MAE612_RESEARCH METHODOLOGY(Draft 1)-converted

3. Before submitting your dissertation, you should ensure that: a. Your writing is free of sexist, racist and disablist language b. Other people have read your final draft c. You have proofread it thoroughly d. All of the above 4.Where should a thesis statement appear? a. first paragraph b. anywhere in the essay c. last paragraph d. the first sentence of every paragraph 5.A research paper is a piece of ----------------------------------. a. academic writing b. Content writing c. Literature review d. Research methodology Answer: 1. d 2. d 3. d 4. a 5. a REFERENCES • Quantitative Research Methods in the Social Sciences Paul S. Maxim • The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research • Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 10th Ed. 2012, New Age International.

• Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, J.E., 2004 Practical Research: Planning and Design, Prentice Hall. • Fink, A., Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2009, Sage Publications • Herrman, C. S. (2009). “Fundamentals of Methodology”, a series of papers On the Social Science Research Network (SSRN), online. • Howell, K. E. (2013). Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology. London: Sage Publications. • Ndira, E. Alana, Slater, T. and Bucknam, A. (2011). Action Research for Business, Non-profit, and Public Administration - A Tool for Complex Times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. • Joubish, Farooq Dr. (2009). Educational Research Department of Education, Federal Urdu University, Karachi, Pakistan • Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. • Silverman, David (Ed). (2011). Qualitative Research: Issues of Theory, Method and Practice, Third Edition. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications • Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies New York: Routledge. • Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, W. A. Neilson, T. A. Knott, P. W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA

UNIT 10: RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND ACADEMIC WRITING STRUCTURE 1. Learning Objectives 2. Introduction 3. Characteristic of Academic writing 4. Revise, Edit and proof read 5. Demonstrating balance 6. Correct tense usage 7. Build your argument 8. Types of Academic Writing 9. Research Proposal 10. Structure and Writing Style 11. Summary 12. Keywords 13. Learning Activity 14. Unit End Questions 15. References LEARNING OBJECTIVES While studying this chapter we will learn about the following points: • The purpose of research and its different techniques to write a research. • The various important aspects that are a must for research. • Writing of research as an important factor and its guidelines. • Hypothesis –an important factor. • The different ways in which data can be collected and presented. INTRODUCTION Academic writing is clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed up by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding.It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use of long sentences and complicated vocabulary.Each

subject discipline will have certain writing conventions, vocabulary and types of discourse that you will become familiar with over the course of your degree. However, there are some general characteristics of academic writing that are relevant across all disciplines. CHARACTERISTICS OF ACADEMIC WRITING Academic writing is: Planned and focused: answers the question and demonstrates an understanding of the subject. Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings together related points and material. Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area, supports opinions and arguments with evidence, and is referenced accurately. Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and tenses, and is clear, concise and balanced. The following pages will look at all these characteristics in detail. The first step to writing academically is to clearly define the purpose of the writing and the audience. Most formal academic writing at university is set by, and written for, an academic tutor or assessor, and there should be clear criteria against which they will mark your work. You will need to spend some time interpreting your question and deciding how to tackle your assignment. See our Interpreting your assignment tutorial (activity) for more details about how to do this. If you are writing for yourself – for example making notes to record or make sense of something – then you can set your own criteria such as clarity, brevity, and relevance. See our Note taking and note making tutorial (activity) for further help. Once you have a clear idea of what is required for your assignment, you can start planning your research and gathering evidence. See our Planning your assignment pages for advice on breaking down the different steps in this process. Create the overall structure

Some academic writing, such as lab or business reports, will have a fairly rigid structure, with headings and content for each section. For more details see our Report writing pages. In other formats, writing usually follows the same overall structure: introduction, main body and conclusion. The introduction outlines the main direction the writing will take, and gives any necessary background information and context. In the main body each point is presented, explored and developed. These points must be set out in a logical order, to make it easier for the reader to follow and understand. The conclusion brings together the main points, and will highlight the key message or argument you want the reader to take away. It may also identify any gaps or weaknesses in the arguments or ideas presented, and recommend further research or investigation where appropriate. Arrange your points in a logical order When you start writing you should have a clear idea of what you want to say. Create a list of your main points and think about what the reader needs to know and in what order they will need to know it. To select the main points you want to include, ask yourself whether each point you have considered really contributes to answering the question. Is the point relevant to your overall argument? Select appropriate evidence that you will use to support each main point. Think carefully about which evidence to use, you must evaluate that information as not everything you find will be of high quality. See our searching for information page for advice on how to find high quality, academic information. Grouping your points may help you create a logical order. These groups will broadly fit into an overall pattern, such as for and against, thematic, chronological or by different schools of thought or approach. You can then put these groups into a sequence that the reader can follow and use to make sense of the topic or argument. It may be helpful to talk through your argument with someone.

