MAE612_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(Draft 1)-converted

Due to its natural existence as a number, analysts do not need to employ the coding technique on quantitative data before it is analyzed. The process of analyzing quantitative data involves statistical modelling techniques such as standard deviation, mean and median. Some of the statistical methods used in analyzing quantitative data are highlighted below: • Mean The mean is a numerical average for a set of data and is calculated by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values in a dataset. It is used to get an estimate of a large population from the dataset obtained from a sample of the population. For example, online job boards in the US use the data collected from a group of registered users to estimate the salary paid to people of a particular profession. The estimate is usually made using the average salary submitted on their platform for each profession. • Standard deviation This technique is used to measure how well the responses align with or deviates from the mean. It describes the degree of consistency within the responses; together with the mean, it provides insight into data sets. In the job board example highlighted above, if the average salary of writers in the US is $20,000 per annum, and the standard deviation is 5.0, we can easily deduce that the salaries for the professionals are far away from each other. This will birth other questions like why the salaries deviate from each other that much. With this question, we may conclude that the sample contains people with few years of experience, which translates to a lower salary and people with many years of experience, translating to a higher salary. However, it does not contain people with mid-level experience. • Frequency distribution This technique is used to assess the demography of the respondents or the number of times a particular response appears in research. It is extremely keen on determining the degree of intersection between data points.

Some other interpretation processes of quantitative data include: • Regression analysis • Cohort analysis • Predictive and prescriptive analysis Tips for Collecting Accurate Data for Interpretation • Identify the Required Data Type Researchers need to identify the type of data required for particular research. Is it nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data? The key to collecting the required data to conduct research is to properly understand the research question. If the researcher can understand the research question, then he can identify the kind of data that is required to carry out the research. For example, when collecting customer feedback, the best data type to use is the ordinal data type. Ordinal data can be used to access a customer's feelings about a brand and is also easy to interpret. • Avoid Biases There are different kinds of biases a researcher might encounter when collecting data for analysis. Although biases sometimes come from the researcher, most of the biases encountered during the data collection process is caused by the respondent. There are 2 main biases, that can be caused by the President, namely; response bias and non- response bias. Researchers may not be able to eliminate these biases, but there are ways in which they can be avoided and reduced to a minimum. Response biases are biases that are caused by respondents intentionally giving wrong answers to responses, while non-response bias occurs when the respondents don't give answers to questions at all. Biases are capable of affecting the process of data interpretation. • Use Close Ended Surveys

Although open-ended surveys are capable of giving detailed information about the questions and allow respondents to fully express themselves, it is not the best kind of survey for data interpretation. It requires a lot of coding before the data can be analyzed. Close-ended surveys, on the other hand, restrict the respondents' answer to some predefined options, while simultaneously eliminating irrelevant data. This way, researchers can easily analyze and interpret data.However, close-ended surveys may not be applicable in some cases, like when collecting respondent's personal information like name, credit card details, phone number, etc. Visualization Techniques in Data Analysis One of the best practices of data interpretation is the visualization of the dataset. Visualization makes it easy for a layman to understand the data, and also encourages people to view the data, as it provides a visually appealing summary of the data. There are different techniques of data visualization, some of which are highlighted below. Bar Graphs Bar graphs are graphs that interpret the relationship between 2 or more variables using rectangular bars. These rectangular bars can be drawn either vertically or horizontally, but they are mostly drawn vertically. The graph contains the horizontal axis (x) and the vertical axis (y), with the former representing the independent variable while the latter is the dependent variable. Bar graphs can be grouped into different types, depending on how the rectangular bars are placed on the graph. Some types of bar graphs are highlighted below: Grouped Bar Graph The grouped bar graph is used to show more information about variables that are subgroups of the same group with each subgroup bar placed side-by-side like in a histogram. For example, let us consider the subgroups of the average CGPA of students in the mathematics and statistics department of an institution.

• Stacked Bar Graph A stacked bar graph is a grouped bar graph with its rectangular bars stacked on top of each other rather than placed side by side. By representing the CGPA example highlighted above using a stacked bar graph, we get the graph below. In this graph, the rectangular bars representing the mathematics and statistics department are stacked on top of each other with each group representing, first year, second year, and third- year students.

• Segmented Bar Graph Segmented bar graphs are stacked bar graphs where each rectangular bar shows 100% of the dependent variable. It is mostly used when there is an intersection between the variable categories. The segmented bar graph shows the percentage of the average CGPA accumulated by the mathematics and statistics department of the institution. Advantages of a Bar Graph It helps to summarize a large data Estimations of key values c.an be made at a glance Can be easily understood Disadvantages of a Bar Graph It may require additional explanation. It can be easily manipulated. It doesn't properly describe the dataset. Pie Chart

A pie chart is a circular graph used to represent the percentage of occurrence of a variable using sectors. The size of each sector is dependent on the frequency or percentage of the corresponding variables. There are different variants of the pie charts, but for the sake of this article, we will be restricting ourselves to only 3. For better illustration of these types, let us consider the following examples. Pie Chart Example: There are a total of 50 students in a class, and out of them, 10 students like Football, 25 students like snooker, and 15 students like Badminton. Simple Pie Chart The simple pie chart is the most basic type of pie chart, which is used to depict the general representation of a bar chart. Doughnut Pie Chart Doughnut pie is a variant of the pie chart, with a blank centre allowing for additional information about the data as a whole to be included.

3D Pie Chart 3D pie chart is used to give the chart a 3D look and is often used for aesthetic purposes. It is usually difficult to reach because of the distortion of perspective due to the third dimension. Advantages of a Pie Chart It is visually appealing. Best for comparing small data samples.

