Later Vedic period. Hence, the religion was concentrated in the correct performances of those sacrifices. Subsequently, the priestly class became prominent who possessed the sole authority to perform the sacrifices in a systematic manner. The right of performance of sacrifices was snatched off from kulapati and it became the monopoly of the priestly class. Consequently, the sacrifices became varied, so as the types of priests. Obviously, large amount of wealth-time-violence was involved in these scarifies. Thus, the system of accommodating increasing number of priestly class was institutionalized in this way. However, the religious rigidity and complexity of this period witnessed, some sort of reactions within the Vedic society itself. The Upanishads condemned waste of money, time and violence, engaged in sacrifices. They searched the truth of religion in introspecting one’s self and meditating on the relationship of one's soul with the supreme-soul, God. They tried to replace the material base of religion with a spiritual one. It seems that, the Vedic people, the resident of land of seven rivers, in the later period, migrated to other parts of India. They met various types of cultures, societies, economies and belief systems. This led to social cohesion and complexity in Vedic society. On one hand, the economy diversified and developed through agriculture, crafts and trade, on the other, to keep its identity intact, the jurists made social and religious laws tight and rigid. For monopolizing powers, the Kshatriya and Brahman made the Varna-system birth-based and rigid. To legitimize this process, religion took a prominent place in the society. It manifested into various types of rites and rituals, involving large amount of wealth and scarifices therein. However, the tax-payer Vaishya Varna and labourer Shudra Varna, who provided labour and services, were thrown away from various types of rights and socio-religious sanctions. Against this background, India stepped into Early Historic period. The mixed economy of agriculture, trade and craft of Vedic period evolved into large amount of activities in the Early Historic period. That gave birth to the second CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 133 urbanization of India. At the same time, to protest the sacrificial nature of Vedic religion, based on prominence of Brahmans and involving large amount of wealth and violence; the heterodox religions like Jainism, Buddhistism and Ajivakas emerged. These cults provided legitimization to the Vaishya and Shudra Varna, who were earlier discarded by Vedic religion. Caste System: In this period caste system developed. The society was divided into four castes namely Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudras. The Brahmans were supposed to educate the people, Kshatriya to fight on the battlefield, Vaishya to trade and run business and the Sudras to do other menial jobs. The system had now begun to degenerate and become rigid. Birth and not worth had become the basis of the system. In this system, unlike the early Vedic period, Kshatriya had become very powerful. The kings usually belonged to this caste. The Brahmans still enjoyed social respect but not to the extent to which it was enjoyed during early Vedic age. Position of the Women: So for as women were concerned in many cases the position remained unchanged. The woman was still allowed to get high education and participate in philosophical discussion. There was still no purdah or sati system. But on the whole position of the women had considerably come down. The women now did not enjoy that high respect. Women were considered as personal property of men and even they could be put on dice. It was considered better for a woman to live in the four walls of the house and look after the welfare of the members of the family. She was now supposed not to enjoy political power and had been excluded from the right of inheritance. The kings and nobles could now marry more than one wife. Education: There were no public schools for imparting education. Education was given by learned teachers to the students who stayed with the guru throughout his educational career. Stress was laid on Vedic literature and aim of education was to develop knowledge, character, truthfulness and devotion. The gurus enjoyed great respect and the students thought it their religious duty to obey the guru. There was the system of imparting medical education also. Degradation in Nobility: The nobility had now sufficiently degenerated itself. A person from nobility could keep more than one wife. They used to gamble and had dancing girls to please them. They used to use liquor and other intoxicating drinks. Wars were not that fair and all CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