It may be helpful to arrange ideas initially in the form of a mind-map, which allows you to develop key points with supporting information branching off. Mind View software (available on most university computers) allows you to create an essay structure where you can add in pictures, files and attachments – perfect for organising evidence to support your point. Write in structured paragraphs Use paragraphs to build and structure your argument, and separate each of your points into a different paragraph. Make your point clear in the first or second sentence of the paragraph to help the reader to follow the line of reasoning. The rest of the paragraph should explain the point in greater detail, and provide relevant evidence and examples where necessary or useful. Your interpretation of this evidence will help to substantiate your thinking and can lend weight to your argument. At the end of the paragraph you should show how the point you have made is significant to the overall argument or link to the next paragraph. See constructing focused paragraphs for an example. Use signalling words when writing Using signalling words will help the reader to understand the structure of your work and where you might be taking your argument. Use signalling words to: add more information e.g. furthermore, moreover, additionally compare two similar points e.g. similarly, in comparison show contrasting viewpoints e.g. however, in contrast, yet show effect or conclusion e.g. therefore, consequently, as a result emphasise e.g. significantly, particularly reflect sequence e.g. first, second, finally.

Words like these help make the structure of your writing more effective and can clarify the flow and logic of your argument. Here are some examples in practice: “Using a laboratory method was beneficial as a causal relationship could be established between cognitive load and generating attributes. However, this method creates an artificial setting which reduces the study's ecological validity.” In this example the use of the word however at the beginning of the second sentence indicates that a contrasting point of view is about to be made. It also suggests that the writer may have more sympathy with the second opinion. “Firstly, the concepts and person centred care will be defined. Next, communication will be discussed... Finally, the relationship between loss and communication will be examined.” [Taken from a Healthcare essay] In this example the writer has used signalling words to demonstrate the sequence of their argument by using Firstly, next, finally making the structure of the essay very clear. “Employee satisfaction is justifiable to employees because it causes an improvement on their wellbeing (Grandley, 2003). Moreover, employees that are in a good mood at work are less likely to act because their true feelings are in accordance with the needed display of emotions (Grandley, 2003).” [Taken from a Business School essay] The use of the word moreover tells the reader that the next sentence will provide further evidence or information to support the statement made in the first sentence. It also suggest that the writer strongly agrees with the first statement. REVISE, EDIT AND PROOFREAD YOUR WORK Most writing will require several drafts and revisions in order to improve the clarity and structure. It is rare that a writer will make the very best decisions in the first draft. See our editing and proofreading pages for more details. Grammarly or Paper Rater are useful tools that will spot mistakes in your writing and offer suggestions to correct them. Paper Rater is particularly useful for identifying trends in your writing style, for example using the same words frequently, or having overly long or short sentences.

Academic writing must be supported by evidence such as data, facts, quotations, arguments, statistics, research, and theories. This evidence will: • add substance to your own ideas • allow the reader to see what has informed your thinking and how your ideas fit in with, and differ from, others' in your field • demonstrate your understanding of the general concepts and theories on the topic • show you have researched widely, and know about specialist/niche areas of interest. There are several methods that you can use to incorporate other people's work into your own written work. These are: • paraphrasing • summarising • synthesising • quoting. You are likely to use a combination of these throughout your writing, depending on the purpose that you are trying to achieve. The main characteristics of the different methods you can use to incorporate others' work into your own writing are shown in our comparison table (PDF). Be aware that your writing should not just be a patchwork of other people's ideas made up of quotes, paraphrases and summaries of other people's work. You need to show how the information you found has helped you to develop your own arguments, ideas and opinions. See Critical thinking pages for advice about writing critically. Organising your evidence can be an overwhelming task – especially when you need to manage many different sources. As well as EndNote, you may find online tools such as Citavi and Zotero particularly helpful to save data sources, highlight key quotes, and cite them in your work. How to paraphrase others’ work Paraphrasing is using your own words to express someone else’s ideas. When paraphrasing, make sure that you:

• identify a relevant theme or point, depending on your purpose • write the point in your own words • focus on the meaning of an idea or argument • include a reference to the original author. • Common pitfalls include: • describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own argument, or the point that you are trying to make • using too many of the original author's words, this includes using the same structure • not distinguishing between the author's point and your own viewpoint • providing too much detail. How to summarise others’ work Summarising is providing a condensed version of someone else’s key points. When summarising other people’s work, make sure that you: • identify the relevant points of the idea or argument, depending on your purpose • write a shortened version, in your own words, to show your understanding • include an in-text citation and reference to the original author. • Common pitfalls include: • describing an author's idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own argument or point you are trying to make • providing too much detail such as examples, anecdotes, unnecessary background information rather than being selective and applying the information to the question you are trying to answer. How to synthesise others’ work Synthesising involves combining different information and ideas to develop your own argument. When synthesising others’ work, make sure that you: Group sources into relevant categories, for example, authors with similar viewpoints or research that reveals the same results Write about these in your own words. Do not discuss each author separately; you must identify the overall points you want to make Include references to all the original authors.

Common pitfalls include: Not distinguishing clearly which viewpoint/s belong to which author/s Listing authors separately or one by one, thus not grouping relevant authors or points together Giving too much detail about different perspectives rather than being selective of the key features relevant to your line of argument Describing the idea/argument but not explaining the significance to your own argument or point you are trying to make. How to quote from others’ work Quoting is where you copy an author's text word for word, place quotation marks around the words and add a citation at the end of the quote. When quoting others’ work, make sure that you: copy the quote exactly from the original, as the author has written it, taking care to include quotation marks show where you have made any changes to the text (see citing quotations using Harvard and citing quotations using Numeric for more guidance on this) include an in-text citation and reference to the original author. Common pitfalls include: Using too many quotes throughout your work Incorporating a quote without explaining the significance to your own argument or point you are trying to make. Academic writing is concise, clear, formal and active. It does not need to be complex or use long sentences and obscure vocabulary. Be concise In formal academic writing it is important to be concise. This helps your reader to understand the points you are making. Here are some tips to help you: • Only include one main idea per sentence.

• Keep your sentences to a reasonable length (generally not more than 25 words). Long sentences can be difficult to follow and this may distract from your point. • Avoid repetition. • Avoid using redundant words. For example: • Use “because” instead of “due to the fact that”. • Use “alternatives” instead of “alternative choices”. • Use “fundamentals” and not “basic fundamentals”. • Use “concisely” instead of “in as few words as possible”. • Reading your work aloud may help you to identify any repetition or redundant words. • Use formal language • In academic writing you are expected to use formal language.: • Avoid using colloquialisms or slang terms such as 'sort of' or 'basically'. Instead you could use 'somewhat' or 'fundamentally'. • Write words out in full rather than shortening them. For example, instead of writing “don't” or “isn't” you would be expected to write “do not” or “is not” • The use of clichés is not appropriate in academic writing. These are phrases such as “at the end of the day” or “in the nick of time.” Instead of this you might write finally or at the critical moment. • Use a blend of active and passive verbs • Most verbs can be used in either an active or passive form. It is usually appropriate to use a mixture of passive and active forms within academic writing. Always check with your department to see what form of writing would be most appropriate for your subject area. • The active voice places the subject of the sentence in charge of the action. For example: “The research assistant designed the survey.” Here the research assistant (the subject) designed (the verb) the survey (the object). It is usually more direct and easier to read than the passive voice. However, sometimes you may want to emphasise what is happening rather than who is doing it. To do this you can use the passive voice. The passive voice places the subject at the end, or may leave it out completely.

For example: “The survey was designed by the research assistant.” Here the survey (the object) was designed (the verb) by the research assistant (the subject). The passive voice is more formal than the active voice. It is often used in academic writing as it is seen as more impersonal and therefore more objective. However, it is not always easy to read and it may add unnecessary words. DEMONSTRATE BALANCE IN YOUR WRITING In your university assessments, there is rarely one answer to a question or assignment. Research, ideas and arguments should always be open to being challenged, so it is important that the language you use acknowledges this. In your academic work, you should not present something as a fact that might not be. In academic writing, you can use language that we often refer to as hedges or boosters to show how confident you are about an argument or claim you are discussing. Hedges When writing, be careful of using words such as \"definitely\" or \"proves\". Ask yourself whether your statement is a fact or whether there may be some doubt either now or in the future. Some useful hedging words and phrases to use in your work are: “This suggests...” “It is possible that...” “A possible explanation...” “Usually...” “Sometimes...” “Somewhat...” Read the following two sentences: “Research proves that drinking a large volume of fizzy drinks containing sugar leads to the development of type II diabetes.”

“Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing sugar may contribute to the development of type II diabetes.” In sentence 1, the statement is presented as proven fact: that a high volume of sugary fizzy drinks will definitely lead to type II diabetes. This leaves no room for doubt or criticism or the fact that some people may drink large volumes of fizzy drinks and never develop type II diabetes. In sentence 2, the writer has used 'hedging language' – 'suggests' and 'may contribute' – to show that while there is evidence to link sugary drinks and type II diabetes, this may not be true for every person and may be proven to be incorrect in the future. Boosters You might want to express a measure of certainty or conviction in your writing and this is when 'booster' language can help. Some useful booster words and phrases to use in your work are: “Clearly” (only use if you are certain it is clear) “There is a strong correlation...” “Results indicate...” Take the same sentence as used in the previous section: “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing sugar may contribute to the development of type II diabetes.” “Research indicates a clear link between the high consumption of a large volume of fizzy drinks containing sugar and the development of type II diabetes.” In sentence 1, the writer has used the hedging language 'suggested' and 'may contribute', to show that while there is evidence to link sugary drinks and type II diabetes this may not be true for every person and may be proven to be incorrect in the future. In sentence 2, the writer still uses language to allow for doubt and argument but it is clear that this writer is more convinced by the research. CHOOSE THE CORRECT TENSE AND VOICE

It is important to use the correct tense and voice in your written work. You will probably need to use different tenses throughout depending upon the context. Only use first person voice in reflective writing Academic arguments are not usually presented in the first person (using I), but use more objective language, logic and reasoning to persuade (rather than emotional or personal perspectives). This may not apply, however, if you are asked to write a reflective report based on your own thoughts and experiences. Use past tense to speak about your method If you are writing about an experiment you carried out or a method you used then use the past tense. For example: \"Our experiment showed wide variations in results where the variable was altered even slightly.\" Use present tense to conclude or discuss established knowledge If you are writing about established knowledge then use the present tense. For example: \"Diabetes is a condition where the amount of glucose in the blood is too high because the body cannot use it properly.\" (Diabetes UK, 2015) When you are reporting on the findings or research of others then you should use the present tense. For example, you might write: \"Smith's research from 2012 finds that regular exercise may contribute to good cardiovascular health.\" When you are writing about your conclusions or what you have found then use the present tense. For example: \"In this case there is not a large difference between the two diameter values (from Feret's diameter and calculated equation), which again is probably due to the fact that the average circularity ratio is on the high end of the scale, 0.88, and therefore infers near circular pores.\" If you are writing about figures that you have presented in a table or chart then use the present tense. For example: \"These figures show that the number of birds visiting the hide increase every year in May...\" BUILD YOUR ARGUMENT

The most important voice to get across in your writing is your own; it is how you can show the reader (usually your tutor) what you are thinking, what your views are and how you have engaged critically with the topic being discussed. You can do this by building an effective and persuasive argument for your reader. Make an argument Your argument is how you express your viewpoint and answer the question you have been set, using evidence. Your argument can help you plan the structure of your work and guide you to find the evidence you need to support it. Make sure that your argument runs throughout your writing and that everything you include is relevant to it. Try to sum up your argument in a few words before you start writing and keep checking that it remains the focus as you research and write your work. Structure your argument Guide your reader through your argument in a logical way. Think about what questions your reader might have. If you can answer these questions through your argument, it will seem more convincing. Present both sides of the debate, along with your thoughts, linking together the different elements. You can then work towards a conclusion by weighing the evidence and showing how certain ideas are accepted and others are rejected. Your conclusion should make clear where you stand. Develop your argument Develop your argument by considering the evidence and drawing your own conclusion. If you are considering a range of opinions, try to group them together under different headings. Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the different sets of evidence and present these clearly and in a critical way. This will help to show you understand what you have read.

Take the evidence into account in developing your own argument and make clear what your viewpoint is. Perhaps your argument has strengths and weaknesses as well – it is fine to acknowledge these. Include your own voice in your writing Your voice will emerge through your discussion, interpretation, and evaluation of the sources. Here are some ways you can establish your voice in your writing: Make your unattributed (not referenced) assertion at the start of paragraphs followed by evidence, findings, arguments from your sources. Example: “To date there is no well-established tool to measure divided attention in children. Current methods used to assess divided attention usually involve a variation of the CPT with an additional task included e.g. counting or listening to auditory stimuli (Salthouse, 2003).” Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between sources. Example: “Smith (2009), however takes a different approach...” Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between those sources and your main assertion. Example: “Netzer's argument challenges the term 'renaissance', as it displays repeatedly the use of classical imagery during the medieval period, therefore illustrating that canonising a chronological period can be disadvantageous as characteristics of the term.” Use language to show your strong agreement/disagreement/cautious agreement with sources. Example: “Smith's (2009) findings show a clear...A serious weakness with this argument is...The research suggests...” Include “so what” summary sentences (evaluative sentences) at the end of paragraphs.