Disadvantages of a Pie Chart It can only compare small sample sizes. Unhelpful with observing trends over time. Tables Tables are used to represent statistical data by placing them in rows and columns. They are one of the most common statistical visualization techniques and are of 2 main types, namely; simple and complex tables. Simple Tables Simple tables summarize information on a single characteristic and may also be called a univariate table. An example of a simple table showing the number of employed people in a community concerning their age group. Complex Tables As its name suggests, complex tables summarize complex information and present them in two or more intersecting categories. A complex table example is a table showing the number of employed people in a population concerning their age group and sex as shown in the table below.

Advantages of Tables Can contain large data sets Helpful in comparing 2 or more similar things Disadvantages of Tables They do not give detailed information. Maybe time-consuming. Line Graph Line graphs or charts are a type of graph that displays information as a series of points, usually connected by a straight line. Some of the types of line graphs are highlighted below. Simple Line Graphs Simple line graphs show the trend of data over time, and may also be used to compare categories. Let us assume we got the sales data of a firm for each quarter and are to visualize it using a line graph to estimate sales for the next year.

Line Graphs with Markers These are similar to line graphs but have visible markers illustrating the data points. Stacked Line Graphs Stacked line graphs are line graphs where the points do not overlap, and the graphs are therefore placed on top of each other. Consider that we got the quarterly sales data for each product sold by the company and are to visualize it to predict company sales for the next year.

Advantages of a Line Graph Great for visualizing trends and changes over time. It is simple to construct and read. Disadvantage of a Line Graph It cannot compare different variables at a single place or time. SUMMARY Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time- convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can be used in a research survey software for optimum derivation. KEYWORDS • Distinction- a difference or contrast between similar things or different. • Quantitative- relating to, measuring, or measured by quantity of something rather than its quality. • Qualitative- relating to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something rather than its quantity.

• Representative- typical of a class, group, or body of opinion. • Random- made, done, or happening without method or conscious decision. • Convenience- the state of being able to proceed with something without difficulty. • respondent LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Make a questionnaire for a research work with reference to sports. 2. Write down interview questions for doing a research with common people. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQ’S AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. What are the different types of sampling techniques? 2. What is sampling and sampling techniques? 3. What are the four basic sampling techniques? 4. What is the best sampling technique? 5. What is the sampling in research? B. Multiple Choice Questions (Mcq’s) 1.Sampling means following a sequence of stages. Which ONE of the following stages should come before the others? a. Proceed with the fieldwork. b. Find suitable source for the population members. c. Define the people of interest. d. Examine the objective of the study. 2. Which ONE of these sampling methods is a probability method?

a. Quota. b. Judgement. c. Convenience. d. Simple random. 3. Which ONE of the following is the benefit of using simple random sampling? a. We can calculate the accuracy of the results. b. The results are always representative. c. Interviewers can choose respondents freely. d. Informants can refuse to participate. 4.Which ONE of the following is the main problem with using non-probability sampling techniques? a. The expense. b. The results are never representative. c. Human judgement error. d. Informants can refuse to participate. 5.Which ONE of the following is the best - but an often unused - way to decide on sample size? a. By using industry standards. b. By calculation. c. By 'building blocks'. d. By budget available. Answer: 1. d 2. d 3. a 4. c

5. b REFERENCES • Quantitative Research Methods in the Social Sciences Paul S. Maxim • The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research • Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 10th Ed. 2012, New Age International. • Sinha, S.C. and Dhiman, A.K., 2002. Research Methodology, EssEss Publications. 2 volumes. • Anthony, M., Graziano, A.M. and Raulin, M.L., Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry, Allyn and Bacon. 2009. • Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, J.E., 2004 Practical Research: Planning and Design, Prentice Hall. • Fink, A., Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2009, Sage Publications • Coley, S.M. and Scheinberg, C. A., \"Proposal Writing\", 1990, Sage Publications. • The Craft of Research, Third Edition Book by Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, and Wayne C. Booth • Berg, Bruce L., 2009, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Seventh Edition. Boston MA: Pearson Education Inc. • Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

UNIT 6: DOCUMENTATION IN RESEARCH STRUCTURE 1. Learning Objectives 2. Introduction 3. Data collection methods 4. Bibliography 5. Writing a Bibliography –APA format 6. Process Of Documentation 7. The Advantages Of Documentation 8. Summary 9. Keywords 10. Learning Activity 11. Unit End Questions 12. References LEARNING OBJECTIVES While studying this chapter we will learn about the following points: • The purpose of research and its different techniques to write a research. • The various important aspects that are a must for research. • Writing of research as an important factor and its guidelines. • Hypothesis –an important factor. • The different ways in which data can be collected and presented. INTRODUCTION Document analysis is a form of qualitative research in which documents are interpreted by the researcher to give voice and meaning around an assessment topic (Bowen, 2009). Analyzing documents incorporates coding content into themes similar to how focus group or interview transcripts are analyzed (Bowen 2009). A rubric can also be used to grade or score document. Document analysis is a social research method and is an important research tool in its own right, and is an invaluable part of most schemes of triangulation, the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon (Bowen, 2009). In order to seek convergence and corroboration, qualitative researchers usually use at least two resources

