BAQ111_History-I(English)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 45 2.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to  Explain the origin and chronology of the Harappan civilization.  Analyse the extent of Harappan culture.  Describe the features of Harappan culture.  Explain the causes for the decline of Harappan culture 2.1 Introduction Excavation of Mohenjodaro and Harappa, by R.D. Banerjee and Dayaram Sahani, was the most exhilarating event of the 20th century A. D. for Indian historians. On the basis of the excavated materials the antiquity of Indian history could atleast be pushed back to 3000 BC. Its ingenious town planning, drainage system, road and traffic and the civilized way of living has placed Indian Civilization on equal footing with those of ancient Mesopotamia, Babylonian and Mysorian civilizations. Rather it excelled them as the most ancient planned city-civilization of the world. The people of the Indus valley have left posterity no source in the shape of inscriptions and other documents. The script of some seals, which were found during excavations, has not so far been deciphered. As a result the archaeological remains are the only source from which we can know something about our ancient civilization. The north-western portion of the Indian subcontinent in which Punjab is situated was the foundation of the earliest Civilization in India. The term ‘Civilization’, signifying the distinguishing way of life of a specific set of human beings in an area, has been defined in diverse ways. Essentially, it comprises the presence of writing and urban centres which suggest a complex technology (application of knowledge for practical purposes), economy, and social, religious and cultural life as well as some kind of political power. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

46 History-I Extent of Indus Valley Civilization This Civilization is commonly called after the river Indus because it originally spread mainly along the valleys or basins (low lying areas) of the Indus river system, comprising the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, and the Saraswati (later covered by the dry bed of the river Ghaggar) rivers. This Civilization is also well-known after one of its two major cities, named Harappa. Situated on the bank of the river Ravi in Pakistan Punjab. Harappa was the first to be revealed and excavated by archaeologists. Mohenjo-Daro in Larkana district in the Sind province of Pakistan was discovered afterward and the largest city to be excavated, but it decayed before Harappa. Therefore, archaeologists incline to call this Civilization ‘Harappan’ (that is, relating to Harappa). Scholars often use the term ‘culture’ interchangeably with ‘Civilization’ for the whole way of life of a people. 2.2 Origin and Extent of Harappan Civilization Ancient Indian history would have been in its dark phase if it had not explored the urban cities and culture in the Valley of Indus River and its tributaries. Discovery of the Indus Civilization which was the contemporary of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia gives a proud CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 47 moment to all Indians to write their history as rich and long back to the dates around 3000 BCE. Its large extent and glory in socio-economic life, rich art and culture, scientific town planning have uplifted Indian history greater height that researchers expects more discoveries to prove its genuine history and culture to the whole world. The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age Civilization in the north-western regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Accompanied by ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of the three early Civilizations of the area comprising North Africa, West Asia and South Asia. Among the three, the most widespread was the Indus valley Civilization. It prospered in the basins of the Indus River, which streams through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial rivers that once coursed in the locality of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra River in north-west India and eastern Pakistan. The Indus Valley Civilization is termed after the Indus river system in whose alluvial plains the initial sites of the Civilization were recognized and unearthed. The Indus Civilization is also well-known as the Harappan Civilization, after its brand site, Harappa, the first of its sites to be discovered early in the 20th century in the Punjab province of British India which is now in Pakistan. The location of Harappa and subsequently Mohen-jo-Daro was the conclusion of the work commencing in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India during the British Raj. 2.3 Discovery & Time Span Indus Valley Civilization The first credit of identification of the ruins of the Indus Civilization goes to Charles Masson, a deserter from the East India Company’s army. In 1829, Masson toured over the princely state of Punjab and came across his major archaeological finding in the Punjab. That was Harappa, a city of the Indus Civilization that lay buried in the valley of Indus’ tributary, the Ravi River. In 1842, Masson incorporated his clarifications of Harappa in the book ‘Narrative of Various Journeys in Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab’ . CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

48 History-I After the formation of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1861, Alexander Cunningham, the Survey’s first director-general toured Harappa. Cunningham published his discoveries in 1875. For the first time, he described a Harappan stamp seal, with its unidentified script, which he established to be of an origin alien to India. After some years, John Marshall, director general of ASI directed archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni to excavate the site’s two mounds in Harappa. Meanwhile, farther south, along the main stem of the Indus in Sind province, the largely undisturbed site of Mohenjo-Daro had brought notice. Marshall allotted a series of ASI officers to survey the location. These comprised D. R. Bhandarkar (1911), R. D. Banerji (1919, 1922–1923), and M. S. Vats (1924). Methodical excavations began in Mohenjo-Daro with K. N. Dikshit’s (1924–1925), continuing with those of H. Hargreaves (1925–1926), and Ernest J. H. Mackay (1927–1931). Much of the site Mohenjo- Daro had been excavated by 1931. The first person to use the term ‘Indus civilization’ was the man Sir John Marshall. The Indus or the Harappan culture belongs to the Chalcolithic or Bronze Age since the substances of copper and stone were found at the various places of this civilization. Nearly, 1,400 Harappan sites are recognised so far in the sub-continent. Some of the remarkable sites which have been excavated are Harappa (1921) by Daya Ram Sahni, Mohenjo-Daro (1922) by R.D. Banerjee, Dholavira (1967-68) by J.P. Joshi and (1990-91) by R.S. Bisht, Kalibangan by Dr. A. Ghosh, Lothal (1955-63), Chanhu-Daro, Banawali (1975-77), etc. Indus valley civilization developed at two centres - Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Harappa is situated in the Montgomery district (now in Pakistan) which is about 180 kilometres from Lahore. This site was larger than Mohenjo-Daro and from the point of view of culture it gives us more source material to draw from. Another main centre of Indus valley civilization was Mohenjo-Daro which is situated in the Larkana district of Sind. Mohenjo-Daro literally means the ‘Mound of the Dead’. The distance between the two significant towns of Harappan culture is about 650 kilometres. In 1922 when Dr. R.D. Banerjee started excavations at Mohenjo-Daro in the Sind province. He found some ruins there. In the same way, at Harappa, in Montgomery district, some archaeological remains were found by D.R. Sahani. The excavations were carried only at both the places under the supervision of Sir John Marshall, who was then also the in charge of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 49 Archaeology Department. After excavation it has been estimated that the town might have been built and rebuilt nine times as proved by the discovery of nine stratas. Remains of Harappan Civilization The time-span too of the Indus valley civilization was quite large. Historians normally talk of three broad stages in its expansion and decline – early, mature and late Harappan. In all possibility, the earliest settlements in the Indus plains had appeared before 2,600 BC. All of these, however, were village settlements, or very small townships. It is exciting to note that Amri, Mohenjo-daro, Kot Diji, Harappa, and Kalibangan belonged then to the grouping of small township agricultural societies. By about 2,300 BC cities began to advance. The biggest of these was Mohenjo-daro, with Harappa as the second in area. The third significant urban settlement was that of Chanhu-daro in Sindh. This development of urbanization took place in a short phase and continued till about 1800 BC when Mohenjo-daro and some other towns were really in decay. Harappa decayed later. But all the towns and villages did not vanish with the decay and disappearance of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Just as we say about Pre-Harappan phase, so do we talk also of the post-Harappan phase which continued for a few centuries till about 1,300 BC? 2.4 Geographical Distribution of Indus Valley Civilization Indus settlements are spread over a wide area of northwest India and Pakistan and their distribution illuminates the various ways in which this varied geographical areas was exploited. In the lower Indus basin of Larkana, Mohenjo-daro dominated the flood plain, agriculturally the richest part of Sind. Larkana is also marked by lake depressions, such as the Manchhar, where fishing settlements existed. Towards the west, there were clusters of sites in the foothills of the Kirthar mountain range and Kohistan. There, agriculture must have depended on spring water and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