Example: “This shows that it is detrimental to strictly categorise chronological periods with artistic genres, as many art historians suggest different movements were taking place in separate geographical locations at the same time.” Using different verbs in your writing will show your understanding of the sources, for example: “Stevenson (2015) explains that...” “Stevenson (2015) argues...” “Stevenson (2015) describes how...” You can also use verbs to show your agreement or disagreement with other author's arguments. For example: “Stevenson (2015) correctly identifies...” “Stevenson (2015) fails to consider...” “Stevenson (2015) reveals... “ TYPES OF ACADEMIC WRITING The four main types of academic writing are descriptive, analytical, persuasive and critical. Each of these types of writing has specific language features and purposes. In many academic texts you will need to use more than one type. For example, in an empirical thesis: • you will use critical writing in the literature review to show where there is a gap or opportunity in the existing research • the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarise the methods used to collect and analyse information • the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you report on the data you collected

• the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your findings back to your research questions, and also persuasive, as you propose your interpretations of the findings. DESCRIPTIVE The simplest type of academic writing is descriptive. Its purpose is to provide facts or information. An example would be a summary of an article or a report of the results of an experiment. The kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive assignment include: 'identify', 'report', 'record', 'summarise' and 'define'. ANALYTICAL It’s rare for a university-level text to be purely descriptive. Most academic writing is also analytical. Analytical writing includes descriptive writing, but also requires you to re- organise the facts and information you describe into categories, groups, parts, types or relationships. Sometimes, these categories or relationships are already part of the discipline, while in other cases you will create them specifically for your text. If you’re comparing two theories, you might break your comparison into several parts, for example: how each theory deals with social context, how each theory deals with language learning, and how each theory can be used in practice. The kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment include: 'analyse', 'compare', 'contrast', 'relate', and 'examine'. To make your writing more analytical: • spend plenty of time planning. Brainstorm the facts and ideas, and try different ways of grouping them, according to patterns, parts, similarities and differences. You could use colour-coding, flow charts, tree diagrams or tables. • create a name for the relationships and categories you find. For example, advantages and disadvantages.

• build each section and paragraph around one of the analytical categories. • make the structure of your paper clear to your reader, by using topic sentences and a clear introduction. PERSUASIVE In most academic writing, you are required to go at least one step further than analytical writing, to persuasive writing. Persuasive writing has all the features of analytical writing (that is, information plus re-organising the information), with the addition of your own point of view. Most essays are persuasive, and there is a persuasive element in at least the discussion and conclusion of a research article. Points of view in academic writing can include an argument, recommendation, interpretation of findings or evaluation of the work of others. In persuasive writing, each claim you make needs to be supported by some evidence, for example a reference to research findings or published sources. The kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment include: 'argue', 'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'. To help reach your own point of view on the facts or ideas: • read some other researchers' points of view on the topic. Who do you feel is the most convincing? • look for patterns in the data or references. Where is the evidence strongest? • list several different interpretations. What are the real-life implications of each one? Which ones are likely to be most useful or beneficial? Which ones have some problems? • discuss the facts and ideas with someone else. Do you agree with their point of view? To develop your argument: • list the different reasons for your point of view • think about the different types and sources of evidence which you can use to support your point of view

• consider different ways that your point of view is similar to, and different from, the points of view of other researchers • look for various ways to break your point of view into parts. For example, cost effectiveness, environmental sustainability, scope of real-world application. To present your argument, make sure: • your text develops a coherent argument where all the individual claims work together to support your overall point of view • your reasoning for each claim is clear to the reader • your assumptions are valid • you have evidence for every claim you make • you use evidence that is convincing and directly relevant. CRITICAL Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced undergraduate writing. It has all the features of persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one other point of view. While persuasive writing requires you to have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own. For example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation or argument and then evaluate the merits of the argument, or give your own alternative interpretation. Examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a journal article, or a literature review that identifies the strengths and weaknesses of existing research. The kinds of instructions for critical writing include: 'critique', 'debate', 'disagree' and 'evaluate'. You need to: • accurately summarise all or part of the work. This could include identifying the main interpretations, assumptions or methodology.