through using different data sources and methods. The purpose of triangulating is to provide a confluence of evidence that breeds credibility (Bowen, 2009). Corroborating findings across data sets can reduce the impact of potential bias by examining information collected through different methods. Also, combining qualitative and quantitative sometimes included in document analysis called mixed-methods studies. BIBLIOGRAPHY A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used (whether referenced or not) in the process of researching your work. In general, a bibliography should include: the authors' names. the titles of the works. the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources. In1670s, \"the writing of books,\" from Greek bibliographia \"the writing of books,\" from biblion \"book\" + graphos \"(something) drawn or written\". Meaning \"the study of books, authors, publications, etc.,\" is from 1803. Sense of \"a list of books that form the literature of a subject\" is first attested 1814. WRITING A BIBLIOGRAPHY: MLA FORMAT Basics Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centered title, Works Cited. Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore spaces and other punctuation.) If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The. For dates, spell out the names of months in the text of your paper, but abbreviate them in the list of works cited, except for May, June, and July. Use either the day-month-year style (22 July 1999) or the month-day-year style (July 22, 1999) and be consistent. With the month- day-year style, be sure to add a comma after the year unless another punctuation mark goes there. Underlining or Italics? When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were underlined because most typewriters had no way to print italics. If you write a bibliography by hand, you should still underline the names of publications. But, if you use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are below. Always check with your instructor regarding their preference of using italics or underlining. Our examples use italics.

Hanging Indentation All MLA citations should use hanging indents, that is, the first line of an entry should be flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be indented 1/2\". Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation The MLA guidelines specify using title case capitalization - capitalize the first words, the last words, and all principal words, including those that follow hyphens in compound terms. Use lowercase abbreviations to identify the parts of a work (e.g., vol. for volume, ed. for editor) except when these designations follow a period. Whenever possible, use the appropriate abbreviated forms for the publisher's name (Random instead of Random House). Separate author, title, and publication information with a period followed by one space. Use a colon and a space to separate a title from a subtitle. Include other kinds of punctuation only if it is part of the title. Use quotation marks to indicate the titles of short works appearing within larger works (e.g., \"Memories of Childhood.\" American Short Stories). Also use quotation marks for titles of unpublished works and songs. Format Examples Books Format: Author's last name, first name. Book title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing company, publication date. Examples: Allen, Thomas B. Vanishing Wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1974. Boorstin, Daniel J. The Creators: A History of the Heroes of the Imagination. New York: Random, 1992. Hall, Donald, ed. The Oxford Book of American Literacy Anecdotes. New York: Oxford UP, 1981. Searles, Baird, and Martin Last. A Reader's Guide to Science Fiction. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1979. Toomer, Jean. Cane. Ed. Darwin T. Turner. New York: Norton, 1988.

Encyclopedia & Dictionary Format: Author's last name, first name. \"Title of Article.\" Title of Encyclopedia. Date. Note: If the dictionary or encyclopedia arranges articles alphabetically, you may omit volume and page numbers. Examples: \"Azimuthal Equidistant Projection.\" Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 10th ed. 1993. Pettingill, Olin Sewall, Jr. \"Falcon and Falconry.\" World Book Encyclopedia. 1980. Tobias, Richard. \"Thurber, James.\" Encyclopedia Americana. 1991 ed. Levinson, David, and Melvin M. Ember, eds. Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology. 4 vols. New York: Henry Holt, 1996. Print. Magazine & Newspaper Articles Format: Author's last name, first name. \"Article title.\" Periodical title Volume # Date: inclusive pages. Note: If an edition is named on the masthead, add a comma after the date and specify the edition. Examples: Hall, Trish. \"IQ Scores Are Up, and Psychologists Wonder Why.\" New York Times 24 Feb. 1998, late ed.: F1+. Kalette, Denise. \"California Town Counts Down to Big Quake.\" USA Today 9 21 July 1986: sec. A: 1. Kanfer, Stefan. \"Heard Any Good Books Lately?\" Time 113 21 July 1986: 71-72. Trillin, Calvin. \"Culture Shopping.\" New Yorker 15 Feb. 1993: 48-51. Website or Webpage

Format: Author's last name, first name (if available). \"Title of work within a project or database.\" Title of site, project, or database. Editor (if available). Electronic publication information (Date of publication or of the latest update, and name of any sponsoring institution or organization). Date of access and <full URL>. Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available. Examples: Devitt, Terry. \"Lightning injures four at music festival.\" The Why? Files. 2 Aug. 2001. 23 Jan. 2002 <http://whyfiles.org /137lightning/index.html>. Dove, Rita. \"Lady Freedom among Us.\" The Electronic Text Center. Ed. David Seaman. 1998. Alderman Lib., U of Virginia. 19 June 1998 <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu /subjects/afam.html>. Lancashire, Ian. Homepage. 28 Mar. 2002. 15 May 2002 <http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080 /~ian/>. Levy, Steven. \"Great Minds, Great Ideas.\" Newsweek 27 May 2002. 10 June 2002 <http://www.msnbc.com /news/754336.asp>. The bibliographic information for different types of resources are located in different places, so you may need to do some detective work to get all of the information for your bibliography. Try looking in these places: the title page of a book, encyclopedia or dictionary the heading of an article the front, second, or editorial page of the newspaper the contents page of a journal or magazine the header (at the top) or footer (at the bottom) of a Web site the About or the Contact page of a Web site

When it is time to turn in your Bibliography, type all of your sources into a list. Use the examples in MLA Format Examples or APA Format Examples as a template to insure that each source is formatted correctly. List the sources in alphabetical order using the author's last name. If a source has more than one author, alphabetize using the first one. If an author is unknown, alphabetize that source using the title instead. WRITING A BIBLIOGRAPHY: APA FORMAT Basics Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centered title, References. Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore spaces and other punctuation.) Only the initials of the first and middle names are given. If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The. For dates, spell out the names of months in the text of your paper, but abbreviate them in the list of works cited, except for May, June, and July. Use either the day-month-year style (22 July 1999) or the month-day-year style (July 22, 1999) and be consistent. With the month- day-year style, be sure to add a comma after the year unless another punctuation mark goes there. Underlining or Italics? When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were underlined because most typewriters had no way to print italics. If you write a bibliography by hand, you should still underline the names of publications. But, if you use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are below. Always check with your instructor regarding their preference of using italics or underlining. Our examples use italics. Hanging Indentation All APA citations should use hanging indents, that is, the first line of an entry should be flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be indented 1/2\". Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation

The APA guidelines specify using sentence-style capitalization for the titles of books or articles, so you should capitalize only the first word of a title and subtitle. The exceptions to this rule would be periodical titles and proper names in a title which should still be capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized. If there is more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. If there are more than six authors, list only the first one and use et al. for the rest. Place the date of publication in parentheses immediately after the name of the author. Place a period after the closing parenthesis. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works within longer works. Format Examples Books Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title. Additional information. City of publication: publishing Company. Examples: Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of the imagination. New York: Random House. Nicol, A. M., & Pexman, P. M. (1999). Presenting your findings: A practical guide for creating tables. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Searles, B., & Last, M. (1979). A reader's guide to science fiction. New York: Facts on File, Inc. Toomer, J. (1988). Cane. Ed. Darwin T. Turner. New York: Norton. Encyclopedia & Dictionary Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article. Title of Encyclopedia (Volume, pages). City of publication: publishing Company.

Examples: Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501- 508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam- Webster. Pettingill, O. S., Jr. (1980). Falcon and Falconry. World book encyclopedia. (pp. 150-155). Chicago: World Book. Tobias, R. (1991). Thurber, James. Encyclopedia americana. (p. 600). New York: Scholastic Library Publishing. Magazine & Newspaper Articles Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article title. Periodical title, volume number (issue number if available), inclusive pages. Note: Do not enclose the title in quotation marks. Put a period after the title. If a periodical includes a volume number, italicize it and then give the page range (in regular type) without \"pp.\" If the periodical does not use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use p. or pp. for page numbers. Note: Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style. Examples: Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896. Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31. Kalette, D. (1986, July 21). California town counts town to big quake. USA Today, 9, p. A1. Kanfer, S. (1986, July 21). Heard any good books lately? Time, 113, 71-72. Trillin, C. (1993, February 15). Culture shopping. New Yorker, pp. 48-51. Website or Webpage

Format: Online periodical: Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number, Retrieved month day, year, from full URL Online document: Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL Note: When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is undated, use \"n.d.\" (for no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that goes to another line after a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online documents. There is no period following a URL. Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available. Examples: Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved January 23, 2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998, from Alderman Library, University of Virginia website: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html Note: If a document is contained within a large and complex website (such as that for a university or a government agency), identify the host organization and the relevant program or department before giving the URL for the document itself. Precede the URL with a colon. Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/ Health Canada. (2002, February). The safety of genetically modified food crops. Retrieved March 22, 2005, from http://www.hc- sc.gc.ca/english/protection/biologics_genetics/gen_mod_foods/genmodebk.html

Hilts, P. J. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions, most people flunk out. New York Times. Retrieved November 21, 2000, from http://www.nytimes.com PROCESS OF DOCUMENTATION Before actual document analysis takes place, the researcher must go through a detailed planning process in order to ensure reliable results. O’Leary outlines an 8-step planning process that should take place not just in document analysis, but all textual analysis (2014): 1. Create a list of texts to explore (e.g., population, samples, respondents, participants). 2. Consider how texts will be accessed with attention to linguistic or cultural barriers. 3. Acknowledge and address biases. 4. Develop appropriate skills for research. 5. Consider strategies for ensuring credibility. 6. Know the data one is searching for. 7. Consider ethical issues (e.g., confidential documents). 8. Have a backup plan. A researcher can use a huge plethora of texts for research, although by far the most common is likely to be the use of written documents (O’Leary, 2014). There is the question of how many documents the researcher should gather. Bowen suggests that a wide array of documents is better, although the question should be more about quality of the document rather than quantity (Bowen, 2009). O’Leary also introduces two major issues to consider when beginning document analysis. The first is the issue of bias, both in the author or creator of the document, and the researcher as well (2014). The researcher must consider the subjectivity of the author and also the personal biases he or she may be bringing to the research. Bowen adds that the researcher must evaluate the original purpose of the document, such as the target audience (2009). He or she should also consider whether the author was a firsthand witness or used secondhand sources. Also important is determining whether the document was solicited, edited, and/or anonymous (Bowen, 2009). O’Leary’s second major issue is the “unwitting” evidence, or latent content, of the document. Latent content refers to the style, tone, agenda, facts or opinions that exist in the document. This is a key first step that the researcher must keep in mind (O’Leary, 2014). Bowen adds that documents should be assessed for their completeness; in other words, how selective or comprehensive their data is (2009). Also of paramount importance when evaluating documents is not to consider the data as “necessarily precise, accurate, or complete recordings of events that have occurred”