50 History-I rains. Routes linking up with Baluchistan also passed through this area. In upper Sind, the Sukkur Rorhi hills saw settlements of workmen in and around flint quarries, the raw material from which Harappan blades were manufactured. The course of the Indus river in the third millennium BC was more south-easterly and it flowed into the Arabian sea in the vicinity of the Rann of Kutch. The Indus River adopted its present course only between the tenth and the thirteenth centuries AD. As one moves west, Baluchistan is reached where Harappan settlements are found in a variety of terrain-across the northern, mountain rim, on the flat Kacchi plain, in the district of Las Bela towards the south and along the coastal country known as the Makran. In the latter area, the fortified sites of Sutkagendor and Sotka-koh were important in terms of the Indus civilization’s sea trade with the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. Both were suitable landing places for maritime traffic and from these points, convenient routes linked up with the interior. In other parts of Baluchistan, Indus sites are found in areas that are still agriculturally viable and lie on arterial routes. Pathani Damb, for instance, was near the Mula pass, from where a route went across the Kirthar range while Naushahro was in the general vicinity of Bolan, through which a major route led to Afghanistan. Such routes were important because through them, Baluchistan’s metallicferrous ores (copper and lead) and semi-precious stones (lapis lazuli and turquoise) could be procured by the resource-poor Indus valley. The northernmost site of the Indus civilization, Shortughai, is in northeast Afghanistan. Shortughai provided access to Badakshan’s lapis lazuli and possibly to the tin and gold resources of Central Asia. To the northeast of Sind is the Pakistan province of Punjab. A large part of the province is comprised of doabs or tracts lying between two rivers. Of these, the Bari Doab (or land between the Ravi and an old bed of the Beas) sites are noteworthy, especially the sprawling city of Harappa. There are no settlements in the interfluves of the Jhelum and the Indus or that of the Jhelum and Chenab. South of the Sutlej river, is Bahawalpur. Part of it is made up of the desert trace of Cholistan, through which the Hakra river flowed. The largest cluster of Indus settlements is found here. Geographically, this tract connects the Indus plains with Rajasthan, which were vast copper deposits. There were several exclusive, industrial sites in Cholistan, marked by kilns, devoted to large-scale craft production that included the melting and smelting of copper. East of the Sutlej is the alluvial terrain of the Indo-Gangetic divide, a transitional area between the Indus and the Ganga river systems, made up of the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi and Ghaggar river course in Rajasthan. A large part of the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 51 riverine and stream drainage from the Siwalik ridge between the Sutlej and Yamuna used to converge into the Ghaggar, the Indian name for the river known as the Hakra in Pakistan. There were several provincial urban centres in this region such as Kalibangan and Banawali although Rakhigarhi (in the Hissar district of Haryana) was the largest city and is said to be as large as Harappa. Classic Indus sites are also found in the Yamuna-Ganga doab, with preponderance in its most northerly portion around Saharanpur. Finally, the spread of the Indus civilization included the quadrilateral of roughly 119,000 square kilometres between the Rann of Kutch and the Gulf of Cambay. Dholavira was the city par excellence of the Rann, with its vast expanse of tidal mud flats and dead creeks. Further east, the great mass of Kathiawad, now known as Saurashtra, is formed of Deccan lava and on its eastern edge flourished the port town of Lothal. The mainland of Gujarat is alluvial, formed by the Sabarmati, Mahi and minor parallel streams, actively prograding into the Gulf of Cambay. Here, Bhagatrav, on the estuary of the Kim River, forms the southernmost extension of the Indus civilization. 2.5 Chronology of the Indus Valley Civilization It is unlikely that civilizational efflorescence was a simultaneous process in all parts of the Harappan distribution area. By 2600 BC, this civilization was in existence, as it had clear contacts, at that point of time, with Mesopotamia. It appears increasingly probable that it matured first in lower Sind, Cholistan and presumably, the Kutch region, which was linked by a river to the Cholistan area. Cities like Harappa, Kalibangan and Banawali came up a little later. The end was also staggered in time. Urban decline at Mohenjo-daro had set by 2200 BC and by c. 2100 BC, it had ceased to exist as a city. However, the civilization continued after c. 2000 BC in other areas and at some sites survived till c. 1800 BC 2.6 Other Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilizations extended from Pakistan’s Baluchistan in the west to India’s western Uttar Pradesh in the east, from north-eastern Afghanistan in the north to India’s Gujarat state in the south. The largest numbers of sites are in Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir states in India, and Sindh, Punjab, and Baluchistan provinces in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

52 History-I Pakistan. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor in Western Baluchistan to Lothal in Gujarat. The southernmost site of the Indus valley civilization is Daimabad in Maharashtra. The excavated Indus cities may be classified into the following groups: (i) Nucleus cities (ii) Coastal towns (iii) Other cities and townships. I. Nucleus Cities It was the major Indus site to be revealed (a) Harappa and excavated in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni. The site has two huge and imposing ruined mounds Harappa Excavation Site located some 25 kms south-west of Mont- gomery district of Punjab (Pakistan) on the left bank of river Ravi. The massive mounds at Harappa were first stated by Masson in 1826. The western mound of Harappa, smaller in size signified the citadel, parallelogram in plan and fortified. Outside the citadel was the unfortified town having some significant structures identified with workmen’s quarters, working floors and granaries. The workmen’s quarters, 10 in number were of identical size and space (17 × 7.5 m). Near to these quarters were 16 furnaces, pear-shaped on plan with cow-dung ash and charcoal. 12 Granary building of 15.24 × 6.10 m each, organised systematically in 2 rows (6 in each row) with central passage 7 m. wide was discovered. The substantial remains discovered at Harappa are of the distinctive Indus character. They comprise 891 seals which form 36.32 per cent of the total writing material of the Indus civilization, two very significant stone figurines (not available at any other site) which comprise one red stone torso of a naked male figure (the prototype of the Jina or Yaksha Figure) and a female figure in dancing posture. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 53 A container used for smelting bronze was also found at a slightly higher level. Also found Dog attacking a deer on a pin. Indication of the disposal of the dead has been discovered to the south of the citadel area named as cemetery R-37. Excavations have also found 57 burials of different kinds. The skeletons were disposed of in the graves along with the grave-goods. (b) Mohenjo-Daro The site of Mohenjo-Daro (or the Mound of the Dead) located in the Larkana district of Sind (Pakistan) and 540 km south of Harappa is positioned on the right bank of the river Indus. It also has two mounds, the western being the citadel or acropolis and the eastern widespread mound was preserving the relics of the buried lower city. The mounds were unearthed first by Sir John Mohenjo-Daro Excavation Site Marshall. The citadel was fortified with large buildings tremendously rich in structures. The most significant community place of Mohenjo-Daro seems to be the Great Bath, with a bed made water tight by the use of bitumen and a structure of supplying and draining away water. This tank which is located in the citadel mound is an instance of beautiful brick-work measuring 11.88 × 7.01 metres and 2.43 metres deep. A flight of steps at either end takes one to the surface. There are side rooms for changing clothes. This tank appears to have been used for ceremonial bathing. In Mohenjo-Daro, the biggest building is the great granary which is 45.71 metres long and 15.23 metres wide and located to the west of the great bath. To the north-east of the great bath is a long collegiate building, possibly meant for the residence of a very high official, probably the high priest himself, or a college of priests. The lower unfortified city exhibited all the fundamentals of a planned city. The extraordinary thing about the planning of the houses in the city is that they followed the grid system with the main streets running north-south and east-west separating the city into many blocks. This is accurate of almost all Indus settlements regardless of size. The chief streets in the lower city are about 9.14 metre wide. The drainage system of Mohenjo-Daro was very remarkable. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

54 History-I These drains were covered with bricks and sometimes with stone slabs. The street drains were furnished with manholes. Houses were prepared of kiln-burnt bricks as in Harappa. The material remains of Mohenjo-Daro with its richness confirm that it was a great city of the Indus civilization. About 1398 seals signifying 56.67 per cent of the total writing material of the Indus cities throws light on Harappan religion. Significant stone images found here comprises the torso of a priest made of steatite (19 cm), lime stone male head (14 cm), the seated male of alabaster (29.5 cm), the seated male with the hands placed on knees (21 cm) and a compound animal figure made up of limestone. The bronze dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro, considered a masterwork (14 cm) is made by cast wax method. (c) Dholavira Excavation at Dholavira Located in Kutch district of Gujarat, Dholavira is the newest and one of the two biggest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana. The ancient mounds of Dholavira were first detected by Dr J.P. Joshi but widespread excavation work at the site was conducted by R.S. Bisht and his team in 1990-91. It shares nearly all the common features of the Indus cities but its exclusive feature is that there are three principal divisions (instead of two in other cities), two of which were strongly protected by four-sided fortifications. The first internal encloser edged in the citadel (the acropolis) perhaps housed the highest authority and second one secured the middle town intended for the close relatives of the administrators and additional officials. The presence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the exceptional feature of this settlement. The admission to these fortified settlements at Dholavira was provided through an elegant gate-complex. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 55 (d) Kalibangan Kalibangan Located in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan on the southern bank of the Ghaggar River this site was excavated by B. B. Lal and B. K. Thapar (1961-69). This site also has two mounds yielding the remnants of a citadel and lower city correspondingly. Excavations have discovered evidence of pre-Harappan and Harappan culture. The citadel and the lower city together were fortified. The citadel was found with mud-brick platforms having seven fire-altars in a row. The lower fortified town had two gateways. The people of Kalibangan used mud-bricks for the building of houses, the use of burnt bricks has been found only in wells, drains and pavements. The cylindrical seals found at Kalibangan had a similarity in the Mesopotamian counterpart. The inscribed sherds found here clearly advocates that the Indus script was written from right to left. Excavations at Kalibangan exposed the evidence of the ploughed field. II. Coastal Towns It was a significant trading centre of the (a) Lothal Indus civilization and located near the bed of the Bhogavo River at the head of the Gulf of Lothal, a port city Cambay in Gujarat. Lothal was excavated by S.R. Rao which brought to light five period classifications of cultures. It was one rectangular settlement bounded by a brick wall. Along the eastern side of the town was a brick basin, which has been recognised as a dockyard by its excavator. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

56 History-I The house of a prosperous merchant yielded gold beads with axial tubes and sherds of Reserved Slip Ware connected to the Sumerian origin signifying that the merchants were involved in foreign trade. Metal-workers, shell ornament makers and bead-makers’ shops have been discovered here. The discovery of the Persian Gulf seal and the Reserved Slip Ware advocates that Lothal was involved in maritime activities. (b) Sutkagendor Located at a distance of 500 kms to the west of Karachi on the Makran coast it performed as a trading post of the Harappans. It was initially a port of Harappan civilization according to archaeologist Dales but later cut off from the sea due to coastal elevation. Excavation at the site exposed the two-fold division of the township into ‘citadel’ and ‘lower city’. (c) Balakot Balakot is located at a distance of 98 km to the north-west of Karachi this coastal site yielded the remnants of the pre-Harappan and Harappan civilization. Baked bricks were used in rare drains but the typical building materials were mud-bricks. (d) Allahdino The excavations at Allahdino were commenced by W.A. Fairservis and are located at a distance of 40 kms to the east of Karachi. These coastal cities have produced the remains of mud- brick constructions. III. Other Cities and Townships (a) Surkotada Located about 270 km north-west of Ahmedabad in Gujarat the settlement design of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Kalibangan was repeated here. As at Kalibangan, both the citadel and the lower town were fortified. There was also an inter-communicating gate between the two. In addition to mud-bricks, stone rubble was generously used for construction. In the last phase of this site, bones of horses, previously unknown, have been found. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 57 (b) Banawali Located in the Hissar district of Haryana it was on the bank of the river Rangoi, recognised with the ancient bed of Sarasvati River. The excavations directed by R.S. Bisht have produced two cultural phases, Pre-Harappan and Harappan, alike to that of Kalibangan. The Harappan phase displayed significant withdrawal from the established norms of town planning (chess-board pattern as in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, etc.). The roads were neither always straight, nor are they cut at right-angles. It missed systematic drainage system, a notable feature of the Indus civilization. (c) Chanhu-Daro The settlement of Chanhu-Daro, located about 130 km south of Mohenjo-Daro, contains of a single mound alienated into several parts by erosion. An indication of material relics clearly shows that it was the main centre of production for the stunning seals. The reserves of copper and bronze tools, castings, indication of the crafts like bead-making, bone items and seal making advocates that Chanhu-Daro was mostly occupied by artisans and craftsmen. Excavations have also found a furnace with a brick-floor used for glazing steatite beads. (d) Kot Diji Located on the left bank of the Indus River about 50 km east of Mohenjo-Daro, the site of Kot Diji excavated by F.A. Khan identifies two cultural phases pre-Harappan and Harappan civilization. Material remnants discovered at the location are terracotta bulls, five figurines of the Mother Goddess and large unbaked cooking brick-lined ovens. 2.7 Main Features of Harappan Civilization Town Planning Indus valley or Harappan civilization has made its excellence more in its ingenious and superb town planning. Careful planning of the town, fine drainage system, and well-arranged water supply clearly show that every required step was taken to make the citizen comfortable. In CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

58 History-I the days of long past no such arrangements were available anywhere else. The owners of pottery kilns were not allowed to build their furnaces within the town to avoid the air pollution. The street light system and watch and ward system at night also existed to ward off danger. The inhabitants of the towns were not permitted to throw their rubbish or waste matter in the lane or along the street or road. All rubbish of the houses was thrown at a particular place fixed for collecting the waste matter. Besides a public well in every street, there was a well in each house. Drainage System The Indus valley people were well aware of the harm that would follow if the drains were not properly covered. They used gypsum, lime and cement in the construction of the drains. They had an elaborate system of drainage on scientific pattern as is being followed today. The covers of the drains were portable and could be removed easily when required. The small house drains were connected with the street drainage system which led the water to a pool away from the township. Main drain of the town was 75cm to 150 cm broad which helped to drain off the rain water from the interior of the city. Perhaps drains were cleaned every day to remove obstruction in the flow of sewage; otherwise it might cause great inconvenience to the people. It is really the most striking feature of the Indus valley civilization that they could evolve such a developed sense of sanitation. Waepons and art of Harappan Culture CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 59 Architecture The architectural skills of the Indus valley people came to be known after excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The people of this civilization had built dwellings ranging from one- roomed houses to big palatial buildings which could be divided into three parts: (i) Dwelling houses or residential buildings (ii) Public halls (iii) Public baths The dwelling houses were constructed of baked bricks which were fixed in place with the help of mud mortar. The buildings were generally two or more storied and had staircases. They had big doors, perhaps of wood. Each house had a number of rooms, in addition to a bath and a kitchen, all having brick floors. Pillared hall and great state granary need special attention among the public buildings. 24 metres square pillared hall was perhaps a meeting hall where people used to assemble for state business. The state granary was about 50 metres square in area, which was used for storing grains. The third type of building was public baths. The Great public bath, at Mohenjo-Daro was the largest and the most significant, which measured 180 feet × 108 feet. The bathing pool inside, measures 39 feet × 23 feet and 8 feet in depth. The bricks used were of various sizes. The smallest being 23cm × 10cm. and the biggest 50cm × 20cm. The Great bath had some religious significance and was used by the public on the eve of festivals. It was also surrounded by a large number of rooms. It has a flight of steps at either end and is fed by a well, situated in one of the adjoining rooms. There was separate drainage system to let off the dirty water. It is estimated that this Great Bath was connected with religious rituals and religious festivals. Dr. A.D. Psalter mentions, ‘‘the architecture of Mohenjo-Daro, in general, is plain, utilitarian, and rather solid than beautiful. Art and crafts Indus valley people were not skilful in architecture only. They had remarkable ability and proficiency in other arts like sculpture, carving, pottery and painting. Through different articles and human figures found after excavation, it reveals that there was very little art in the Indus CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

60 History-I valley and all things which have seen the light of day through excavations lack in ornamentation, yet from utilization point of view, their achievements were praiseworthy. The proficiency of Indus valley sculptor can be seen easily in human and animal figures that have been excavated. Among these figures, those of a bull, a strong dog, a yogi, a dancing girl are most significant. The majority of human figures are female and they are nude except for narrow girdle round the waist. Mohenjo-Daro seems to have been the home of potters as some fine specimens of pottery have been excavated at this site. From them we come to the conclusion that the potter of the Indus valley civilization was a very skilled craftsman. The clay pots were polished and glazed to give shine like those of the present day. About five hundred seals have been found in different excavation sites which show that artists of Indus Valley were highly skilled in carving. The engravings are quite simple and are full of beauty and variety. There are engravings of bull, rhinoceros and elephant on these seals. The art of carving seemed to have reached a high point during the Indus valley civilization. The Indus valley people loved painting very much. Their pots and pans were not only polished and glazed to give bright luster, but were also painted to look beautiful. Different kinds of designs, figures and objects of nature were painted on them. The painters of Indus valley civilization were superb in their art. Nothing definite could be known about the Indus valley people as their scripts have not been yet deciphered by the scholars, in spite of their best efforts. A spectacular range of artisanal production is encountered at Indus cities. On the one hand, specialized crafts that had roots in the preceding period became more complex in terms of technological processes, and on the other hand, the combinations of raw materials being used, expanded. Along with the widespread urban demand for shell artefacts, semi-precious stone and steatite beads, faience objects, and implements as also jewellery in base and precious metals. It is now reasonably clear that the Indus civilization was not, in the main, a bronze using culture. Pure copper was the dominant tradition. Additionally, there were a variety of alloys ranging from low and high grade bronzes to copper-lead and copper-nickel alloys. Some of the crafted objects are CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 61 quintessentially Indus, in the sense that they are neither found prior to the advent of the urban civilization nor after its collapse. Indus seals (inscribed, square or rectangular in shape, with representations of animals, most notably the unicorn) for example, are rarely found in the late Harappan and post-Harappan contexts since, the commercial transactions for which they were used had dramatically shrunk. This is also true for the series of Indus stone statues of animals and men, of which the most famous is that of the ‘Priest King’. These appear to have had a politico- religious significance and are in a sculptural idiom that is very much within the realm of High Art’. The disappearance of this stone carving tradition can be linked to the abandonment of urban centres, along with the migration and transformation of elite groups. Similarly, long barrel carnelian beads are a typical Indus luxury product, which were primarily manufactured at Chanhu-daro. Their crafting demanded both skill and time; the perforation in a 6 to 13 cm length bead required between three to eight days. Evidently, the largely deurbanized scenario that followed the collapse of cities could not sustain such a specialized production. One of the most striking features of the Indus craft traditions is that they are not region specific. Shell objects were manufactured at Nagwada and Nageshwar in Gujarat and at Chanhu-daro and Mohenjo-daro in Sind. Similarly, metal artefacts were produced at Lothal in Gujarat, at Harappa in the Bari doab of Punjab and at Allahadino and Mohenjo-daro in Sind. While craft objects were manufactured at many places, the manufacturing technology could be surprisingly standardized. In the case of shell bangles, at practically all sites they had a uniform width of between 5mm and 7mm and they were almost everywhere sawn by a saw that had a blade thickness of between 0.4 mm and 0.6mm. What is equally striking about the wide distribution of craft production is that, in a number of cases, manufacture depended on raw materials that were not locally available. At Mohenjo-daro, shell artifacts were manufactured from the marine mollusc, Turbinella pyrum, found along the Sind and Baluchistan coast which was brought in a raw state from there. Similarly, there is impressive evidence of manufacture of copper based craft items at Harappa ranging from furnaces to slag and unfinished objects, even though the city was located in a mine rally poor area. Such craft production could survive and prosper because of a highly organized trading system. Indus people had the capacity to mobilize resources from various areas ranging from Rajasthan to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

62 History-I Afghanistan and, considering the scale of manufacture, it is likely that there were fulltime traders that helped in providing the necessary raw materials. Most of these resource-rich areas also show evidence of contact with the Indus civilization. For example, at Chalcolithic Kulli culture sites, Harappan unicorn seals and pottery have been found. Similarly, the exploitation of Rajasthan’s raw materials is underlined by Harappan pottery at some sites of the Ganeshwar Jodhpura chacolithic complex and by the strong stylistic similarities in the copper arrowheads, spearheads and fish hooks of the two cultures. In addition to raw materials, other types of objects were traded. On one hand, there was trade in food items as is underlined by the presence of marine cat fish at Harappa, a city that was hundreds of kilometres away from the sea. Craft items were also traded. Small manufacturing centres like Nageshwar were providing shell ladles to Mohenjo-daro which also received chert blades from the Rorhi hills of Sind. It is now possible to visualize the exchange of finished objects between the monumental cities of the Indus civilization as well. For instance, stoneware bangles — a highly siliceous, partially sintered ceramic body with low porosity – manufactured at Mohenjo-daro have been found 570 kilometres north, at Harappa. The nature of the social process involved in this exchange is unknown but is unlikely to be a case of satisfying an economic demand, since Harappa was also producing such bangles. Possibly, the unidirectional movement of some bangles from Mohenjo-daro to Harappa is related to social transactions among related status or kin groups in the two cities. The Indus civilization had wide ranging contacts with cultures and civilizations to the north-west and west of its distribution area. Indus and Indus-related objects have been found in north Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, north and south Iran, Bahrain, Failaka and the Oman Peninsula in the Persian Gulf, and north and south Mesopotamia. The objects include etched carnelian and long barrel-cylinder carnelian beads, square/rectangular Indus seals, pottery with the Indus script, Indus’ motifs on local seals, ivory objects, and various terracotta’s such as ithyphallic specimens that have strong Indus analogues. Externally derived objects and traits have been found at Indus sites such as seals with Mesopotamian and Persian Gulf affinities, externally derived motifs on seals and steatite/ chlorite vessels. At the same time, the importance that has been attached in Indus studies to the regions west of Baluchistan as the main areas from which the Indus civilization procured its raw materials, whether it is copper from Oman or carnelian of Persian Gulf origin is somewhat misplaced. There is an abundance of raw materials on the peripheries and within the area where Indus cities and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 63 settlements flourished. Before the advent of Indus urbanism, these raw materials were being used by the various cultures that were antecedent to the Indus civilization and subsequently as well, they continued to be a part of the repertories of late/post-Harappan horizons, albeit on a reduced scale as compared to the situation during the civilization phase. While, there may have been some raw materials involved in long distance trade, there is no reason to argue that the Indus civilization was in any way either solely or significantly dependent on the regions to the west for such resources. Thus, Indian history became a very rich and proud platform after discovering the culture of Indus people. The archaeological excavations in the places in India and outside proved an urban settlement with rich art, culture, industry and trade history. The major advancements in town planning such as use of burnt bricks, great bath, granaries, covered drainage system and sanitation takes this civilization into a new height in the history of the world. 2.8 Summary  The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization in the north-western regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.  The first credit of identification of the ruins of the Indus civilization goes to Charles Masson, a deserter from the East India Company’s army. In 1829, Masson toured over the princely state of Punjab and came across his major archaeological finding in the Punjab that was Harappa.  Some of the remarkable sites which have been excavated are Harappa (1921) by Daya Ram Sahni, Mohenjo-Daro (1922) by R. D. Banerjee, Dholavira (1967-68) by J. P. Joshi and (1990-91) by R. S. Bisht, Kalibangan by Dr. A. Ghosh, Lothal (1955-63), Chanhu- Daro, Banawali (1975-77), etc.  The Indus Valley Civilization extended from Pakistan’s Baluchistan in the west to India’s western Uttar Pradesh in the east, from north-eastern Afghanistan in the north to India’s Gujarat state in the south. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

64 History-I  Harappa was the major Indus site to be revealed and excavated in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni. The site has two huge and imposing ruined mounds located some 25 k.ms south- west of Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan) on the left bank of river Ravi.  The site of Mohenjo-Daro (or the Mound of the Dead) located in the Larkana district of Sind (Pakistan) and 540 km south of Harappa is positioned on the right bank of the river Indus.  The most exciting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its town-planning. It is marked by considerable standardization, though one can see some regional variations as well. The uniformity is observed in the layout of the towns, streets, structures, brick size, drains etc.  The archaeological excavations in the places in India and outside proved an urban settlement with rich art, culture, industry and trade history. 2.9 Key Words/Abbreviations  Extent: the area covered by something.  Harappa: Harappa was the centre of one of the core regions of the Indus Valley Civilization, located in central Punjab. The Harappan architecture and Harappan civilization was one of the most developed in the old Bronze Age.  Civilization: he stage of human social and cultural development and organization that is considered most advanced.  Mohenjo-Daro: Mohenjo-Daro is an archaeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Built around 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, and one of the world’s earliest major cities, contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoan Crete, and Norte Chico.  Great Bath: The Great Bath is one of the well-known structures among the ruins of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, Pakistan. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Great Bath was built in the 3rd millennium BCE, soon after the raising of the “citadel” mound on which it is located. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 65 2.10 Learning Activity 1. Discuss the geographical extent and Town Planning of the Harappan civilization. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Give a brief account on the origin of the Harappan civilization ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2.11 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions (a) Describe the settlement pattern of Indus Valley Civilization. (b) Explain the town planning features of Indus Valley Civilization. (d) What were the features of the Great Bath? B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. The largest building ‘the great granary’ which is 45.71 metres long and 15.23 metres wide is located at (a) Mahenjo-Daro (b) Harappa (c) Lothal (d) Chanhu-daro 2. The word Kalibangan means… (a) Violet bangles (b) White bangles (c) Lord Kali’s bangles (d) Black bangles 3. ___________ was the only site with an artificial brick dockyard. (a) Mahenjo-daro (b) Harappa (c) Lothal (d) None of the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

66 History-I 4. Which site does literally mean the ‘Mound of the Dead’? (a) Mahenjodaro (b) Harappa (c) Lothal (d) Chanhu-daro 5. Suktagendor was an important centre of Harappan Civilization discovered by (a) Sir Aurel Stein (b) S. R. Rao (c) E. J. H. Mackay (d) Rakhal Das Banerjee Answers 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (a), 5. (a) 2.12 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 67 UNIT 3 SOCIETY, RELIGION AND CAUSES OF DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION Structure: 3.0 Learning Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Economic Condition 3.3 Religious Beliefs 3.4 Decline of Harappan Civilization 3.5 Summary 3.6 Key Words/Abbreviations 3.7 Learning Activity 3.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 3.9 References 3.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain different social and political organisations of Harappan Civilization.  Analyse the religious beliefs and practices of Harappan people.  Explain the interest of Indus Valley people in Art work. 3.1 Introduction Indus people had their urban way of life with at most simplicity and comfortable. They were very social and happy with their lifestyle. Archaeological evidences from diverse sites reveal their CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

68 History-I habits of food, dress, ornaments, clothing, and amusements; which was very high level. They had a specific religious practice for their smooth way of life. Worship to trees, animals, symbols shows their value civilization to preserve their environment and wanted a balance of life in the society. Systematic way of life by planning good buildings, granaries, sanitation and hygiene shows the organisational capabilities of a central authority and good administrative chief. Moreover, their artistic way of life in every field stands to prove that their Civilization was an urban one. 1. Food: The people of Indus valley civilization were both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. Their life was chiefly agrarian and they, therefore, mostly depended on the yield of the crops that they could grow. Vegetarians used wheat, barley, rice, milk and milk products. Vegetables were also consumed by them. Non-vegetarian people, apart from the above eatables, were fond of fish, beef, mutton and tortoise. Dates were one of their favourite fruits. 2. Dress: As regards their dress we have no definite source which can give us much information on their dressing styles. We can only guess about their dress from the figures which have been found during excavation. Both cotton and woolen clothes were used by the Indus valley people. The discovery of needles and threads confirms that clothes were also sewn. Weaving was an important occupation of the people. Indus civilization was not confined within the limits of the Indus basin only. It spread over a vast area of India, viz. Baluchistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab, Sind, Saurashtra, and Rajasthan and to the north of the Gangetic valley. It has also affinity and likeness with the old civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, because same types of artifacts were discovered there also. 3. Fashion (Hairdressing, Toilet and Cosmetics): The Indus valley people were also very fashionable. Both men and women had special inclination for keeping themselves smart. Both of them wore long Saree and dressed it according to their choice. Some people had long beards and moustaches and others were clean-shaven. The discovery of ivory combs, bronze mirrors, razors, powders, perfumed oils and lipsticks confirm their love for fashion. 4. Ornaments: The people of Indus valley had a deep love for ornaments. Both men and women used ornaments frequently. The ornaments were made of different metals such as gold, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 69 silver, copper, bronze, shell and ivory. The poor people’s ornaments were made of clay. Bangles, necklaces, armlets, finger-rings, ear-rings and bracelets were very popular. Beads were also much in use as an ornament. They were made of different shapes and sizes with precious and semiprecious stones. The beads of pottery were used by the poor persons. 5. Sports and Games (Amusements): The Indus valley people had great love for sports and games. Their life was not very dull. They not only loved music and dancing, but also played various games such as chess and enjoyed hunting, fishing, bird fighting, bull fights and gambling. Dicing was a common pastime as it was in the Vedic age. Small children used to play with toys made of clay. 6. Weapons of War: Mackey writes, “The Indus valley people were peace loving and unwarlike.” His statement seems to be based on the fact that no defensive weapons such as shields and armour have been found in the excavation. On the other hand various types of weapons made of copper and bronze have been unearthed from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. They knew the use of iron; their chief weapons were axe, spear and bow. They also used sword like weapon which used to be pointed at the end and thick in the middle. 7. Medicines: Very little is known about the medicines which were used by the Indus valley people. But shilajeet, coral and leaves of neem have been discovered during excavation and all these possess medicinal qualities. So it is estimated that Indus valley people cared for their health. 8. Condition of Women: The condition of women was very respectable. They used to get great respect in the society. The figures of mother goddess affirm the fact that women were not only a source of entertainment and were house-keepers but were worshipped in the society in the form of mother goddess. 9. Disposal of the Dead: It is very difficult to form a definite idea as to how the people of the Indus valley used to effect disposal of their dead. However, from the material discovered from the excavations carried out in Sind province it is estimated that they used to dispose of their dead in three ways: (i) The dead body was buried under the ground. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

70 History-I (ii) The dead body was burnt and its remains were collected and buried under earth in an urn. (iii) The dead body was left in the open plain for wild animals and birds to eat and when the entire flesh was eaten by them, the skeleton was buried under the earth. Most of the historians including Sir John Marshall are of the opinion that the second method of disposal of the dead was very much practiced. 3.2 Economic Condition The big and planned cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro point to good economic condition of the people. They were not only agriculturists but also had a sound knowledge of various trades and commerce. 1. Agriculture: The Indus valley people were chiefly agrarian. They took to the use of agricultural produce like wheat, barley, rice, cotton, vegetables etc. There was a great state granary to store food grains. The land of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro was quite fertile and people were prosperous. 2. Domestication of Animals: Besides agriculture, it was domestication of animals that helped the economic condition of Indus valley people. Bull, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, camel and cow were some of the most common animals which were domesticated by them. 3. Industrial Achievements: The Indus valley people were engaged in different industries. The discovery of many spindles and spinning wheels in the houses of the valley show that the people of that age had a fairly good knowledge of spinning and weaving of both cotton and woolen cloth. Science of metallurgy: The science of metallurgy was also known to the Indus valley people. Their use of gold, silver, bronze, lead, tin and copper for their pots indicated that the economic condition of the Indus valley people was good. The most important industry of the Indus valley people was pottery. The discovery of a number of pottery kilns shows that there was a potter’s colony in the city. Mainly there were two kinds of pots. One kind of pot was hand-made and the others were made on the potter’s wheel. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 71 These pots may be sub-divided into two groups. The first group includes the pots which were used in people’s daily life while the other group comprises the painted pots used for the preservation of valuables and funeral urns. The people of Indus valley were capable of making pottery of a very high standard and it is “the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world.” Trade and Commerce: The discoveries have confirmed the belief that the Indus valley people had trade relations not only with the people of their own country but also with the traders abroad. Gold, silver, copper and other precious stones, discovered in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, must have been imported while the trade of exporting cloth was carried on by the Indus valley people. For their internal trade they carved out land routes by bullock-carts while commercial relations with the countries abroad were maintained through water-routes. The trade relations with many countries of western Asia, particularly with Mesopotamia, are proved by the different artifacts at Mohenjo-Daro. Weights and Measures: One more factor that shows that economic well-being of the Indus valley people is the discovery of a large number of weights found during the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. These weights were of different sizes. Some of them were so big and heavy that they could be lifted only with the help of a rope while others were of very small size which must have been used by the jewellers and goldsmiths. There were also cubical weights which appeared to be common in use. For measurement the Indus valley people used a bronze bar with suspended copper pans. Their industrial achievement in different fields, their trade in export and import clearly show that the Indus valley people were economically prosperous. 3.3 Religious Beliefs Religion played a significant role in the life of the Harappan people. Though neither any temple nor any shrine has been unearthed at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa yet a large number of statues and terra-cotta figurines suggest that the Indus valley people were idol worshippers. Cult of Mother Goddess: The chief deity of Indus valley people was Mother Goddess whose worship formed an important part of their religious life. A number of statues have been unearthed. One is a seminude female figure wearing a girdle or band round her loins with fan CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

72 History-I shaped dress. According to Sir John Marshall, these figurines represent the Mahadevi of the people. As some of the figures are smoke stained, Mackay is of the view that the people must have used some sort of oil or burnt incense before them to please their goddess. Mother Goddess was called by various names, such as, Mata, Amba, Kali, Karali etc. Moreover a long seal discovered at Harappa showing the figure of Mother Goddess with a man with a dagger and women with hands lifted, represent the prevalence of human sacrifice which was made to Mother Goddess by the people of Indus valley. Worship of Lord Shiva: Lord Shiva was very popular among the male gods of Indus valley people and he was worshipped by all and sundry. The seal which was discovered at Harappa shows a three-faced deity sitting with crossed legs on a throne, wearing a horned dress surrounded by several animals, like elephant, tiger, buffalo etc. Due to these things Sir John Marshall has opined that it is the figure of Lord Shiva. Moreover, these things point to three concepts about Lord Shiva which are: (a) Trimukha (Three faced), (b) Pashupati (Lord of Animals) and (c) Yogeshvara An eminent scholar like Dr. R.C. Majumdar is of the view that Shiva-cult was later on borrowed by the Aryans. Animal Worship: Animal worship is also indicated through many figures and representations on seals discovered at the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The animals worshipped by the Indus valley people were of three categories: (i) Mythical Animals: They were semi-human or complex animals with the heads of different animals attached to a central body. (ii) Ambiguous Animals: Among the second category there was the strange unicorn which appears to have been the titular deity of the city. (iii) Actual Animals: The actual animals like rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, buffalo, humped bull, zebra etc. fall under the third category which was worshipped by the Indus valley CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 73 people. Some of the actual animals were also regarded as the vehicle or vahana of the gods. For example, the bull was regarded as the vehicle of Lord Shiva. Worship of Water: The Great Bath discovered at Mohenjo-Daro indicated that water also played an important role in the religious rituals of Indus valley people. According to some writers, the Great Bath was like the temple of the River god. It is also suggested that before performing some puja or ritual ceremony, every person used to take bath in that so called ritual tank for the purification of the body. Worship of Trees and Birds: Trees of peepal and neem appear to have been worshipped by the Indus valley people as shown in seals found during the excavation. Besides this, duck was regarded to be a sacred bird. Worship of the Sun and Fire: The representation of Swastika and wheel on certain seals shows that the Indus valley people also worshipped the Sun god. Moreover, indications are also found about their worshipping the god of Fire too. Art Work of Indus Valley Civilization Thus it is obvious that Hindu religion of today owes a lot to Indus valley culture. Lord Shiva was as popular a god for the Indus valley people as is today. The worship of peepal tree and tulsi plant is still a part of Hindu religion. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

74 History-I Character of the Indus Civilization In order to understand what set it apart from other contemporaneous cultures in the Indian subcontinent and from the Bronze Age civilizations of West Asia and Egypt, it is necessary to be clear about the character of the Indus civilization. The Indus phenomenon is called a civilization because it incorporated within itself the social configurations and organisational devices that characterize such a cultural form. It was the only literate subcontinental segment of its time. More than 4000 Indus inscriptions have been found, and even though they remain undeciphered, the script was used for mercantile purposes (as suggested by the seals and sealings), personal identification (in the form of shallow inscriptions on bangles, bronze implements etc.) and possibly for civic purposes (underlined by the remains of a massive inscribed board at Dholavira). The civilization’s essence was a settlement pattern in which cities and towns were particularly prominent. That such urban centre contained monumental structures whose construction required large outlays of labour and resources, and were marked by heterogeneous economic activities, are other conspicuous indicators. Earlier, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had alone stood out as the civilization’s large cities today we know of many more whose dimensions qualify them for a similar status. These are fairly spread out — Ganweriwala in Cholisatan, Dholavira in Kutch and Rakhigarhi in Haryana are such centres and symbolize the creation of aggregates of population on a scale previously unknown. The largest variety and quantity of jewellery, statuary and seals, are found in urban centres and indicate that craft production was, in the main, geared to the demands of city dwellers. Further, the characters of planning, the necessity of written transactions, and the existence of a settlement hierarchy in which urban and rural settlements of various sizes and types were functionally connected in important ways all indicate administrative organisation on a scale that was unprecedented in relation to other protohistoric subcontinental cultures. Many of these are archaeological indicators of a state society as well. Whether there were several states or a unified empire in Harappan times remains unclear. Urban settlements may have functioned as city-states since their layout and character suggests the presence of local aristocracies, merchants and craftspeople. The Indus civilization, while sharing many general features with the contemporary Bronze Age cultures such as the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia and Old Kingdom Egypt, had its own distinct identity. For CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 75 one thing, with a geographical spread of more than a million square kilometres, this was the largest urban culture of its time. Unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt, there were no grand religious shrines nor were magnificient palaces and funerary complexes constructed for the rulers. Instead, its hallmark was a system of civic amenities for its citizens rarely seen in other parts of the then civilized world — roomy houses with bathrooms, a network of serviceable roads and lanes, an elaborate system of drainage and a unique water supply system. Dholavira’s network of dams, water reservoirs and underground drains and Mohenjo-daro’s cylindrical wells, one for every third house, epitomize the degree of comfort that townspeople enjoyed in relation to contemporary Mesopotamians and Egyptians who had to make do with fetching water, bucket by bucket, from the nearby rivers. 3.4 Decline of Harappan Civilization Since there is no written material or historical evidence, it is quite difficult to say anything definite about the destruction of the Indus valley culture. Yet a healthy speculation has led the historians to specify the following causes which might have been responsible for its destruction. Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Recent investigation of human skeletons from the location of Harappa has established that the end of the Indus civilization saw an increase in inter-personal violence and in infectious diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis. Historian Upinder Singh remarks, “the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones.” Aryan invasion Aryan invasion theory was proposed by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1953. He said that the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia, the “Aryans”, caused the decline of the Indus Civilization. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons identified in various parts of Mohenjo-Daro. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

76 History-I He uses Rig veda as a source of historical information for this theory –  Rigvedic mention of conflicts was equated to war between the incoming Aryans and the indigenous Harappans;  Reference to fortress of the ‘Dasas’ and ‘Dasyus’ was equated to the Harappan fortification walls as the geographical area of the Rigvedic Aryans correspond to the core area of the habitational sites of the Indus, that is, the Punjab and Ghaggar-Hakra region, and remains of no other historical civilization have been identified during the above period;  Mention of Indra, the Aryan war-god, as puramdara ‘fort-destroyer’ who shatters ‘ninety forts’ for his Aryan protege, Divodasa; and  Mention of Hariyupia located on the banks of the Yabyabati (possibly Ravi River) where the Aryans had fought a battle was thought to be mention of Harappa. However, this theory has been criticised on a number of grounds.  Chronologically, the Harappan Civilization came to an end around 1800 BC while the Rigveda is believed to be written around 1000 BC even though the exact chronology of the Rigvedic Aryans has not yet been established.  Historically, further, the exact nature of the historical content of the Rigveda has also not been established, though it is reasonably supposed that there is some important historical information in this text.  Skeletally, scientific analysis of the skeletal remains from Mohenjo-Daro does not show any signs of trauma due to massacre, they appear to be just hasty interments. The skeletons show phenotypic differences from other Harappan populations indicating a heterogeneous population, but they do not show evidence for the ‘introduction of a novel phenotypic pattern’ just before or after the decline of the Harappans suggestive of new groups migrating into the region.  Culturally, Harappa had a final stylistic phase that seems to reflect some foreign influence, particularly from Iran. But there was no radical replacement or change that might indicate an invasion. Many scholars have cited continuities in architectural CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 77 traditions and technologies, and artistic and religious symbols. It would appear that if indeed Aryans attacked India, then there would be indication of a completely diverse sort of religion, craft making, significant changes in art and social structure. But none of this has been identified. What changes have occurred, were hugely due to internal factors. Floods There have been records of flooding at Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan and Dholavira, as cited in the excavation reports. This was inferred from collapsed buildings and houses and streets covered with silt clay intervening actual periods of occupation. This clay is thought to be left by the receding flood waters. At Mohenjo-Daro these abnormal floods and consequent rebuilding of the town seems to have happened at least thrice. Chanhu daro was also twice-destroyed by ‘massive’ inundations. The devastating floods obstructed the normal process of irrigation, leading in turn to the economic decline of some of the Harappan settlements. Climate Change and Drought  By 2016 many historians believe that drought, and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia, caused the collapse of the Indus Civilization. The climate change which caused the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization was possibly due to “an abrupt and critical mega-drought and cooling 4,200 years ago,” which marks the beginning of the Meghalayan Age, the present stage of the Holocene.  The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed, and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya, leading to erratic and less wide-ranging floods that made inundation of civilization less sustainable.  Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilization’s expiry, and to scatter its population eastward. According to Giosan et al. (2012), the IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying chiefly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. As the monsoons kept shifting south, the floods grew too erratic for CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

78 History-I sustainable agricultural activities. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small range of produce in these small communities did not allow development of trade, and the cities died out. Change in the Course of Indus Mackay was the first to argue that Mohenjo-Daro was abandoned due to the shifts in the course of the Indus River. Later, Lambrick furthered this theory. He argued that Indus being an unstable river shifted its course many times during the Harappan occupation which led to the collapse of the civilization. Flam documented major changes in the Indus river system in its lower reaches since pre-Harappan and mature Harappan periods. During the period from 8000 to 4000 BC there were two chief courses unlike the present single course, the Jacobabad course on the western edge for the Indus River and the Nara River running parallel to the Indus on eastern edge of the plains which was part of the Ghaggar-Hakra system. Between 4000-2000 BC the course shifted eastward and now followed the Sindhu river course and the confluence of the Nara river with the Sindhu river shifted farther south, just north of the coastline. Many historians criticise the theory saying that though shifts may have occurred, but no pattern is evident in the location of early, mature and late Harappan sites indicative of adjustments to river shifting. Earthquakes: Archaeological evidences of major earthquakes are found at Dholavira in 2200 BCE as well as at Kalibangan in 2700 and 2900 BCE. Such series of earthquakes, along with drought, may have backed to decline of Ghaggar-Harka system. Sea level changes are also identified at two possible seaport sites along the Makran coast which are now inland. Earthquakes may have contributed to decline of several sites by direct shaking damage, by sea level change or by change in water supply. Further, a number of the mature Harappan settlements are located along the dry Ghaggar-Hakra river system. These sites, however, declined during the late Harappan coinciding with the divergence of the Ghaggar-Hakra system to the Indus and Ganga river systems. This was supposedly induced by tectonic forces and aridity. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 79 All the above evidence has been cited to demonstrate that earthquakes were an instrumental factor in bringing about the demise of several Harappan sites either by direct shaking damage, changing the water supply or by altering the relative sea level. Ecological Imbalance Walter Fairservis tried to explain the decline and abandonment of Harappan cities in terms of anthropogenic causes dismantling the ecological balance in the region. He calculated the impact of Harappan land use around Mohenjo-Daro by computing the population of Mohenjo-Daro and its requirements. He estimated the population of Mohenjo-Daro as 41250 inhabitants and the area under cultivation in the vicinity of Mohenjo-Daro at around 22715 acres (on the basis of pre- modern rates of wheat output per acre in the region). On the basis of the number of cattle needed for ploughing, he estimated the total cattle population at 8700 or more. He, however, underestimated the cattle requirements by missing the use of cattle for lift irrigation. It must have also needed a huge network of villages serving the needs of the city. He advocated that the growing demands of the increasing human and cattle population led to depletion of forest, food and fuel resources. Over-cultivation and over-grazing disturbed the symbiotic ecological balance of the region. Over manipulation of natural resources and such huge scale alterations to the landscape resulting from human activity perhaps caused floods and salinity further aggravated the problem. This is reflected in the gradual deterioration in town planning and living standards. Depletion of resources for subsistence caused a shift eastwards towards more viable regions. Plague There is another reason for the decline of Harappan civilization. That is the outbreak of the plague epidemic. Skeletal remains from the chief roads of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro as identified through archaeological efforts tell a sad story. When an epidemic like plague spreads in a human habitation, it leaves its trail of death everywhere. The scattered skeletal remains therefore lead some to attribute it to epidemic like plague, though there is no concrete proof of outbreak of plague in the region. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

80 History-I Thus, a number of causes described above were responsible for the decline of Harappan Civilization. Though, actual and one cause cannot be framed, historians took the help of archaeological sources and remains to imagine what made the downfall of such a dynamic civilization like Harappan. Rise and fall are the natural phenomenon. Where there is rise there is fall also. Harappan civilization was not free from this law. The civilization lasted near about 1500 hundred years and in this very small span of civilization they showed their highest ability and perfection which can be compared with a modern civilization of recent past. You may say about their town planning, religious belief system, social life or art and architecture; they showed their excellence. 3.5 Summary  Harappan had a specific religious practice for their smooth way of life. Worship of trees, animals, symbols shows their value civilization to preserve their environment and wanted a balance of life in the society.  The staple food of the people included wheat, barley, rice, milk and some vegetables like peas, sesamums and fruits like date. Beef, mutton, pork, poultry, fish etc. were also eaten by the Indus people.  Both men and women used two pieces of cloth. The men folk wore some lower garment like dhoti and upper garment like shawl. The upper garment covered the left shoulder. Female costume was the same as that of men. Men had their long hair, parted in the middle and kept tidy at the back.  Domestication of animals supported in the production of crops in the field. Humped bull, buffalo, sheep, pig, dog, elephant and camels were tamed. Horse was not domesticated.  The people were loving ornaments. Both male and female of all classes used necklaces fillets, armlets, finger rings, and bangles. Girdles nose studs, earrings, and anklets were used by the women alone. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 81  Indus valley people had their diverse kinds of pastimes for entertainment during leisure. Among amusements dancing with the accompaniment of the drum, and dice playing was very common.  It is commonly believed that the Indus Valley people were peace loving. In fact no fatal weapons or defensive weapons like shield or armour have discovered during excavation.  Women in the society were highly respected. The adoration of mother goddess shows that women enjoyed very high position in the society. They were equally treated with their male counterpart in the society.  No clear evidence was found about the political organisation of the Indus Valley people. Unlike the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians they have not left behind any inscription unfolding their system of administration.  As the society of the Indus culture was urban in nature, people seem to have comprised diverse classes of people including administrators, priests, merchants, craftsmen and labourers.  The most outstanding seal found is Pashupati seal in which the three faced male god is displayed seated in a yogic posture, bounded by a rhino and a buffalo on the right, and an elephant and a tiger on the left, make the scholars conclude that the people of those days adored Lord Shiva who is the Lord of the Beast (Pashupati) and the male principle of creation.  The most fundamental feature of Harappan religion was the worship of mother Goddess.  Harappan Civilization was the urban civilization which was very famous for its Art and Architecture. The forms of art identified from various sites of civilization include sculptures, seals, pottery, gold ornaments, terracotta figures, etc. Their description of human and animal figures was highly accurate in nature.  Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Recent investigation of human skeletons from the location of Harappa has established that the end of the Indus civilization saw an increase in inter-personal violence and in infectious diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

82 History-I 3.6 Key Words/Abbreviations  Barter: In trade, barter is a system of exchange where participants in a transaction directly exchange goods or services for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money.  Trolley: Trolley was used for trade and commerce during Indus Valley Civilization.  Agriculture: The food of the Harappans was provided from wide-ranging areas cultivated in vicinity of the city. Agriculture seems to be the chief occupation of the Indus people. The finding of a granary at Harappa lends support to this.  Food: The food of the Harappans was provided from wide-ranging areas cultivated in vicinity of the city. Rice was possibly grown in the Indus valley. The staple food of the people included wheat, barley, rice, milk and some vegetables like peas, sesames and fruits like date palms. Beef, mutton, pork, poultry, fish etc. were also eaten by the Indus people.  Dress: The finding of huge number of spindles shows the use of cotton for weaving social cloths. Wool was also used. The garments might have been sewn. Both men and women used two pieces of cloth. The men folk wore some lower garment like dhoti and upper garment like shawl.  Downfall: A downfall is a sudden drop in status or strength. 3.7 Learning Activity 1. Write a short note on the social and economic life of the Harappa civilization. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. What are the causes for the downfall of the Harappa civilization? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 83 3.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions (a) Explain the food pattern of Harappan people. (b) Write a note on the dress pattern of Harappan people. (c) Describe the household items used by the Harappans. (d) Describe the Lost Wax Technique used by Harappans. (e) Describe the characteristics of the Bronze Dancing girl. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. The remarkable site Harappa was excavated in the year 1921 by (a) Daya Ram Sahni (b) R.D. Banerjee (c) J.P. Joshi (d) Dr. A. Ghosh 2. The first credit of identification of the ruins of the Indus civilization goes to (a) R.D. Banerjee (b) Charles Masson (c) Dr. A. Ghosh (d) John Marshal 3. Name the first director general of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1861. (a) Charles Masson (b) Dr. A. Ghosh (c) John Marshal (d) Alexander Cunningham 4. The biggest building is the great granary discovered from (a) Harappa (b) Mohenjo-daro (c) Suktangedaro (d) None of the above 5. The excavations of the site Banwali was directed by (a) Charles Masson (b) Dr. A. Ghosh (c) John Marshal (d) R.S. Bisht CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

84 History-I 6. Which among the following is a staple food of the people of Harappan? (a) Wheat (b) Barley (c) Rice (d) All of the above 7. Which among the following animals were tamed by the Harappan people? (a) Humped bull (b) Buffalo (c) Sheep (d) All of the above 8. Which place of worship was found in Harappan culture? (a) Temple (b) Mosque (c) Church (d) None of the above 9. The most fundamental feature of Harappan religion was the worship of (a) Mother Goddess (b) Vishnu (c) Goddess Parvati (d) None of the above 10. Who identified some articles as signs of phallic worship among Harappan people? (a) Charles Masson (b) Dr. A. Ghosh (c) John Marshal (d) R.S. Bisht Answers 1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (c), 4. (b), 5. (d), 6. (d), 7. (d), 8. (d), 9. (a), 10. (c). 3.9 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 85 UNIT 4 ORIGIN OF ARYAN HOME Structure: 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Origin of Aryans 4.3 Aryans In India 4.4 Sources 4.5 Social Life of the Aryans 4.6 Political System of the Rig Vedic Period 4.7 Economic Life of the Rig Vedic Period 4.8 Religious Life of the Rig Vedic Period 4.9 Conclusion 4.10 Let’s Sum Up 4.11 Summary 4.12 Key Words/Abbreviations 4.13 Learning Activity 4.14 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 4.15 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

86 History-I 4.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the origin of the Aryans  Describe the simple and peaceful life of Early Aryan society  Analyse the political condition of the Aryans  Explain the religious practices of the Aryans 4.1 Introduction The decline of Indus Valley civilisation was not the end rather it saw the evolution of another glorious civilisation which showed its moral light and wisdom to the world till today. The name of the new civilisation was Vedic Civilisation and its people are known as Aryans. The literary meaning of Aryan is the man of ‘noble character’, and the ‘free born’. Unlike the urban culture of Indus people, Vedic Civilisation had its remarkable rural features. They were very famous to contribute the language ‘Sanskrit’ which is named the mother of all languages in India in modern times. It is said that Sanskrit and other languages had their origin from the Indo-European language of the Aryan which they were using in their daily life. Though many theories are debated to identify the origin of the Aryans, it is true that they started their settlement in Saptasindhu (Punjab) region and their culture lasted between c. 1500 to c. 500 BCE which is regarded as the Vedic age or Vedic Age. From the initial settlement of Punjab region they now shifted to Indo-Gangetic plains region. By 6th century BC, they captured the whole North India which they named it as ‘Aryavarta’. As per the evidences, historians divided the Vedic Age into the Early Vedic Age or Rig Vedic Age (1500 BC -1000 BC) and the Later Vedic Age (1000 BC - 600 BC). 4.2 Origin of Aryans It is difficult to ascertain the original position of the Aryans. Different scholars opined in different ways by giving their evidences and imaginations. So it’s a debatable issue that whether CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 87 Aryans were Indian origin or came from outside. So we can discuss the following account which tries to conclude the position of origin of Aryans. Central Asian Origin The most significant theory which was accepted for a long time was that the Aryans originally belonged to Central Asia. In his “Lectures on the Science of Languages” Professor Max Muller, a German scholar of comparative languages remarked that the ancestors of the Indians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Germans and the Celts must have existed together originally.  This theory was reached by a study of the languages of these people. The Pitri and Matri in Sanskrit were similar as the Pidar and Madar in Persian. Father and Mother in English and the Patar and Matar in Latin. These were not trade terms but essential words of normal use in families which could have been accepted only if the ancestors of these people lived at one common position.  The opinion of Max Muller was that the chief stream of the Aryans flowed towards the north-west. The Aryans of Europe migrated by a route south of the Caspian through Asia Minor to Greece and Italy. One of their groups came to India through the north-west passage.  In support of the theory, it is also pointed out that the people speaking the Indo-Germanic group of languages were spread over a region extending from the Brahmaputra to the Atlantic. The languages of the Vedas and Zend-Avesta have changed the least but the Celtic languages have changed enormously. The original home of the Aryans must have been nearest to the lands captured by the Indians and the Iranians and that possibly was Central Asia.  There is also a tradition in the Zend-Avesta that the first creation of man took position in Airyana Voejo and from there the Iranians went to Iran. Most of the positions connected with Airyana Voejo are situated in or about Central Asia.  This view is also supported by a study of the comparative languages which shows that the original home of the Aryans was a region “where trees like birch and pine grew and where winter was familiar with its snow and ice.” A language named Tocharian, which is CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

88 History-I spoken in north-west Afghanistan, is allied to Centum which is a western and European language.  A Babylonian tablet of 2100 BC shows that the horse was newly introduced among the people of Babylon. It is mentioned as “an ass from the East” or “from the mountains.” From this it is concluded that it refers to the coming of the people from Iran or beyond who discovered the Kissite dynasty of Babylon.  According to Rapson, this refers to the eruption of Aryans from the north-east. Central Asia was the breeding position of the Tartar hordes that later on went to India, Persia, the Euphrates Valley and Europe. This region could have been also the original home of the Aryans. The words for salt and sea are not common to the various Aryan languages and from this it is concluded that the original home of the Aryans must have been an inland country. Central Asia possesses all those things which are considered necessary for specialisation in language and culture. Those things are vast plains undivided by mountains, deserts or forests, abundance of food and a temperate climate.  Critics point out that it is improbable that the Aryans with such a superior civilisation could have been cradled in one of the most barren tracts of land in Asia. However, it can be pointed out that the Central Asia of the Aryans must have been different from what it is today. The climate of this region has changed even during the historic times. It is the testimony of the geologists that there has been a decrease in rainfall in this region and consequently agriculture has also been affected. The regions which were described as fertile by ancient writers are at present deserts. Sir Aurel Stein has shown that there was a great civilisation in Chinese Turkistan, but that is not the case today. Even Hiuen Tsang referred to a flourishing civilisation in Central Asia when he came to India during the 7th century AD. Arctic Origin Theory The late Bal Gangadhar Tilak was of the opinion that the original home of the Aryans was the Arctic region. This view was propounded by him in his book ‘The Arctic Home of Aryans’. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 89  Working on the theory that the earth is losing heat day by day, Tilak came to the conclusion that the North Polar regions were at one time habitable regions and the Aryans originally lived there. Tilak critically ransacked the Sanskrit literature and came to the above conclusion. The Vedas refer to days and nights lasting for six months which are to be discovered in the Arctic region. The varying and continuous Ushas which are divided into several parts with elaborate rites are stated to be the same as the perpetual day of the astronomers.  The movements of the stars of the Polar region are also described in detail to support the view. It is pointed out that the horizontal movement of the stars is a peculiar experience of the Polar region.  The books of the Iranians point out that the original home of the Aryans had long winters. The traditional Elysium of the Hindus is the North. The theory of Tilak might seem strange to the modern mind which can think of only severe winter of the Arctic region.  However, the geologists have proved that in pre-historic times this region had a congenial climate and a perpetual spring. Under the circumstances the theory of Tilak cannot be summarily rejected. His astronomical calculation should be given due consideration. European Origin Most of the Western scholars accepted the theory that the original home of the Aryans was in south-east Europe.  According to Professor MacDonell, the common trees like the oak, the beech and the willow and the common animals like the horse and the cow with which the ancestors of the Aryans were familiar, as is shown by a study of the Rig-Veda and Zend-Avesta, could be discovered in those days in south-eastern Europe.  According to Dr. Giles, the original home of the Aryans was “the region which is bounded on its eastern side by the Carpathians, on its south by the Balkans, on its western side by the Austrian Alps and Bohmer Wald and on north by the Erzgebirge and the mountains which link them up with the Carpathians,” i.e. the plains of Austria and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

90 History-I Hungary. The ancestors of the Indians, Greeks, Germans and English lived originally at some common position.  According to Dr. Giles, when they were all living at one position, they were known as “Wiros”. They lived together for a pretty long time. They knew the art of agriculture and named themselves as Arya or Airya. The words Arya or Airya mean the persons living on agriculture or persons of good family. The Aryans of India came to be known as the Indo-Aryans. Migration from South Russia  Some scholars remarked that the Aryans entered into India from the region of South Russia. Brandenstain has recommended that the Aryans migrated to India from Kirghitz steppes in Russia.  Schrader, the great philologist admits South Russia as the original home of Russians from where they travelled to different regions.  Professor B.K. Ghosh was also of the opinion that Aryans migrated to India from Southern Russian region.  But such imagination was not having many evidence and scholars rejected this idea. Tibetan Origin Theory Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Pargiter suggested that the original home of the Aryans was Tibet. The view has been expounded by them in the Satyarth Prakash and Ancient Indian Historical Traditions respectively. Origin from Sapta-Sindhu Region  According to A.C. Das, a Bengali historian, the original home of the Aryans was the Sapt-Sindhu or the Punjab. This point of view was put forward by him in his book named “Rig Vedic India.” The Sapta-Sindhu, land (of seven rivers) which was the name of Punjab was irrigated by seven rivers, viz. The Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj and Saraswati. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 91  His view was that the geographical conditions described in the Rig-Veda point out to this region. India was connected with western Asia by land and the Aryans migrated from Sapt-Sindhu to the west. To quote him, “The original cradle of the Aryans was, therefore, Sapt-Sindhu, which comprised the beautiful valley of Kashmir on the North and Gandhara on the West. Its southern boundary was Rajputana (then it was not a desert) and its eastern boundary covered the Gangetic trough. It was completely cut off from southern India by sea, but it was connected by land with western Asia in the direction of Gandhara and Kabulistan through which waves after waves of Aryan migration advanced to the west and to Europe……The earliest Aryan tribes had left Sapt-Sindhu having pushed farthest into Europe by those who followed them on long intervals and in different stages.” The theory has not been accepted by the scholars of the world and has not been taken very seriously.  Those who support the Indian origin of the Aryans point out that the Europeans and Iranians must have migrated from India. The Vedas were composed in India and exist in India. The modern structure of Indian society and religion can be directly traced from the Vedic institutions. Neither in the Vedas nor in other Sanskrit literature do we find any tradition which refers to the immigration of the Aryans into India from outside. If they had come from another country, there ought to have been some tradition about the same.  However, the critics of the theory of Indian Origin of the Aryans point out that the things with which the early Aryans were familiar were not Indian. They were familiar with the birch, pine, oak and willow and these do not grow on the plains of India. They were not acquainted with rice, tiger, lion, elephant and banyan tree. They considered the elephant to be a strange animal and named it a Mriga (deer) with a Hastin (trunk).  According to Lassen, “None of the phenomena of speech, customs or ideas observable among the other cognate nations indicate an Indian origin.” According to Schlegel. They must have started from a central position in various directions. It is also pointed out that if the Aryans originally inhabited India, they ought not to have migrated from this fertile region to less hospitable positions like Iran and Europe. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

92 History-I 4.3 Aryans In India Early Aryan Settlement It is commonly assumed that the Aryans came to India in groups that established in the regions of North-Western Province in Pakistan and the Punjab which they had then named Sapt- Sindhu or the ‘land of seven rivers’, namely, the Indus, the Sutlej, the Ravi, the Beas, the Chenab, the Jhelum and the Saraswati. Later, they named this region Brahmavarta or ‘the land of Brahma’. The Aryans captured the whole of the present region of Punjab from about 1500 BC. The first group of Aryans clashed against the Dravidians and other inhabitants whom they conquered and are supposed to have been pushed down towards south of India. The Aryans were also having inter-tribal wars. There is an interesting reference to the inter- tribal conflicts in Rig-Veda. The most famous being the Battle of the Ten Kings. Sudas was the king of the Bharat tribe established in western Punjab, and Vishwamitra was his chief priest, who CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Origin of Aryan Home 93 had piloted successful campaigns for the king. But Sudas wished to terminate Vishwamitra and appoint another chief priest in his position, Vasishtha. This infuriated Vishwamitra, who organised a confederacy of ten tribes and attacked Sudas, but Sudas was victorious. Cattle- stealing and land disagreements were possibly a common cause of inter-tribal wars. Wars were not limited to inter-tribal hostilities alone. The Aryans had still to struggle with the indigenous people of northern India, who were of non-Aryan origin. The opponents were described by Aryans as Panis and Dasas. The Panis were wearisome, as they were cattle-thieves and cattle were the chief wealth of the Aryans. The battle with the Dasas was longer as they were well established in the land. In this battle Dasas were conquered and were made Dasa (slave). The Dasas were thought to be substandard because of their darker skin and flat features. The Aryans extended themselves along the river Ganga and Yamuna from Sapt-Sindhu and then captured the whole of Northern India from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas. The region was named as Aryavarta or ‘the land of the Aryans’. The age between 100 BC and 600 BC during which the Aryans established in the Gangetic valley, was known as the later Vedic age. During this age the Aryans captured vast regions in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and other parts of North India. The events pertaining to Ramayana and Mahabharata happened during the Later Vedic age. 4.4 Sources We have two kinds of sources to study the Early and Later Vedic Age. Literary and Archaeological Sources Literary Sources Vedas The four Vedas were created by Aryans. They were Rig, Yajur, Sam, and Atharva. The word Veda is derived from the word Vid which means ‘to know’. Vedas were essentially a compilation of prayers of Aryans for the gods and goddesses, who were chiefly the powers in nature. According to Aryans, the Vedas were heard (and not created by men); hence these were named ‘Shrutis’ and ‘a-paurusheya (not created by any man)’. The Vedas are also named as ‘Samhita’. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

94 History-I  Rig Veda is the earliest among four the Vedas. It is contained of 10 mandalas and 1028 suktas. It offers us information concerning socio-economic, religious, political condition of Rig Vedic Aryans, located in the region of Sapta-Sindhu. For example, the ‘Purushsukta’ of its 10th mandala portrays the origin of Varna system in India.  Sama Veda contained the prayers to teach how to recite the prayers while carrying out sacrifices.  Yajur Veda contained the prayers to be recited while carrying out sacrifices or yajna. Yajur Veda has 40 mandalas or chapters and has been divided into two parts, Shukla Yajur Veda and Krishna Yajur Veda. Thus Yajur Veda had its impact on the present rites and rituals in Hindu society.  Atharva Veda is also named as ‘Brahma Veda’. It has 20 mandalas or chapters and 731 stotras dealing with the subjects like magic, black-magic, superstitions etc. Thus Atharva Veda is regarded as the lower Veda in comparison to other three Vedas.  Each Veda has its own Brahmana, e.g. Rig Veda – Aitareya Brahmana, Samveda – Jaiminiya Brahmana, Yajur Veda-Shatapath and of Atharva veda – Gopath. These Brahmanas, gives us information of Vedic Aryans’ various institutions, like, four Varnas, four Ashramas, philosophy etc.  The Aranyakas were prepared to teach the knowledge of Vedic religion, exclusively sacrifices and mystic philosophy into seclusion. Aitareya Aranyaka is destined for Rig Veda whereas Taiteriya Aranyaka is for Yajur Veda.  The word Upanishad means ‘to learn, by sitting close to one’s teacher’. These were created to teach the learning of Vedic spiritualism, comprising the subject of, like, knowledge of one’s self, knowledge of God, relations between self and God, formation of the Universe, our position in such a vast Universe, etc. Traditionally there are 108 Upanishads, however, some of the most essential are, Ken, Kath, Prashna, Aiterya, Chandogya etc. As these come, chronologically, at the end of Vedas, hence, the Upanishads are also known as ‘Vedanta’. And we should know that the fundamental backbone of Indian religions was based on Upanishads. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)