• have an opinion about the work. Appropriate types of opinion could include pointing out some problems with it, proposing an alternative approach that would be better, and/or defending the work against the critiques of others. • provide evidence for your point of view. Depending on the specific assignment and the discipline, different types of evidence may be appropriate, such as logical reasoning, reference to authoritative sources and/or research data. Critical writing requires strong writing skills. You need to thoroughly understand the topic and the issues. You need to develop an essay structure and paragraph structure that allows you to analyse different interpretations and develop your own argument, supported by evidence. RESOURCES Nine Basic Ways to Improve Your Style in Academic Writing 1. Use ACTIVE VOICE Don't say: \"The stepmother's house was cleaned by Cinderella.\" (Passive.) Say instead: \"Cinderella cleaned the stepmother's house.\" (Active voice.) Passive voice construction (\"was cleaned\") is reserved for those occasions where the \"do-er\" of the action is unknown. Example: \"Prince Charming saw the glass slipper that was left behind.\" 2. Mix it up in terms of PUNCTUATION Here are a few commonly misused punctuation marks that a lot of people aren't sure about: The semi-colon (;) separates two complete sentences that are complementary. Example: \"She was always covered in cinders from cleaning the fireplace; they called her Cinderella.\" The colon (:) is used... a. preceding a list.

Example: \"Before her stepmother awoke, Cinderella had three chores to complete: feeding the chickens, cooking breakfast, and doing the wash.\" b. as a sort of \"drum roll,\" preceding some big revelation. Example: \"One thing fuelled the wicked stepmother's hatred for Cinderella: jealousy.\" The dash (--) is made by typing two hyphens (-). No spaces go in between the dash and the text. It is used... a. to bracket off some explanatory information. Example: \"Even Cinderella's stepsisters-who were not nearly as lovely or virtuous as Cinderella--were allowed to go to the ball.\" b. in the \"drum roll\" sense of the colon. Example: \"Prince Charming would find this mystery lady--even if he had to put the slipper on every other girl in the kingdom.\" 3. Vary your SENTENCE STRUCTURE Don't say: \"Cinderella saw her fairy godmother appear. She was dressed in blue. She held a wand. The wand had a star on it. She was covered in sparkles. Cinderella was amazed. She asked who the woman was. The woman said, 'I am your fairy godmother.' She said she would get Cinderella a dress and a coach. She said she would help Cinderella go to the ball.\" Instead say: (there are multiple correct ways to rewrite this, but here's one) \"Amazed, Cinderella watched as her fairy godmother appeared. The woman dressed in blue was covered in sparkles and carried a star-shaped wand. Cinderella asked the woman who she was, to which the woman replied, 'I am your fairy godmother.\" The fairy godmother would get Cinderella a dress and a coach; she would help Cinderella get to the ball.\" 4. Closely related to this, avoid CHOPPINESS Don't say: \"She scrubbed the floors. They were dirty. She used a mop. She sighed sadly. It was as if she were a servant.\" Instead say: (again, there are multiple ways to do this) \"She scrubbed the dirty floors using a mop, as if she were a servant. She sighed sadly.\"

5. Avoid REPETITION. Don't say: \"The stepsisters were jealous and envious.\" Instead say: \"The stepsisters were jealous.\" (...or envious. Pick one.) 6. Be CONCISE Don't say: \"The mystery lady was one who every eligible man at the ball admired.\" Instead say: \"Every eligible man at the ball admired the mystery lady.\" 7. Use the VOCABULARY that you know. Don't always feel you have to use big words. It is always better to be clear and use simple language rather than showing off flashy words you aren't sure about and potentially misusing them. This is not to say, however, that you should settle for very weak vocabulary choices (like \"bad\" or \"big\" or \"mad\"). 8. But also work on expanding your VOCABULARY. When reading, look up words you don't know. See how they're used. Start a list. Incorporate them into your writing as you feel comfortable and as they are appropriate. 9. Keep language FORMAL and avoid language of everyday speech. Don't say: \"Cinderella was mellow and good. She never let her stepmother get to her.\" Say instead: \"Cinderella was mild-mannered and kind. She never let her stepmother affect her high spirits.\" \"Write to EXPRESS, not to IMPRESS.\" Above all, write actively, clearly, and concise RESEARCH PROPOSAL Definition The goal of a research proposal is twofold: to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting research are governed by standards of the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, therefore, the guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a