(Bowen, 2009, p. 33). These issues are summed up in another eight-step process offered by O’Leary (2014): 1. Gather relevant texts. 2. Develop an organization and management scheme. 3. Make copies of the originals for annotation. 4. Asses authenticity of documents. 5. Explore document’s agenda, biases. 6. Explore background information (e.g., tone, style, purpose). 7. Ask questions about document (e.g., Who produced it? Why? When? Type of data?). 8. Explore content. Step eight refers to the process of exploring the “witting” evidence, or the actual content of the documents, and O’Leary gives two major techniques for accomplishing this (2014). One is the interview technique. In this case, the researcher treats the document like a respondent or informant that provides the researcher with relevant information (O’Leary, 2014). The researcher “asks” questions then highlights the answer within the text. The other technique is noting occurrences, or content analysis, where the researcher quantifies the use of particular words, phrases and concepts (O’Leary, 2014). Essentially, the researcher determines what is being searched for, then documents and organizes the frequency and amount of occurrences within the document. The information is then organized into what is “related to central questions of the research” (Bowen, 2009, p. 32). Bowen notes that some experts object to this kind of analysis, saying that it obscures the interpretive process in the case of interview transcriptions (Bowen, 2009). However, Bowen reminds us that documents include a wide variety of types, and content analysis can be very useful for painting a broad, overall picture (2009). According to Bowen (2009), content analysis, then, is used as a “first-pass document review” (p. 32) that can provide the researcher a means of identifying meaningful and relevant passages. In addition to content analysis, Bowen also notes thematic analysis, which can be considered a form of pattern recognition with the document’s data (2009). This analysis takes emerging themes and makes them into categories used for further analysis, making it a useful practice for grounded theory. It includes careful, focused reading and re-reading of data, as well as coding and category construction (Bowen, 2009). The emerging codes and themes may also serve to “integrate data gathered by different methods” (Bowen, 2009, p. 32). Bowen sums up

the overall concept of document analysis as a process of “evaluating documents in such a way that empirical knowledge is produced and understanding is developed” (2009, p. 33). It is not just a process of lining up a collection of excerpts that convey whatever the researcher desires. The researcher must maintain a high level of objectivity and sensitivity in order for the document analysis results to be credible and valid (Bowen, 2009). THE ADVANTAGES OF DOCUMENT ANALYSIS There are many reasons why researchers choose to use document analysis. Firstly, document analysis is an efficient and effective way of gathering data because documents are manageable and practical resources. Documents are commonplace and come in a variety of forms, making documents a very accessible and reliable source of data. Obtaining and analysing documents is often far more cost efficient and time efficient than conducting your own research or experiments (Bowen, 2009). Also, documents are stable, “non-reactive” data sources, meaning that they can be read and reviewed multiple times and remain unchanged by the researcher’s influence or research process (Bowen, 2009, p. 31). Document analysis is often used because of the many different ways it can support and strengthen research. Document analysis can be used in many different fields of research, as either a primary method of data collection or as a compliment to other methods. Documents can provide supplementary research data, making document analysis a useful and beneficial method for most research. Documents can provide background information and broad coverage of data, and are therefore helpful in contextualizing one’s research within its subject or field (Bowen, 2009). Documents can also contain data that no longer can be observed, provide details that informants have forgotten, and can track change and development. Document analysis can also point to questions that need to be asked or to situations that need to be observed, making the use of document analysis a way to ensure your research is critical and comprehensive (Bowen, 2009). Concerns to Keep in Mind When Using Document Analysis The disadvantages of using document analysis are not so much limitations as they are potential concerns to be aware of before choosing the method or when using it. An initial concern to consider is that documents are not created with data research agendas and therefore require some investigative skills. A document will not perfectly provide all of the necessary information required to answer your research questions. Some documents may only provide a small amount of useful data or sometimes none at all. Other documents may be incomplete, or their data may be inaccurate or inconsistent. Sometimes there are gaps or

sparseness of documents, leading to more searching or reliance on additional documents then planned (Bowen, 2009). Also, some documents may not be available or easily accessible. For these reasons, it is important to evaluate the quality of your documents and to be prepared to encounter some challenges or gaps when employing document analysis. Another concern to be aware of before beginning document analysis, and to keep in mind during, is the potential presence of biases, both in a document and from the researcher. Both Bowen and O’Leary state that it is important to thoroughly evaluate and investigate the subjectivity of documents and your understanding of their data in order to preserve the credibility of your research (2009; 2014). The reason that the issues surrounding document analysis are concerns and not disadvantages is that they can be easily avoided by having a clear process that incorporates evaluative steps and measures, as previously mentioned above and exemplified by O’Leary’s two eight-step processes. As long as a researcher begins document analysis knowing what the method entails and has a clear process planned, the advantages of document analysis are likely to far outweigh the amount of issues that may arise. SUMMARY Report is a self-explanatorystatement of facts relating to aspecific subject and serves thepurpose of providing information fordecision making and follow upactions. It is a systematicpresentation of ascertained factsabout a specific event / subject.Report is a summary of findings and recommendations about a particular. A strategy for document analysis is presented which uses Portable Document Format (PDF the underlying file structure for Adobe Acrobat software) as its starting point. This strategy examines the appearance and geometric position of text and image blocks distributed over an entire document. A blackboard system is used to tag the blocks as a first stage in deducing the fundamental relationships existing between them. PDF is shown to be a useful intermediate stage in the bottom-up analysis of document structure. Its information on line spacing and font usage gives important clues in bridging the semantic gap between the scanned bitmap page and its fully analysed, block-structured form. Analysis of PDF can yield not only accurate page decomposition but also sufficient document information for the later stages of structural analysis and document understanding. KEYWORDS • Convergence- the process or state of converging.