134 History-I sorts of deceitful methods were used in war and even the enemy was burnt alive by wicked and treacherous means. Food and Dress Habits: Rice, barley, ghee, milk, beans and their products were in common use. Meat eating was now quite common but cow slaughter was much condemned. Though use of liquor was quite well known yet the people on the whole used that only on ceremonial occasions. Honey was also used in abundance. Woollen clothes were in common use. Wool was taken from goat and sheep. The dress consisted of three garments. The women used ornaments and embroidered cloth. Armlet, finger rings, pearls, jewels, rubies were in use. Mirror has been often mentioned. Both indoor and outdoor games were played during this period. Gambling and dice playing was in practice. Chariot racing and horse racing were good pastimes. Both instrumental and vocational instruments were used in music. Living standard of the People: Living standard of the people was usually the same as it was in the early Vedic civilization. The people still lived in villages and small towns. Agriculture was the main profession of the people. 5.6 Economic Conditions of the Later Vedic Period In the economic field agriculture continued to be the main occupation of the people. About other aspects mention can be made as follows: Agriculture: Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Usually heavy ploughs driven by about a dozen oxen were used. There is mention of furrow also. Like our modern times, in agriculture there was the system of ploughing, sowing, the field reaping and thrashing. Rice, barley and wheat were commonly sown. The farmers were very much afraid of drought and floods. It also appears that the system of artificial irrigation had developed. Cow dung was used as manure. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 135 Cattle Breeding: Cattle breeding was one of the main occupations of the people and even now it remains so. Sheds and meadows were made to accommodate and feed the animals. Cow slaughter was an offence. Animals were domesticated both for milk and agricultural purposes. Trade: Trade and commerce had now fully and fairly well developed. Money lending was one of the occupations of the people. Internal trade was carried out both by land and water routes. Merchants had become hereditary. Coins had so far not come into circulation and as such cow still continued to be the unit of exchange. Barter system still prevailed. Garments and skin were traded and bargained in the market. There were guilds of merchants to protect their collective interests. It is believed that some sea-borne trade was prevalent and probably ‘Nishka’, ‘Satamana’ and ‘Krishmana’ were the coins used by the later Aryans. Occupations: Occupations had now been divided among the classes. Main occupation of Brahmans was to teach, Kshatriyas to fight, Vaishyas to trade and Shudras to do other jobs. Agriculture, trade, domestication of animals, hunting, art and craft, were some other occupations of the people. We know that some people were jewellers, potters, carpenters, barbers and charioteers as well. Transportation : It appears that by now roads had started coming up and a sort of vehicle called ‘Bipatha’ was in use. Horses, elephants, and bullock carts used in transport. For long journey ships and boats were also used. 5.7 Religious Life of the Later Vedic Period By now many changes had come in the religious life of the people as discussed below. Growth of Priestly Class : By now religion had become complex and complicated. Nobody performed Yajnas by himself but there had developed a priestly class. The priests were required to perform all Yajnas and they had become very arrogant. It appears that they claimed that with the help of mantras they could evade and bring evils. They also claimed that some gods were under their control and that they could bestow favours and also ruin up them. The people had now begun to have faith in black magic. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

136 History-I Complex Religion: In the early Vedic age religion was very simple and sacrifices were very few. In every family there were many religious rituals which could be performed with the help of the priestly class. The Yajnas had become costly and the mantras became complicated. The Yajna also lasted for many days. New gods like Vishnu, Shiva etc. were being worshipped. Concept of Service: In religion it was believed that each individual must serve the guru, the Rishi and the parents. He was required to discharge these duties and as such it was his religious duty to be in their service and to obey their commands. Development of New Faiths: In religion many new faiths had by now developed. The people now began to believe in spells and spirits. They also began believing in magic and considered that with their help many evils could be avoided. New ideas had developed about soul. It was believed that in the whole universe the only reality was ‘reality’ and everything else was only Maya. If one wants to be free from that cycle of birth and rebirth, one must do good deeds. Each good and noble deed helps in purification of soul and it leads to Mukti. Mukti was the ultimate aim of every man. They also began to believe in Karma theory. According to them our good deeds or Karmas must be rewarded in the next life and for every bad deed there should be punishment in our next life. It was during the later Vedic Age that social, economical; political, cultural and religious life of the Indians underwent a tremendous change. Caste system became rigid and priestly class became dominant. Women lost their position. Economical progress was witnessed. Means of communication improved. So also the living style of the people improved a lot. 5.8 Summary  Chaturashrama or Four Stages of Life was a significant feature developed in the Later Vedic society. The life span was assumed as hundred years and each stage of life was allotted 25 years for its perfection and to reach the goal of life.  