general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion. How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study; Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to determine that a research problem has not been adequately addressed or has been answered ineffectively and, in so doing, become better at locating pertinent scholarship related to your topic; Improve your general research and writing skills; Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals; Critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem; and, Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of doing scholarly research. A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the findings of the study and your analysis of those findings. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your proposal is coherent, clear, and compelling. Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions: What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succinct in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to research. Why do you want to do the research? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence

that it is a topic worthy of in-depth investigation. Be sure to answer the \"So What?\" question. How are you going to conduct the research? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having difficulty formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here for strategies in developing a problem to study. Common Mistakes to Avoid Failure to be concise. A research proposal must be focused and not be \"all over the map\" or diverge into on unrelated tangents without a clear sense of purpose. Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review. Proposals should be grounded in foundational research that lays a foundation for understanding the development and scope of the issue. Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.]. As with any research paper, your proposed study must inform the reader how and in what ways the study will examine the problem. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research. This is critical. In many workplace settings, the research proposal is intended to argue for why a study should be funded. Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar. Although a research proposal does not represent a completed research study, there is still an expectation that it is well-written and follows the style and rules of good academic writing. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues. Your proposal should focus on only a few key research questions in order to support the argument that the research needs to be conducted. Minor issues, even if valid, can be mentioned but they should not dominate the overall narrative. STRUCTURE AND WRITING STYLE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL Beginning the Proposal Process As with writing most college-level academic papers, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. The text of proposals generally vary in length between ten and thirty-five pages, followed by the

list of references. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal. A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions: What do I want to study? Why is the topic important? How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class? What problems will it help solve? How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic? What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available? In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like, \"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!\" Most proposals should include the following sections: I. Introduction In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea or a thorough examination of the significance of a research problem. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to gain a sense of your passion for the topic and to be excited about the study's possible outcomes. Note that most proposals do not include an abstract [summary] before the introduction. II. Background and Significance This is where you explain the context of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important. It can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section

to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the topic; instead, you must choose what is most relevant in explaining the aims of your research. To that end, while there are no prescribed rules for establishing the significance of your proposed study, you should attempt to address some or all of the following: • State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted. • Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing; be sure to answer the \"So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care]. • Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research. This can be in the form of questions to be addressed. Be sure to note how your proposed study builds on previous assumptions about the research problem. • Explain the methods you plan to use for conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic. • Describe the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. Where appropriate, state not only what you plan to study, but what aspects of the research problem will be excluded from the study. • If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts or terms. III. Literature Review Connected to the background and significance of your study is a section of your proposal devoted to a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation. The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methods they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings and, when stated, their recommendations.

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your proposed study in relation to that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into \"conceptual categories\" [themes] rather than systematically or chronologically describing groups of materials one at a time. Note that conceptual categories generally reveal themselves after you have read most of the pertinent literature on your topic so adding new categories is an on-going process of discovery as you review more studies. How do you know you've covered the key conceptual categories underlying the research literature? Generally, you can have confidence that all of the significant conceptual categories have been identified if you start to see repetition in the conclusions or recommendations that are being made. To help frame your proposal's review of prior research, consider the \"five C’s\" of writing a literature review: • Cite, so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem. • Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem? • Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies expressed in the literature: describe what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate among scholars? • Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, and methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, argues, etc.]. • Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been said in the literature? IV. Research Design and Methods This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that it is worth pursuing. The reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your

methodological choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and proposed methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study. Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used but methods of data gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of time]. When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover the following: Specify the research process you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results obtained in relation to the research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about the need to change school curriculum; running a regression to determine if there is a relationship between campaign advertising on social media sites and election outcomes in Europe]. Keep in mind that the methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is an argument as to why these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that, collectively, they effectively address the research problem. Be sure you clearly explain this. Anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them. No method is perfect so you need to describe where you believe challenges may exist in obtaining data or accessing information. It's always better to acknowledge this than to have it brought up by your professor. V. Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, doesn't mean you can skip talking about the analytical process and potential implications. The purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results will impact future scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policymaking. Note that such discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance. When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions: What might the results mean in regards to challenging the theoretical framework and underlying assumptions that support the study? What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the study? What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace? Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention? How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other t ypes of problems? Will the results influence policy decisions? In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued? What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research? How will the results of the study be implemented and what innovations or transformative insights could emerge from the process of implementation? NOTE: This section should not delve into idle speculation, opinion, or be formulated on the basis of unclear evidence. The purpose is to reflect upon gaps or understudied areas of the current literature and describe how your proposed research contributes to a new understanding of the research problem should the study be implemented as designed.