• Corroboration- evidence which confirms or supports a statement, theory or finding. • Triangulating- divide (an area) into triangles for surveying purposes. • Potential- having or showing the capacity to develop into something in the future. • Bias- inclination or prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be unfair. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is the difference between internal and external documentation? 2. Why isn't the idea of self-documenting software viable for large pieces of software? UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQ’S AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. What is documentation and its importance? 2. What's the importance of a documentation plan? 3. What is documentation used for? 4. What bibliography means? 5. What is the meaning of bibliography with examples? B. Multiple Choice Questions (Mcq’s) 1. In which option shows what shouldn’t include in bibliography? a. The authors' names b. The dates your copies were published c. The titles of the works d. The author's age 2.Bibliography comes from the Greek word biblio, or \"book,\"

a. Greek b. Turkish c. French d. Latin 3. ……………..is often used because of the many different ways it can support and strengthen research. a. Methodology analysis b. References c. Document analysis d.none of the above 3. The bibliography generally provides ........................ information. a.Multiple Access process b. Single Access process c. Double Access process d.all of the above 4. Which is not a function of the bibliography? a. Provides direction to the researcher b. Helps the librarian c. Helps the readers after wards d. Not a systematic guide for the future Answer: 1. d 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. d REFERENCES • Quantitative Research Methods in the Social Sciences Paul S. Maxim • The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research

• Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 10th Ed. 2012, New Age International. • Sinha, S.C. and Dhiman, A.K., 2002. Research Methodology, EssEss Publications. 2 volumes. • Anthony, M., Graziano, A.M. and Raulin, M.L., Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry, Allyn and Bacon. 2009. • Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, J.E., 2004 Practical Research: Planning and Design, Prentice Hall. • Fink, A., Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2009, Sage Publications • Coley, S.M. and Scheinberg, C. A., \"Proposal Writing\", 1990, Sage Publications. • The Craft of Research, Third Edition Book by Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, and Wayne C. Booth • Berg, Bruce L., 2009, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Seventh Edition. Boston MA: Pearson Education Inc. • Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

UNIT 7:PAPER WRITING STRUCTURE 1.Learning Objectives 2. Introduction 3. Components of Research Reports 3. Tips for Writing Research Reports 4.Layout of Reports 5. The International Journal of English And Literature (ijel) 6.How to Publish Research Paper –ijstr 7. Steps to Organizing Your Manuscript 8.Summary 9. Keywords 10. Learning Activity 11. Unit End Questions 12. References LEARNING OBJECTIVES While studying this chapter we will learn about the following points: • The purpose of research and its different techniques to write a research. • The various important aspects that are a must for research. • Writing of research as an important factor and its guidelines. • Hypothesis –an important factor. • The different ways in which data can be collected and presented. INTRODUCTION Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods.Reports usually are spread across a vast horizon of topics

but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a very niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies. Certain events, facts and other information based on incidents need to be relayed on to the people in charge and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. There should be a clean and structured format for these reports to be effective in relaying information. A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research and is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research. COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH REPORTS Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands. The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report: • Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary. It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report. • Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail. This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”. After the research was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress – provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.

• Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers. Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail. Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques. • Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report. • Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section. While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world. • Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken. TIPS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports: • Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics: This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts. The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion. • Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them: Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other

researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company. • Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research. • Establish a working model: Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included. • Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further. • Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone. • Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible. • Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports. • Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an issue, when there are different degrees of concern. • The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question. • Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.

• Be creative with titles– Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation. • Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions. • Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out. LAYOUT OF REPORTS The Research report layout must necessarily be conveyed enough about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise preliminary pages, the main text and the end matter. Let us deal with them separately. Preliminary Pages In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of 6.3contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report. Main Text The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the following sections: 1. Introduction 2. Statement of findings and recommendations 3. The results 4. The implications drawn from the results; and 5. The summary.

1. Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report. 2. The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic design? If the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations? If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How many were there? How were they selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated. 3. Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the summarised form. 4. Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report. But how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primarily from the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But

ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline of his report. “Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and the bases for his conclusions. 5. Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the human behaviour. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below: o A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in similar circumstances. o The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study. o The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarises and recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGLISH AND LITERATURE (IJEL) This is an open access, peer reviewed journal with HIGH IMPACT FACTOR (JCC) that provides rapid publication of articles in all areas of the subject. IJEL is a premier resource for original linguistic research based on data drawn from the English language, encompassing a broad theoretical and methodological scope. Highlighting theoretically and technologically innovative scholarship, IJEL provides in-depth research and analysis in a variety of areas, including history of English, English grammar, corpus linguistics, sociolinguistics, American Literature, Ariel, Australian Literary Studies, Canadian Literature, Comparative Literature, Cultural Studies, Diacritics, Drama Review, Eighteenth Century Studies, English Literary History, Essays in Criticism, Fantasy and Literary Fictions, Genre and Dialectology.

The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published approximately one month after acceptance. All articles published in IJEL will be peer-reviewed. Types of paper Research Articles: These should describe new, carefully confirmed findings, innovative & creative research ideas and experimental procedures should be given in sufficient detail for others to verify the work. The length of a full paper should be the minimum required to describe and interpret the work clearly. It also includes personalized review articles on the research work carried at the author(s)’ laboratory, based on the published work of the author(s). Short Communications: A short communication is suitable for recording the results of complete small investigations or giving details of new models or hypotheses, innovative methods, techniques, creative models etc., The style of main sections need not conform to that of full-length papers. Short communications are 2 to 4 printed pages (about 6 to 12 manuscript pages) in length. Reviews Articles: Submissions of reviews and perspectives covering topics of current interest are welcome and encouraged. Reviews should be concise and no longer than 4-6 printed pages (about 12 to 18 manuscript pages). Review manuscripts are also peer- reviewed. It also focuses on current advancements in the given field. Addendum: It includes article giving additional information on earlier published research paper of the author Case Report: It includes case reports / studies in any sub-areas of the main field. A case report is generally considered a type of anecdotal evidence. Historical Note: Includes narrations on famous inventions or scientific personalities or institutions or events of the past. Narration / Opinion: Views on scientific activity. Narration encompasses a set of

techniques through which the authors / creators presents their vies / opinions Book Reviews: Books can be reviewed for research thesis, scientific books, printed periodicals, magazines and newspapers, as school work, or for book web sites on the Internet.Reviewers may use the occasion of a book review for a display of learning or to promulgate their own ideas on the topic of a fiction or non-fiction work. Publication Frequency: Six issues per year. Submission: Authors are requested to submit their papers electronically thru the website in the word document. Abstracting and Indexing Abstracted and indexed in many of the major global databases including: Index Copernicus, Academia, Research Bible, Internet Archive, Publication List, SSRN, Mendeley, Issuu, Scribd, ORCID, J-Gate 6. Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results. End Matter At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report. HOW TO PUBLISH RESEARCH PAPER - IJSTR This article will help you to write and publish your research paper. For Research Scholars doing PhD it is mandatory to publish their research papers at international level journals. And Many of the students who will apply for further studies in technical courses will discover that

relevant published research papers help during admission process. So here we are trying to post some guidelines that you can follow... 1. Preliminary The first activity for publishing a technical paper is to figure out your technical area of interest. Make sure the you had carried out enough studies on basics of that topic. Then you have you to update yourself with the ongoing technical happenings in your chosen field. You can do this by 1) Reading and googling a lot of technical papers. There are a lot of journals and IEEE papers floating around in net. 2) Go to one or more conferences, listen carefully to the best talks, and find out what people are thinking about. Once you are done with the above mentioned steps, then you are eligible for writing a paper 2. Read existing Papers Read everything that might be relevant gives you different perspective of the focus topic. But be selective too, for not getting to much deviated from you topic of interest. Getting used to simulation software is much useful for simulating your work. You can find a lot of time during the days and utilize those holidays & free days. 3. A jump start When you first start reading up on a new field, ask your fellow researcher what the most useful journals and conference proceedings are in your field, and ask for a list of important papers that you should read. This activity will give you a jump start 4. Crack the jargons and terms One of among the tough nuts to crack is to understand the paper published by others. The easiest way is to is by reading it many times. The more times you read the more will be revealed to you. Keep the Internet handy so that you can crack the jargons and terms, which you may find strange.

5. Write down your studies Write down speculations, interesting problems, possible solutions, random ideas, references to look up, notes on papers you've read, outlines of papers to write, and interesting quotes. Read back through it periodically. Keeping a journal of your research activities and ideas is very useful. 6. Bits and pieces together Now you can identify important open problems in your research field and also you will be very much aware of what you are doing and what you have to do. The more you go, you'll notice that the bits of random thoughts start to come together and form a pattern, which may be a bright enough for a good paper. 7. Simulation software’scases Please don't pick overly ambitious topics; instead identify a realistic size problem. Gather the MATLAB files available in the Internet that is related to your topic and simulate it for the claimed results. Please don't expect the Mfiles readily available for a solution published in a paper. But you can make it of your own by modifying and adding. Believe me, MATLAB is a very easy tool! Once you are able to get the simulated outputs of your solution, you can carry on for making a paper out of it. 8. Essence of your work The essence of your work can be diagnosed by analyzing below listed points. We can increase the maturity of the paper by improving these. Significance: Why was this work done? Did you solve an important problem of current interest or is it an obscure or obsolete problem? Originality/Novelty: Is your approach novel or is it tried-and-true? Did you need to develop new tools, either analytical or physical? Completeness: Have you tested a wide range of scenarios, or is this just a simple proof-of- concept?

Correct: Is your solution technically sound or are there errors? [3] Consider improving the same. 9. Anatomy of Paper Generally a paper has seven sections and a maximum of four pages. They are 1. Abstract, 2. Introduction, 3. Existing techniques, 4. Your contribution, 5. Results and 6. Conclusion. 10. The procedure As a part of your paper publication, you can start documenting the 'existing techniques' from the scrap journal you did during the studies. Here you have to extract what all are the techniques existing as a solution for the particular problem and the pros and cons of those. Next, document the 'introduction' about what is the topic and what you are going to do. Better to keep it short. Follows your contribution and the simulated results. 1. Describe the problem 2. State your contributions 'Abstract' is one section you can work on in the last, as it has to cover the all the sections very briefly. Please note that Abstract makes the committee members to decide whether or not to read your paper. Generally four lines are sufficient for this. 1. State the problem 2. Say why it's an interesting problem 3. Say what your solution achieves 4. Say what follows from your solution 11. Section by section

The divide-and-conquer strategy works on a day-to-day level as well. Instead of writing an entire paper, focus on the goal of writing a section, or outline. Remember, every task you complete gets you closer to finishing your paper. 12. Get a pre-review Now your paper is ready. You can ask your peers or professors to review your paper. Next is to find the right place to publish it. You can start off with national level conferences, which often gets conducted in many universities. Then once you gain a level of confidence, you can proceed to international conferences and journals. 13. Read the reviews carefully This is really, really, really hard. Only a small proportion, 5 to 10 percent, are accepted the first time they are submitted, and usually they are only accepted subject to revision. In fact, anything aside from simply \"reject,\" Neal-Barnett reminds, is a positive review. These include: * Accept: \"Which almost nobody gets,\" she says. * Accept with revision: \"Just make some minor changes.\" * Revise and resubmit: \"They're still interested in you!\" * Reject and resubmit: Though not as good as revise and resubmit, \"they still want the paper!\"[2] Read every criticism as a positive suggestion for something you could explain more clearly 14. Don't panic After reading the review the first time, put it aside. Come back to it later, reading the paper closely to decide whether the criticisms were valid and how you can address them. You will often find that reviewers make criticisms that are off-target because they misinterpreted some aspect of your paper. If so, don't let it get to you -- just rewrite that part of your paper more clearly so that the same misunderstanding won't happen again. It's frustrating to have a paper rejected because of a misunderstanding, but at least it's something you can fix. On the other hand, criticisms of the content of the paper may require

more substantial revisions -- rethinking your ideas, running more tests, or redoing an analysis. 15. Rejected? Be Positive If your paper is rejected, keep trying! Take the reviews to heart and try to rewrite the paper, addressing the reviewer's comments. \"Remember, to get a lot of publications, you also will need to get lots of rejections,\" says Edward Diener, PhD, editor of APA's Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Personality Processes and Individual Differences. 16. Common mistakes Wrong sequence in Figure and Table numbering Misalignment of columns Usage of figures from another paper without credit and permission 17. Where to publish Generally, there are three main choices: * National Conference: A conference is the right place for beginner scholars, since the level of scrutiny is minimal. The conferences will accept papers which details about the comparison of existing technologies, mathematically proven but practically unproven proposals, etc. * International Conference: A conference is the good play ground for Intermediated scholars. This mostly same as National Conference but the securitization will be more. Conferences offer rapid time-to-publish, plus you will often get feedback on your work when you present it. STEPS TO ORGANIZING YOUR MANUSCRIPT 1. Prepare the figures and tables. 2. Write the Methods. 3. Write up the Results.

4. Write the Discussion. Finalize the Results and Discussion before writing the introduction. This is because, if the discussion is insufficient, how can you objectively demonstrate the scientific significance of your work in the introduction? 5. Write a clear Conclusion. 6. Write a compelling introduction. 7. Write the Abstract. 8. Compose a concise and descriptive Title. 9. Select Keywords for indexing. 10. Write the Acknowledgements. 11. Write up the References. Next, I'll review each step in more detail. But before you set out to write a paper, there are two important things you should do that will set the groundwork for the entire process. • The topic to be studied should be the first issue to be solved. Define your hypothesis and objectives (These will go in the Introduction.) • Review the literature related to the topic and select some papers (about 30) that can be cited in your paper (These will be listed in the References.) Finally, keep in mind that each publisher has its own style guidelines and preferences, so always consult the publisher's Guide for Authors. Step 1: Prepare the figures and tables Remember that \"a figure is worth a thousand words.\" Hence, illustrations, including figures and tables, are the most efficient way to present your results. Your data are the driving force of the paper, so your illustrations are critical! How do you decide between presenting your data as tables or figures? Generally, tables give the actual experimental results, while figures are often used for comparisons of experimental results with those of previous works, or with calculated/theoretical values (Figure 1).

Figure 1. An example of the same data presented as table or as figure. Depending in your objectives, you can show your data either as table (if you wish to stress numbers) or as figure (if you wish to compare gradients). Note: Never include vertical lines in a table. Whatever your choice is, no illustrations should duplicate the information described elsewhere in the manuscript. Another important factor: figure and table legends must be self-explanatory (Figure 2). AB Figure 2

When presenting your tables and figures, appearances count! To this end: Avoid crowded plots (Figure 3), using only three or four data sets per figure; use well- selected scales. Think about appropriate axis label size Include clear symbols and data sets that are easy to distinguish. Never include long boring tables (e.g., chemical compositions of emulsion systems or lists of species and abundances). You can include them as supplementary material. AB Figure 3 If you are using photographs, each must have a scale marker, or scale bar, of professional quality in one corner. In photographs and figures, use colour only when necessary when submitting to a print publication. If different line styles can clarify the meaning, never use colours or other thrilling effects or you will be charged with expensive fees. Of course, this does not apply to online journals. For many journals, you can submit duplicate figures: one in colour for the online version of the journal and pdfs, and another in black and white for the hardcopy journal (Figure 4).

AB Figure 4 Another common problem is the misuse of lines and histograms. Lines joining data only can be used when presenting time series or consecutive samples data (e.g., in a transect from coast to offshore in Figure 5). However, when there is no connection between samples or there is not a gradient, you must use histograms (Figure 5). AB Figure 5 Sometimes, fonts are too small for the journal. You must take this into account, or they may be illegible to readers (Figure 6).

AB Figure 6 Finally, you must pay attention to the use of decimals, lines, etc. (Figure 7) Figure 7. Inadequate use of lines, number of decimals, decimal separators (use always dots, not commas) and position of units (above) and its adequate use (below) for a more clear table. Step 2: Write the Methods This section responds to the question of how the problem was studied. If your paper is proposing a new method, you need to include detailed information so a knowledgeable reader can reproduce the experiment.

However, do not repeat the details of established methods; use References and Supporting Materials to indicate the previously published procedures. Broad summaries or key references are sufficient. Reviewers will criticize incomplete or incorrect methods descriptions and may recommend rejection, because this section is critical in the process of reproducing your investigation. In this way, all chemicals must be identified. Do not use proprietary, unidentifiable compounds. To this end, it's important to use standard systems for numbers and nomenclature. For example: For chemicals, use the conventions of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and the official recommendations of the IUPAC–IUB Combined Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature. For species, use accepted taxonomical nomenclature (Worms: World Register of Marine Species, ERMS: European Register of Marine Species), and write them always in italics. For units of measurement, follow the International System of Units (SI). Present proper control experiments and statistics used, again to make the experiment of investigation repeatable. List the methods in the same order they will appear in the Results section, in the logical order in which you did the research: Description of the site Description of the surveys or experiments done, giving information on dates, etc. Description of the laboratory methods, including separation or treatment of samples, analytical methods, following the order of waters, sediments and bio monitors. If you have worked with different biodiversity components start from the simplest (i.e. microbes) to the more complex (i.e. mammals) Description of the statistical methods used (including confidence levels, etc.) In this section, avoid adding comments, results, and discussion, which is a common error. Length of the manuscript