Later Vedic society created caste system and inequality. The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas emerged as the two leading varnas out of the general mass of population. Vaishyas were the third one and Shudras were the lowest and most suffering group. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 137  The hermitage of learned sages became the centre of education in this period. It was called as Gurukul. The rulers and affluent people provided generous donations and patronage to these centres.  It was expected from every man to follow four main duties in his life, viz. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha to fulfil the goal of the birth of life.  The significant position played by women in Rig Vedic period was no more. The position of women declined drastically in the Later Vedic period.  The Later Vedic people had their rural life style in the village. Agriculture was the principal occupation of the people. Now small peasant owners of land were replaced by big landlords. Improved method of tilling the land by deep ploughing, manuring and sowing with better seeds were known to the Aryans.  There were typical coins which were used by the Aryans during this period. They were such as “Nishka”, “Satamana” and “Krishman”.  There were the references of many famous tribes of Rig Vedic period like Bharatas, Paurus, Tritsus and Turvasas passed into extinction and new tribes like the Kurus and Panchalas rose into prominence. The Yamuna and Ganga valley in the east became the new home of the Aryans in the later Vedic period.  It was believed that by the yajnas or sacrifice a king could increase their power and authority. The Satpatha Brahmana describes the king as “the incarnation of Prajapati (Brahma).” So the king performed the fire sacrifices like Asvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya.  The king showed his absolute power. He wanted to be powerful and spread his authoritative command over all... He understood the power of revenue collected from the taxes like “bali”, “sulka” and “bhaga”.  In the social hierarchy, Brahmans occupied the supreme position. They alone could perform yajnas. The whole life span was designed with many sacrifices and ceremonies by the priests. No religious work could be done without the influence of the Brahmans.  Later on religion became very extensive and expensive to common people who revolted against the practice associating with other varnas. Shudras who were regarded as non- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

138 History-I Aryans and untouchables suffered a lot and expected a change in the cultural pattern of the society. 5.9 Key Words/Abbreviations  Later Vedic Period: Later Vedic period roughly spanned from 1000 BC to 600 BC. As the Aryan region expanded, many kingdoms emerged.  Literature: Literature is regarded as a mirror of contemporary society. It reflects the social condition, norms, practices, laws, religion, and many other aspects. Literature both religious and secular which contains information is directly or indirectly related to history.  Gargi: Gargi Vachaknavi was an ancient Indian philosopher. In Vedic literature, she is honoured as a great natural philosopher, renowned expounder of the Vedas, and known as Brahmavadini, a person with knowledge of Brahma Vidya. 5.10 Learning Activity 1. Write a short note on the literature of the Vedic period. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Give a brief account on the development of education during Vedic period. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5.11 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Discuss the living style of the Indians during Later Vedic Age. 2. Focus light on the socio-economic life of Later Vedic Indians. 3. Briefly discuss the socio-political condition of India during Later Vedic Period. 4. Examine the early settlements of the Aryans in India. What were the basic characteristics and features of the Aryan settlements in India? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Literature and Education of Vedic Period 139 5. Discuss the socio-economic life of the Vedic Aryans. 6. Examine the religious life and philosophical outlook of the Vedic Aryans. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. The Later Vedic period roughly spanned from (a) 1000 BC to 600 BC (b) 1500 BC to 600 BC (c) 2000 BC to 600 BC (d) None of the above 2. Which among the following Varna was treated as untouchable? (a) Brahmana (b) Kshatriya (c) Vaishya (d) Shudra 3. Which of the following about Later Vedic period women is/are correct. (a) They lost many of their rights of Upanayana ceremony for entrance to education. (b) Polygamy became more familiar in the society which proved the dominance of men over the women. (c) Women lost their participation in many religious ceremonies with their husbands. (d) All of the above. 4. Which among the following yajnas, offering of Soma formed an essential part? (a) Aswamadha (b) Rajasuya (c) Vajapeya (d) None of the above 5. Which titles were taken by the kings in Later Vedic Age? (a) Adhiraja (b) Rajadhiraja (c) Samrat (d) All of the above Answers: 1.(a), 2. (d), 3. (d), 4. (d), 5. (d). 5.12 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

140 History-I UNIT 6 TEACHINGS AND LIFE OF MAHAVIR JAIN Structure: 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism 6.3 Early History 6.4 Teachings of Jainism 6.5 Rise and Spread of Jainism 6.6 Effects of Jainism on Indian Life 6.7 Causes of Unpopularity of Jainism in India 6.8 Contributions of Jainism to Indian Culture 6.9 Jaina Canonical Literature 6.10 Lets Sum Up 6.11 Summary 6.12 Key Words/Abbreviations 6.13 Learning Activity 6.14 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 6.15 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Teachings and Life of Mahavir Jain 141 6.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism.  Explain the sources of Jainism and Buddhism.  Analyse the early life of Mahavir.  Explain the teachings of Mahavir.  Elaborate the effect of Jainism on Indian culture.  Explain the causes of decline of Jainism. 6.1 Introduction The sixth century BC is one of the cardinal epochs in the history of Asia. The extraordinary mental and spiritual unrests among the human beings contributed too many religious revolts. It was because: the age-old religious traditions, beliefs, rituals and class domination could not cope with the changing life-style of the times. So reformations in age-old socio-religious pattern became inevitable. Parmenides, Empedocles and Heraclites in Greece, Zoroaster in Iran, Lao-Tse and Confucius in China busied themselves in bringing psycho-philosophical changes in the existing mind set of the people. India did not lag behind in this. It was at this critical juncture of time that Swami Mahavir and Mahatma Buddha revolted against the degraded Brahmanism. And, thus, in the words of B. N. Lunia “... The revolt was against the standardization of social patterns, the ritualistic form of religion, the absolute power of the priest class and priestly craft and the deadweight of a dead culture…” 6.2 Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism Complicacy and Cumbersome ritualism in Hinduism: The early Vedic people were the worshippers of nature and thus the Vedic religion was very simple. It was thus devoid of unnecessary rites, rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices. But with the passage of the time the Vedic religion got degenerated and many complexities cropped up in it. The priestly class had CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

142 History-I established its unnecessary authority and introduced several intricate rituals just to satisfy their whims and selfish interests. The rites and ceremonies became so costly that the common man couldn’t bear its burden. People thus were groaning under the heavy burden of rituals and wanted to get rid of it. Caste system and Unsociability: The most hated practice of the Hindu society was the discrimination and distinction in the caste system. It divided the society in so many watertight compartments like Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The members of the lower castes like Sudras had to face untold miseries at the hands of the upper castes, starting from the birth to the death. They were even bereft of their fundamental rights. The doors of the higher castes and also the temples were, closed for them as they were untouchables. So their untold miseries caused unrest among them and they yearned for a change in the then caste system. Supremacy of the Brahmins: Hindu society was divided in to so many castes and sub- castes in which Brahmins dominated the society. It was beyond the power of the people to get rid of their supremacy because no function could be performed without the Brahmins. They occupied high position, enjoyed enough opportunities and thus became so obstinate and proud that they began to behave improperly with the masses. Thus there began a revolt against their monopoly. Costly Yajnas: The growth of meaningless rituals, elaborate rites, expensive ceremonies and sacrifices were very burdensome for the common man. They could neither escape these cumbersome practices nor bear the burden. Thus, they groaned under discontentment. Faith in Magic and Charms: While Vedic religion was getting degenerated into ritualism the Vedic hymns were also getting replaced by the charms and mantras. The people had become so superstitious that they resorted to magic and spells to get rid of all kinds of problems and diseases. E. R. Havel has pointed out, “There was no phase of daily life, great or small, which couldn’t but get affected by it for better or worse.” Difficult Language: Most of the religious texts were written in Sanskrit language to which the general people had no access. So they failed to understand it. The priestly class interpreted the religious texts according to their own advantage and exploited the simple people. Thus they wanted the texts to be written in spoken languages. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Teachings and Life of Mahavir Jain 143 Intellectual Confusion: Different means like Gyana Marga, Karma Marga and Tapa Marga were advocated to escape the miseries and sufferings of life by liberating the soul from the cycle of birth and death. All these different ways to attain salvation created a lot of intellectual confusion. They now longed for such leaders who might have shown them the right path. Birth of Great Men: Leaders like Bhagvan Mahavir and Mahatma Buddha took upon the cause and endeavored to reform Hindu society and Hinduism to meet the need of the time as well as the common people. In the words of N. N. Ghosh, “Like Luther and Calvin, Mahavir and Gautam Buddha protested against the corruptions that had crept into Hinduism.” Their protest turned out to be new religions. 6.3 Early History The general belief is that Vardhamana, popularly known as Mahavir, is the founder of Jainism. But the Jainas hold that Mahavir is their last prophet i.e. the twenty-fourth Tirthankara. According to them, their religion is as old as the Rig Veda. They believe that their first Tirthankara was Rishava who was the father of Bharata, the first Vedic Chakarvarti King of India. There are said to be 23 Tirthankaras after Rishava, about whom our knowledge is nominal. But we know something of the last two Tirthankaras viz. the twenty-third and twenty-fourth. The twenty-third Tirthankara was Parsva Nath whom Professor Jacoby considers “to be the real founder of Jain religion.” We know very little of him. He probably lived in eighth century BC. He was Kshatriya by caste and his father ruled over Benaras. He left his home after leading a life of a simple householder for 30 years. He meditated for 84 days and attained the highest knowledge. Then he began to preach what he had attained. He continued this noble task for the next seventy years of his life. What he preached his followers (a) not to hurt anybody, (b) not to tell a lie, (c) not to steal and (d) not to own property. Parsva was not so rigid. He even allowed his followers to lead a married life and wear clothes to cover their body. He gathered many men and women as followers. At last he died at the age of 100 years on the summit of Mount Sammela. His death occurred at least 250 years before the death of Mahavir. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

144 History-I Mahavir: Mahavir was the last Tirthankara. His original name was Vardhamana. He was born in Kundagrama, a village near Vaisali about 540 BC. In that village lived a rich noble man Siddhartha who was the head of a Kshatriya clan called Jnatrika. He was married to Trisala, the sister of most famous ruler of Vaisali. To them was born Vardhamana, the Mahavir. Mahavir received education and was married to Yasoda. A daughter was born to them. In his thirteenth year, on the death of his parents, he left home and became an ascetic. He led a very hard life. He wandered from place to place. People beat him, laughed at him and threw stones at him. But he remained firm. He drank and ate little, suffered the heat, the cold and the rain. In this way he attained supreme knowledge at the age of forty-two. He thus came to be known as Mahavir or Jina (the conqueror) and his followers were called as Jainas. Mahavir preached his religion for 30 years. He gathered many disciples and died at the age of seventy two about 467 BC. 6.4 Teachings of Jainism 1. Triratnas: The aim of every human being is to attain ‘Nirvana’. There are three ways to attain it: pure knowledge, pure character and pure philosophy. These are called by the votaries Jainism ‘Triratans.’ 2. Faith in Penance: The followers of Jainism believe in penance and in austere life. According to them ‘Mokshya’ can be attained easier if we give strain to our body. 3. Emphasis on Non-Violence: Jainism emphasizes the need of non-violence in life. They consider it a sin to torment any living or non-living body. They believe that there is life in animals, birds, air, fire and trees. They should not be disturbed. 4. No belief in the existence of God: The Jainas do not believe in the existence of God. They do not think that God created this universe. They worship their ‘Tirthankars’ instead. 5. No belief in the Vedas: The Jainas do not have faith in the Vedas. They think that ‘Yajanas’ and ‘Havans’ cannot bring ‘Mokshya’. They are against animal sacrifice. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)