VI. Conclusion The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is unique, and how it should advance existing knowledge. Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of: Why the study should be done, The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempts to answer, The decision to why the research design and methods used where chosen over other options, The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem, and A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem. VII. Citations As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your professor about which one is preferred. • References -- lists only the literature that you actually used or cited in your proposal. • Bibliography -- lists everything you used or cited in your proposal, with additional citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem. In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to ensure the project will complement and not just duplicate the efforts of other researchers. Start a new page and use the heading \"References\" or \"Bibliography\" centered at the top of the page. Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the discipline of your course e.g., education=APA;

history=Chicago] or that is preferred by your professor. This section normally does not count towards the total page length of your research proposal. SUMMARY From this above chapter we have covered different aspects regarding research that can be helpful; for the students in various ways. When a researcher proceeds with the research work they have to follow a process, as the work of the researcher in vital. Reviewing and analysing the data collected is a major part where the data collected needs a proper review along with proper presentation where the researcher writes a literature review of the composed data. Data collected should be authentic and various techniques of data collection should be used so that the research is not limited within certain boundaries. Language demonstration should be kept in mind and language and grammar should be appropriate so that it can be impressive. KEYWORDS • Argument- an exchange of diverging or opposite views, typically a heated or angry one. • Logical- of or according to the rules of logic or formal argument. • Plagiarism- the practice of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own. • Assessments- the action of assessing someone or something. • Demographics-statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it. • Anthropology- the study of human societies and cultures and their development. • Formatting- arrange or put into a format. • Categorisation- the action or processing of placing into classes or groups. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. How do you write a research proposal history? 2. How to write a research proposal in education?

UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQ’S AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions • What is the central research problem? • What is the topic of study related to that research problem? • What methods should be used to analyze the research problem? • Why is this important research, what is its significance, and why should someone be reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study? • What are the important things to be kept in mind for Academic Writing? B. Multiple Choice Questions (Mcq’s) 1. Which one of these will always appear in a research proposal? a. Research objective b. Creative objective c. Academic objective d. Personal objective 2. Which of these terms should be included in a research proposal a. Hypothesis or research questions b. Aims and objectives c. A rationale d. All of these 3.Good research proposals will always: a. Focus on the Harvard style b. Provide participant names and addresses

c. Consider previous research on the subject d. Include only English language papers 4.The proposal’s literature review is important because: a. It is expected by the university b. Your lecturer said you should c. It shows that you are knowledgeable about the literature that relates to your research topic d. You have to copy what other people say 5.Which section of the proposal should include a full statement of the research question? a. Introduction b. Literature review c. Methods section d. References Answer: 1. a 2. d 3. c 4. c 5. c REFERENCES • Quantitative Research Methods in the Social Sciences Paul S. Maxim • The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research • Kothari, C.R. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. 10th Ed. 2012, New Age International.

• Sinha, S.C. and Dhiman, A.K., 2002. Research Methodology, EssEss Publications. 2 volumes. • Anthony, M., Graziano, A.M. and Raulin, M.L., Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry, Allyn and Bacon. 2009. • Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, J.E., 2004 Practical Research: Planning and Design, Prentice Hall. • Fink, A., Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2009, Sage Publications • Coley, S.M. and Scheinberg, C. A., \"Proposal Writing\", 1990, Sage Publications. • The Craft of Research, Third Edition Book by Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, and Wayne C. Booth • Berg, Bruce L., 2009, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Seventh Edition. Boston MA: Pearson Education Inc. • Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. • Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. • Franklin, M.I. (2012). Understanding Research: Coping with the Quantitative- Qualitative Divide. London and New York: Routledge. • Guba, E. and Lincoln, Y. (1989). Fourth Generation Evaluation. Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications. • Herrman, C. S. (2009). “Fundamentals of Methodology”, a series of papers On the Social Science Research Network (SSRN), online. • Howell, K. E. (2013). Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology. London: Sage Publications. • Ndira, E. Alana, Slater, T. and Bucknam, A. (2011). Action Research for Business, Non-profit, and Public Administration - A Tool for Complex Times. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. • Joubish, Farooq Dr. (2009). Educational Research Department of Education, Federal Urdu University, Karachi, Pakistan • Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

• Silverman, David (Ed). (2011). Qualitative Research: Issues of Theory, Method and Practice, Third Edition. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications • Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies New York: Routledge. • Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, W. A. Neilson, T. A. Knott, P. W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA