Culture 95 B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. It maintains that societal change takes place when societies borrow cultural traits from one another. (a) Diffusion (b) Acculturation (c) Cultural invasion (d) Assimilation 2 ._____________comprises those changes produced in a culture by the influence of another culture which results in the increased similarity of the two. (a) Diffusion (b) Acculturation (c) Cultural invasion (d) Assimilation 3. It is the process whereby persons and groups take up the culture of other groups within which they come to live in by virtue of adopting its way of life. (a) Assimilation (b) Diffusion (c) Cultural pluralism (d) Culture lag 4. Through ____________, the minority groups in a dominant society are able to participate, but still manage to hold onto their cultural differences. (a) Assimilation (b) Diffusion (c) Cultural pluralism (d) Culture lag 5. Example of Non material culture is: (a) Food (b) Architecture (c) Values (d) Tools of Communication 6. Example of Material culture is: (a) Norms (b) Knowledge (c) Beliefs (d) Food CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
96 Introduction to Sociology - I 7. ______________ refers to the period of maladjustment when the non-material culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions. (a) Assimilation (b) Diffusion (c) Cultural invasion (d) D. Culture lag 8. A foreign culture and technology impinges on indigenous populations, which could be backward and so, not in a position to compete with its invaders. (a) Diffusion (b) Acculturation (c) Cultural invasion (d) Assimilation Ans.: 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (c), 5. (c), 6. (d), 7. (d), 8. (c). 6.13 References 1. www.allaboutreligion.org/cultural-pluralism-faq.htm 2. www.definitions.net/definition/cultural+pluralism 3. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstede%27s_cultural_dimensions_theory 4. www.notredameonline.com/resources/intercultural-management/exploring-the-five- dimensions-of-culture 5. https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Thai_Civilization/Culture_%26_Civilization 6. http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/problem/137314 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 97 UNIT 7 SOCIALIZATION Structure: 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Need for Socialization 7.3 Stages of socialization 7.4 Agencies of socialization 7.5 Theories 7.6 Summary 7.7 Key Words 7.8 Learning Activity 7.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 7.10 References 7.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: Explain the meaning of Socialization. Discuss the need for Socialization. Define the stages of Socialization. Analyse the agencies of Socialization. Describe the theories of Socialization. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
98 Introduction to Sociology - I 7.1 Introduction One fundamental fact about each new born organism is that it is not at all prepared for a life in society. At birth, therefore the baby is unable to co-operate; it has only the potential to do so. This inability to co-operate arises from two distinct but related characteristics, viz; It is biologically incapable and immature. It is unsocialized. In the course of time the baby will physically develop in size and function. This growth is called maturation. The baby also will learn to co-operate with society and the process through which this trait of co-operation is acquired is called socialization. Socialization is the way in which culture is transmitted and an individual is fitted into an organized way of life. It is a life-long process, beginning very early and by making the child learn the basics of human behaviour. From the society’s view point, it is essential that the child is trained to inculcate the basic discipline and other social values to become a responsible member, and gradually take on the duties of adult roles. From the individual’s view point, socialization is the fulfillment of his potentialities for personal growth and development. Socialization regulates behaviour, transforms him into a “self” with a sense of identity, and endows him with ideals, values and aspirations. Thus, socialization has two complementary meanings: the transmission of culture and the development of personality. 7.2 Need for Socialization Socialization consists of teaching each individual the culture which he must acquire and share, of making him a participating member in society and in various groups and for persuading him to accept the norms of his society. Socialization is a matter of learning and not of biological inheritance. In the socialization process the individual learns the folkways, traditions and other patterns of culture as well as skills which will enable him to become a participating member of the human society. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 99 All that the individual must learn, he learns from other members of the society: conscious from being told what to do by his parents, friends or from a teacher-pupil relationship or unconsciously by picking up incidental information on what responses are expected in certain situations while observing other people, reading books, watching television programmes or hearing people discuss the behaviour of others in various situations. In all these situations the learning is social. The whole process of socialization falls within the scope of such interactions. There are three elements which play a significant part in the socialization process of an individual. They are: The physical and psychological heritage of the individual The environment in which he lives and The culture of his group. A person is the product of the action and interaction among these elements. Some sociologists have mentioned the fourth element – the experience of the individual – in describing the process of socialization. Sometimes it is seen that a person fails to make efficient use of his suitable environment in spite of his full mental and physical capacities, because his own peculiar past experience keeps him away from that environment. Example: A child when forced to study may associate education with physical punishment, and may turn out to be a truant. Aims of Socialization (a) Socialization provides for the emergence and development for the self or ego: It provides an individual with a social self whereby he is aware of other people’s expectations. It also provides the individual with a social personality whereby he has a sense of identity. Therefore the first aim of socialization is to make the individual aware of himself and others. (b) It inculcates basic disciplines by a system of rewards and punishments: Such disciplined behaviour postpones, modifies or gives up immediate gratification in favour CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
100 Introduction to Sociology - I of a future goal. Example: If a student is feeling hungry and the student knows that he cannot eat during the lecture, therefore he will postpone the gratification of hunger until a break. These disciplines can reach so deep in mind that they may modify physiological and emotional responses. (c) Socialization instills aspiration towards some goal, occupational status or reward: Example: Importance of hard work and sustained efforts is impressed on an individual’s mind to achieve the socially acclaimed goals. The individual is initiated in the process of competition. (d) Socialization teaches certain goals and repertoire of habits and their supporting attitudes: Through conditioning and internalization. Example: In our society, we are conditioned that for a woman, the final goal is marriage. (e) Socialization teaches skills through which individuals can fit into an organised way of life in society: Such skills may be taught informally or orally. However, in more complex societies they are learnt through formal and specialized education. Example: Oral and informal teaching-parents teach us how to eat, wear clothes, etc.; formal or deliberate teaching- through school or college education. (f) Socialization results in internalization of values, norms: Which become a part of the individual’s behaviour and enables him to cope with the social demands of the environment. (g) Socialization communicates the cultural content: Thus provides for the persistence and continuity of culture, i.e., cultural transmission is the goal of socialization. 7.3 Stages of Socialization Socialization is a continuous, life-long process. It begins soon after a child is born and ends almost when a person dies. Broadly, the process may be divided into four important phases or stages: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 101 (a) Childhood Socialization (b) Adolescent Socialization (c) Adult Socialization (d) Old-age Socialization (a) Childhood Socialization: This is the most delicate phase of one’s life, when an individual is totally dependent upon the socializing agents. The child’s physical, emotional and social needs require parental attention, energy and resources. In this phase of socialization, the child is helpless, even vulnerable to physical punishment, mental torture or even sexual abuse by the adults. Such childhood experiences, specially the most traumatic ones can have a lasting impact on child’s mental make-up, his attitudes and outlook on life. If the parents are loving, understanding, feel committed and involved in the child-rearing process, the socialization can become smoother and pleasant; making the parent-child bond stronger and enduring. (b) Adolescent Socialization: Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty which initiates significant changes; both physiological and emotional. It is again a delicate phase, since the teenage adolescents are too old for childhood and too young for adulthood. They feel more and more inclined towards freedom from parental dependency and control. While childhood socialization is concerned with the regulation of biological drives, adolescent socialization aims at developing the self-image and reaching out social values to the adolescent. This stage has in-built difficulties for both – adolescents and their parents. Individual adolescents often undergo periods of rebellion, probably prompted by confusion with reference to their identity and by emotional instability. Adolescence is a transition to adulthood. On the one hand, the adolescents demand autonomy, but on the other hand, they are dependent on the parents for their basic needs like food, clothing, shelter and education, hence they cannot take independent decisions and actions. They experience frustration and ambivalence together with a sense of insecurity. The transition from adolescence to adulthood may be smoother without any strains or otherwise – this transition varies from one society to another, depending upon the cultural definition of adult role. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
102 Introduction to Sociology - I Peer group tends to be the most important socializing agent in adolescent phase. It helps in establishing proper sex-role identification. Through the peer group, the adolescents get exposure to new ideas, values, beliefs and activities. They identify themselves with a teen-ager’s sub-culture, which either reinforces familial values or gets in conflict with them. It is in the latter case that the adolescents feel the “generation gap” and develop problems of adjustment with parental expectations and demands. (c) Adult Socialization: Adulthood is generally marked by career choices marriage and the establishment of a family. Once an adult, the individual is expected to be responsible for his action, know his duties and obligations well and behave accordingly. Thus adult socialization emphasizes behaviour in accordance with the norms and values he has internalized in childhood and adolescence. There is little attempt to change values or to influence basic motivations. Instead, the learning of new role expectations and new role performances are stressed. Adults typically engage in anticipatory socialization when they plan careers or career changes. To be successful role-performers, they must learn the correct behaviour and orient themselves to these careers. They engage in anticipatory socialization – the conscious and unconscious process by which we adopt the standards of a group which we expect or hope to join. Adult socialization occurs both intentionally and unintentionally within the definite social settings provided by the family, occupational groups, various organizations and institutions. Family is the major agent of socialization throughout life. Marriage implies significant changes in one’s lifestyle. The spouses need to modify their behaviour patterns and help each other reshape basic values. The bride, in particular, has to make conscious efforts to adjust to the family atmosphere and also to the family members of her husband if it happens to be a joint family. Similarly, a man taking up a new job needs to learn new skills, new attitudes and mould his life-style to be punctual and regular, do his work to the satisfaction of his superiors. As an adult, he assumes various roles and while learning to fulfil the role-expectations, his personality undergoes significant changes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 103 (d) Old-age Socialization: Old age and death are inevitable for each human being except for those who die a premature death. Growing old implies losing physical and mental capacities, suffering from ailments and therefore becoming dependent on someone for care. Old-age socialization becomes painful, when the aged are left alone, have no one to care for or talk to, feel rejected or live like a parasite or even are ill-treated by his family members. Many of the aged live in the old age asylum, waiting patiently for death. This trend of leaving the aged to fend for themselves is a typical characteristic of rapidly advancing society more in the West, which is now gradually setting in the Indian society as well. Ageing is a slow process which affects people differently. As they grow old, people tend to or are expected to disengage from the social system and allow younger persons to replace them in their roles. Disengagement should be by mutual consent, i.e., older people should be willing to change their life-style, social roles and relationships, and the society should be willing to accept the changes and recruit younger persons to take their places. 7.4 Agencies of Socialization Culture is what is learnt in the process of socialization. The child is born into a society which already has an existing culture, or rather; relevant aspects of the culture have to be transmitted to the child, so that he can function according to societal expectations. The task of transmitting the culture of a society is performed by various agencies like: (a) Family (b) School (c) Peer Group (d) Mass Media These are called socializing agents or the socializers of society and the children being socialized are called the ‘socializees’. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
104 Introduction to Sociology - I (i) Family: The family plays a crucial role in the process of socialization for a variety of reasons: The family influences the child in the earliest stage of development. It is within the family that the child learns language and begins to internalize the norms and values of their culture. The family attempts to meet all the needs of the child, both physical and emotional. The family has the most constant influence on an individual’s life because a person usually maintains the family relationship from infancy to adulthood. The family is a primary group and each individual learns most readily from the persons with whom he has personal and emotional ties. Within the family, the child passes through several stages of socialization. At each stage, the family members transmit culture to the child in different ways: 1. At the infancy stage: The child is socialized largely by the mother. Her role is primarily that of nurture and protection. The child learns to signal its pressing needs for care. E.g., He builds up definite expectations about “feed-time,” he cries when wet and wants to be picked up and cuddled. 2. As the child grows, stage of emergence of self: The child begins to become aware that he has to act according to the expectations of others in the family. He begins to develop moral ideas of good, bad, right and wrong. He begins to become aware about which actions will please the family and earn him rewards and which will displease them and earn him punishments. Gradually, the self becomes differentiated from rest of the world. 3. Stage of role-learning: The child gradually begins to learn different ‘roles’. He learns that all his family members as well as himself performs variety of roles. E.g., Son, brother, younger sibling, a child etc. The adults with whom the child interacts during the process of role-learning are called ‘Role-Models’. The child also observes sex-roles in the family. According to his observations, he begins to identify with a member of his sex and internalize sex-roles. E.g., he observes the sex of the member performing domestic tasks like cooking, cleaning, child rearing and filling water. He CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 105 observes the sex of the member earning and bringing home money. The child – thinks of ‘toughness’ as masculine – and desirable only in men - whilst ‘tenderness’ is viewed as feminine. Socialization is a reciprocal process. Parents try to teach, guide, influence and control the behaviour of their children, but children are also not mere clay in the hands of their parents. E.g., Even though the infant is helpless, it can initiate interaction simply by crying. Some of the basic tasks that a family performs is to control and channelize emotional development of the child and fulfil his emotional needs. Three fundamental emotions to humans are love, rage and anxiety. Among all these, love is essential for the normal emotional development of the child. Unloved children become unloved adults who may display psychological problems. Rage is a common reaction to deprivation and frustration. One of the chief aims of socialization is also to channel rage in such a way that it does not result in aggression. Anxiety, is not a clearly defined emotion, but a diffused state in which an individual feels uneasy. Anxiety is commonly generated in the early socialization of children in the modern, rapidly advancing societies. We excessively value competition and thus force our children into trying hard to excel and display high levels of self-control. With various possibilities of failure and rejection, the child grows up with constant anxiety. Example: Very often parents who are anxious that their children should do better than others, transfer their anxieties to the young minds, consequences of which could be disastrous. Today, however, with changing times, everywhere there are other agencies that are slowly but surely replacing the family for a major part of the socialization process. E.g., working parents take help from crèches, servants and maids, kindergartens, etc. Peer groups also greater influence on the child as compared to his family members. Influence of the family is minimal at certain stages and maximum at other stages. Nonetheless, the universality of the family and its impact on the child so immense that it still retains its significance as a primary agency of socialization. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
106 Introduction to Sociology - I (ii) School: The school, beginning with nursery, day-care centre, to college and university all have a great impact on socialization. The nursery school is the first formal agency to which the two- or three-year-old baby is exposed. It is a traumatic experience for the child. The child is now expected to interact with others of his age, learn to play with others and share toys which do not belong to him. He is taught a few skills like singing nursery rhymes with actions, drawing, painting, and a few manners of being polite to others. In school, the children are not surrounded by the family members whom they have learnt to obey. Here they are expected to obey strangers who constantly evaluate them and compare them with other children. Here they not only have to undergo formal training according to the school curriculum, but also cope with the new environment by learning to sit quietly, to obey those in authority, to co-operate with others and to take part in various activities of the school. The teachers, both in primary and secondary school, play a vital role in helping the child make successful adjustment to school environment. Their interest in teaching, understanding of child psychology, genuine affection for the children, impartial attitude and the ability to discipline them; all these factors become instrumental in helping the process of the child's normal development. The teachers also help in reinforcing the social values which the family and the larger society uphold. While the school provides an environment for development of the child's behaviour, his progress in formal education and more intimate, face-to-face student-teacher relationship, in the college or later in the university, the student is left to himself: he is given greater freedom. Thus, he becomes more exposed to peer group influence which often pressurize him to deviate from family norms or socially approved values. In the absence of teacher-parent associations which operate in the schools, family members cease to have authentic knowledge about the behaviour and progress of their adolescents at the college. Moreover, communication gap between the parents and the adolescents may lead to the latter taking to deviant behaviour. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 107 The school performs the following functions as an agency of socialization: The school helps to prepare individuals for adult life. It helps prepare individuals for a career. It helps the child in role-learning. It helps in culture-levelling. (iii) Peer Group: Horton and Hunt define peer group as a group of one’s equals, usually similar persons with whom one habitually associates. As a primary group, the peer group is usually small, more intimate and closely-knit. Their face to face, informal relationships make the growing child open up with his peers and share his thoughts, feelings and experiences more freely and comfortably than with his own parents. The peer group tends to be egalitarian in character, as against the authoritarian atmosphere that exists in the family. Unlike the family and the school, the peer group centres around activities that are strictly pleasurable. The peer group membership is voluntary – only the like-minded form the group and choose whom they like. They feel free to talk about anything; even topics inhibited by the family, and do what they like without having to answer to those higher in authority. The peer group thus enables the individual to break away from the authority of the family and the school. It also provides a platform for a distinct identity and role. The peer group is especially significant during adolescence, when members identify with the youth sub-culture, with manners of speech and dress, music, norms and values. The peer group exerts an incredibly powerful influence on the behaviour of individuals, especially during the teen-age years. In a Peer Group, a Child Learns: To function more independently. To acquire and test skills and beliefs that will help him earn a place among people of the same generation, and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
108 Introduction to Sociology - I To develop new outlooks that reflect youthful interests rather than adult ones. To share materially and non-materially. (iv) Mass Media: One of the most powerful sources of socialization, equating the socializing influence of the peer group and the school is that of the mass media. It consists of newspapers, magazines, radio, television and satellite communication systems, films, and video tapes, reach out to very large audiences, without personal contact. They not only provide information, recreation and education, but also mould public opinion and social attitudes. Example: Increasing incidence of crime among the youth today is partly ascribed to the influence of television and films which project more violence than artistic, healthy recreation. This is a special agency of socialization. It socializes masses of people at the same time. The earlier agencies could socialize only one person or few people at the same time. However, mass media simultaneously socializes all age-groups, caste and class groups. Mass media is not a group and has no culture of its own. It transmits the culture of the owner. Hence, mass media may be functional or dysfunctional depending upon the controller of the specific media. Among the mass media, television has become the chief socializing agent since the latter half of this century. It has been estimated that most children spend more time watching television than they do in school. Watching television is really a time consuming activity. While watching television, the child is completely inactive or passive. He passively watches the programme. He is not encouraged to think or participate. He may be exposed to violent culture and physical brutality. This is dangerous for the child, family and to larger society. Very often mass media propagate general stereotype divisions of work, cultural biases, racism and patriarchal values. Television, in particular, is a critical force in the socialization of children. Young individuals spend an average of 5.5 hours per day with some form of media, mostly television. Psychologists have urged parents, not to allow children less than 2 years to watch television. Parents should also avoid using any kind of media such as an electronic baby-sitter, and should try to create an ‘electronic media-free’ environment in their children’s rooms. However, television does not always have a negative socializing influence. Television programmes and even commercials can introduce young people to unfamiliar life styles and cultures. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 109 The media increase social cohesion by presenting a more or less standardized, common view of culture through mass communication. The mass media unquestionably play a significant role in providing a collective experience for the members of a society. Example: The mass media “bring together” members of a community or even a nation by showing important events and ceremonies such as inaugurations, press conferences, sports, etc. The media often reaffirm proper behavior by showing what happens to people who act in a way that violates societal expectations. E.g., These messages are conveyed when the bad guy gets clobbered in cartoons or is thrown in jail. The media plays a critical role in shaping perceptions about the risks of substance use, although not necessarily in a positive fashion. E.g., In many movies, when an actor smokes a cigarette, it is perceived by the younger generations as something which is very ‘cool’ and ‘hip’. The media perform a dysfunction, as identified by sociologists Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton. They created the term narcotizing dysfunction to refer to the phenomenon whereby the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and generally fails to act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue may be. Interested citizens may perceive the information provided but they may not take any decision or action. The mass media serve to maintain the privileges of certain groups. Moreover, while protecting their own interests, powerful groups may limit the representation of other groups. Such a situation is referred to as ‘dominant ideology’ which describes a set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic and political interests. Mass media decision makers are overwhelmingly male and wealthy. It may come as a surprise that the media tend to ignore the lives and ambitions of subordinate groups, among them working class people, etc. Even worse, the content may create false images or stereotypes of these groups which become accepted as accurate portrayals of reality. Stereotypes are unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that do not recognize individual differences within the group. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
110 Introduction to Sociology - I Television content is a prime example of ignoring reality. How many characters that are overweight can you name? Even though in real life one out of every four women is obese, only 3 out of 100 TV characters are portrayed as obese. Heavyset men and women on television programmes have fewer romances, talk less about sex, eat more often, and are subject of ridicule more often than their thin counterparts. Mass media thus stereotype and misrepresent social reality. The media powerfully influence how we look at men and women, and portrayal of the images of the sexes communicates unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting perceptions. Here are three problems which feminists believe arise from media coverage. (a) Women are under-represented, which suggests that men are the cultural standard and women are insignificant. (b) Men and women are portrayed in ways which reflect and perpetuate stereotypical views on gender. Example: It is women, who are shown in peril, needing to be rescued by a male, and rarely the reverse. (c) Depictions of male-female relationships emphasize traditional sex roles and normalize violence against women. Educators and social scientists have long noted the stereotypical depiction of women and men in the mass media. Women are often portrayed as shallow and obsessed with beauty. Women are more likely to be shown unclothed or in danger or even physically victimized, compared to men. 7.5 Theories Symbolic Interaction Theory Symbolic interaction theory though influenced by early European sociologists was developed largely through the efforts of Mead, Thomas and Cooley who belonged to the Chicago School. There is a key difference between this perspective and functional and conflict perspectives. The structural-functional and conflict paradigms share a macro-level orientation, meaning a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 111 Example: seeing how highways help people move from place to place or how housing differs from rich to poor neighbourhoods. Sociology also has a micro-level orientation, a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations. Example: exploring urban life at street level, where researchers might observe how children interact on a school playground, how pedestrians wait to board a bus, or how well-dressed people respond to a homeless person. The symbolic interaction paradigm, then, is a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. Interactionism refers to interaction which means action between individuals. The interactionist perspective tries to understand this process. It assumes that the action is meaningful to those involved. In order to understand the action, it is imperative to interpret the meanings which individuals attach to their activities. For example: Let’s imagine a man and a woman in the room and the man lighting a candle. This action is open to a host of interpretations. The couple may require light because of electricity failure, or they may be involved in a ritual wherein lighted candle has a religious significance, or the couple may be celebrating a birthday, a wedding anniversary. In each case a different meaning is attached to the action of lighting a candle. Therefore, it is necessary to discover the meaning held by the individuals. Meanings are not fixed entities. They depend on the context of the interaction. Meanings are also created, developed, modified and changed within the actual process of interaction. Example: A new man joins an office and he may find the situation as threatening and even hostile in the beginning. This understanding may be confirmed, modified or changed depending on his perception of the interaction which takes place in the office. He may come to perceive his boss and colleagues as friendly and understanding and therefore changes his assessment of the job situation. Moreover the actions of the man will partly depend on his interpretation of how others see him. This leads to the idea of the “self”. An individual develops a self-concept, a picture of himself which affects his actions. A self-concept develops from interaction process because it is largely a reflection of the reactions of others towards the individual. Hence C.H. Cooley coined the term “looking glass self”. An individual tends to act in terms of his self-concept. Thus if he is repeatedly defined as notorious or famous, caring or arrogant he will tend to see himself in this light and act accordingly. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
112 Introduction to Sociology - I The social-interaction paradigm (micro-level sociology) tries to convey how individuals actually experience society, by focusing on day-to-day interactions. Thus symbolic-interaction paradigm ignores larger social structures, the effects of culture, and factors such as class, gender and race. If Socialization was not there in our life... The case of Anna Anna was an illegitimate child whose grandfather strongly disapproved of the mother’s indiscretion and this caused the child to be kept in an upstairs room. As a result, the infant received only enough care to keep her barely alive. She seldom moved from one position to another. Her clothing and bedding remained filthy. She apparently had no instructions, no friendly attention. When finally found and removed from the room at the age of about six years, Anna could not walk, talk or do anything that showed intelligence. She was in an extremely emaciated and under- nourished state, with skeleton like legs and a bloated abdomen. She was completely apathetic lying in a limp, supine position and remaining immobile, expressionless and indifferent to everything. She was believed to be deaf and possibly blind. She of course could not feed herself or make any move on her own behalf. Here then, was a human organism which had missed nearly six years of socialization. Her condition shows how little her purely biological resources, when acting alone, could contribute towards making her a complete person. 7.6 Summary Socialization is the way in which culture is transmitted and an individual is fitted into an organized way of life. It is a life-long process, beginning very early and by making the child learn the basics of human behaviour. Socialization regulates behaviour, transforms him into a “self” with a sense of identity, and endows him with ideals, values and aspirations. Thus, socialization has two complementary meanings: the transmission of culture and the development of personality. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 113 Socialization consists of teaching each individual the culture which he must acquire and share, of making him a participating member in society and in various groups and for persuading him to accept the norms of his society. In the socialization process the individual learns the folkways, traditions and other patterns of culture as well as skills which will enable him to become a participating member of the human society. Socialization provides for the emergence and development for the self or ego. It inculcates basic disciplines by a system of rewards and punishments. Socialization instils aspiration towards some goal, occupational status or reward. It teaches certain goals and repertoire of habits and their supporting attitudes. Socialization teaches skills through which individuals can fit into an organised way of life in society. It results in internalization of values, norms and communicates the cultural content. Socialization is a continuous, life-long process. It begins soon after a child is born and ends almost when a person dies. Broadly, the process may be divided into four important phases or stages. Childhood Socialization is the most delicate phase of one’s life, when an individual is totally dependent upon the socializing agents. The child’s physical, emotional and social needs require parental attention, energy and resources. Adolescent Socialization begins with the onset of puberty which initiates significant changes; both physiological and emotional. It is again a delicate phase, since the teenage adolescents are too old for childhood and too young for adulthood. They feel more and more inclined towards freedom from parental dependency and control. This stage has in-built difficulties for both – adolescents and their parents. Individual adolescents often undergo periods of rebellion, probably prompted by confusion with reference to their identity and by emotional instability. Adolescence is a transition to adulthood. On the one hand, the adolescents demand autonomy, but on the other hand, they are dependent on the parents for their basic needs like food, clothing, shelter and education, hence they cannot take independent decisions and actions. Peer group tends to be the most important socializing agent in adolescent phase. It helps in establishing proper sex-role identification. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
114 Introduction to Sociology - I Adult Socialization is generally marked by career choices marriage and the establishment of a family. Once an adult, the individual is expected to be responsible for his action, know his duties and obligations well and behave accordingly. Thus adult socialization emphasizes behaviour in accordance with the norms and values he has internalized in childhood and adolescence. There is little attempt to change values or to influence basic motivations. Instead, the learning of new role expectations and new role performances are stressed. Old-age Socialization becomes painful, when the aged are left alone, have no one to care for or talk to, feel rejected or live like a parasite or even are ill-treated by his family members. Many of the aged live in the old age asylum, waiting patiently for death. The task of transmitting the culture of a society is performed by various agencies like the family, school, peer group and mass media. These are called socializing agents or the socializers of society and the children being socialized are called the ‘socializees’. (i) Family: The family plays a crucial role in the process of socialization for a variety of reasons. The family influences the child in the earliest stage of development. The family attempts to meet all the needs of the child, both physical and emotional. The family has the most constant influence on an individual’s life because a person usually maintains the family relationship from infancy to adulthood. The family is a primary group and each individual learns most readily from the persons with whom he has personal and emotional ties. Within the family, the child passes through several stages of socialization. At each stage, the family members transmit culture to the child in different ways. At the infancy stage, the child is socialized largely by the mother. Her role is primarily that of nurture and protection. The child learns to signal its pressing needs for care. As the child grows, stage of emergence of self. The child begins to become aware that he has to act according to the expectations of others in the family. He begins to develop moral ideas of good, bad, right and wrong. In the stage of role-learning, the child gradually begins to learn different ‘roles’. The child also observes sex-roles in the family. According to his observations, he begins to identify with a member of his sex and internalize sex- roles. Socialization is a reciprocal process. Parents try to teach, guide, influence and control the behaviour of their children, but children are also not mere clay in the hands of their parents. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 115 Some of the basic tasks that a family performs is to control and channelize emotional development of the child and fulfil his emotional needs. Three fundamental emotions to humans are love, rage and anxiety. Today, however, with changing times, everywhere there are other agencies that are slowly but surely replacing the family for a major part of the socialization process. (ii) School: The school, beginning with nursery, day-care centre, to college and university all have a great impact on socialization. The nursery school is the first formal agency to which the two- or three-year-old baby is exposed. It is a traumatic experience for the child. In school, the children are not surrounded by the family members whom they have learnt to obey. Here they are expected to obey strangers who constantly evaluate them and compare them with other children. The teachers, both in primary and secondary school, play a vital role in helping the child make successful adjustment to school environment. While the school provides an environment for development of the child's behaviour, his progress in formal education and more intimate, face-to-face student-teacher relationship, in the college or later in the university, the student is left to himself: he is given greater freedom. The school performs important functions as an agency of socialization. The school helps to prepare individuals for adult life. It helps prepare individuals for a career. It helps the child in role- learning. It helps in culture-levelling. (iii) Peer Group: Horton and Hunt define peer group as a group of one’s equals, usually similar persons with whom one habitually associates. As a primary group, the peer group is usually small, more intimate and closely-knit. Their face to face, informal relationships make the growing child open up with his peers and share his thoughts, feelings and experiences more freely and comfortably than with his own parents. The peer group tends to be egalitarian in character, as against the authoritarian atmosphere that exists in the family. Unlike the family and the school, the peer group centres around activities that are strictly pleasurable. The peer group membership is voluntary – only the like-minded form the group and choose whom they like. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
116 Introduction to Sociology - I In a Peer Group, a Child Learns to function more independently, to acquire and test skills and beliefs that will help him earn a place among people of the same generation, and to develop new outlooks that reflect youthful interests rather than adult ones. Also to share materially and non- materially. (iv) Mass Media: One of the most powerful sources of socialization, equating the socializing influence of the peer group and the school is that of the mass media. This is a special agency of socialization. It socializes masses of people at the same time. Among the mass media, television has become the chief socializing agent since the latter half of this century. It has been estimated that most children spend more time watching television than they do in school. This is dangerous for the child, family and to larger society. Very often mass media propagate general stereotype divisions of work, cultural biases, racism and patriarchal values. The media increase social cohesion by presenting a more or less standardized, common view of culture through mass communication. The media often reaffirm proper behavior by showing what happens to people who act in a way that violates societal expectations. The media plays a critical role in shaping perceptions about the risks of substance use, although not necessarily in a positive fashion. The media perform a dysfunction, as identified by sociologists Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton. They created the term narcotizing dysfunction to refer to the phenomenon whereby the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and generally fails to act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue may be. The mass media serve to maintain the privileges of certain groups. Moreover, while protecting their own interests, powerful groups may limit the representation of other groups. Mass media thus stereotype and misrepresent social reality. The media powerfully influence how we look at men and women, and portrayal of the images of the sexes communicates unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting perceptions. Symbolic Interaction Theory Symbolic interaction theory though influenced by early European sociologists was developed largely through the efforts of Mead, Thomas and Cooley who belonged to the Chicago School. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 117 The symbolic interaction paradigm, then, is a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. Interactionism refers to interaction which means action between individuals. The interactionist perspective tries to understand this process. It assumes that the action is meaningful to those involved. In order to understand the action, it is imperative to interpret the meanings which individuals attach to their activities. Meanings are not fixed entities. They depend on the context of the interaction. Meanings are also created, developed, modified and changed within the actual process of interaction. Moreover the actions of the man will partly depend on his interpretation of how others see him. This leads to the idea of the “self”. An individual develops a self-concept, a picture of himself which affects his actions. A self-concept develops from interaction process because it is largely a reflection of the reactions of others towards the individual. Hence C. H. Cooley coined the term “looking glass self”. An individual tends to act in terms of his self-concept. 7.7 Key Words Socialization: is the way in which culture is transmitted and an individual is fitted into an organized way of life Symbolic Interaction Theory: refers to interaction which means action between individuals Looking glass self: how oneself imagines how others view him/her 7.8 Learning Activity 1. Identify and elaborate the Stages of socialization in your life. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
118 Introduction to Sociology - I 2. Discuss the agencies of socialization playing an important role in your everyday life. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. What is meant by socialization? Explain its importance for an individual and the society. 2. Evaluate the role of the family and school as agencies for socialization. 3. How does socialization differ from the childhood phase to the adolescent phase? 4. Socialization leads to personality development. Explain. 5. Give a detailed explanation of the stages of socialization. 6. Elucidate the role of media as an agency of socialization. 7. Discuss upon the Symbolic-Interaction theory B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. This is the most delicate phase of one’s life, when an individual is totally dependent upon the socializing agents. (a) Childhood Socialization (b) Adolescent Socialization (c) Adult Socialization (d) Old-age Socialization 2. This stage has in-built difficulties for individuals as they often undergo periods of rebellion. (a) Childhood Socialization (b) Adolescent Socialization (c) Adult Socialization (d) Old-age Socialization 3. In which stage of socialization does the child learn to signal its pressing needs for care. (a) Stage of emergence of self (b) Stage of role-learning (c) Infancy stage (d) None of the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Socialization 119 4. In which stage of socialization does the child begin to become aware that he has to act according to the expectations of others in the family. (a) Stage of emergence of self (b) Stage of role-learning (c) Infancy stage (d) None of the above 5. The school performs the following functions as an agency of socialization: (a) The school helps to prepare individuals for adult life. (b) It helps prepare individuals for a career. (c) It helps the child in role-learning. (d) All of the above 6. Who coined the term “looking glass self”? (a) Comte (b) Ginsberg (c) Cooley (d) Gisbert Ans.: 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (a), 5. (d), 6. (c). 7.10 References 1. Giddens, Anthony, “Sociology”, 2nd ed.,1999, Polity Press, London. 2. Schaefer, Richard, “Sociology”, 2005, McGraw-Hill. 3. Horton and Hunt, “Sociology”, McGraw-Hill, Kogakusha Ltd. 4. Leslie, Larson, Gorman, “Sociology”, 1998, Oxford University Press. 5. Kingsley Davis, Human Society, “The Macmillan Company”, 1948, 1949, New York. 6. Reece Mc Gee, Sociology, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1980. 7. Thakur Narendu, “An Introduction to Sociology”, Central Law Publications, 2007. 8. www.wikipedia.com 9. www.sociologyguide.com CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
120 Introduction to Sociology - I UNIT 8 SOCIAL CONTROL Structure: 8.0 Learning Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Features of Social Control 8.3 Conformity to Social Norms and Values 8.4 Non-Conformity to Social Norms and Values 8.5 Types and Agents of Social Control 8.6 Summary 8.7 Key Words 8.8 Learning Activity 8.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 8.10 References 8.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: Explain the meaning of Social Control. Analyse the types and Agencies of Social Control. Differentiate the Formal and Informal agents of Social Control. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 121 8.1 Meaning Social control refers to the way in which society controls the behaviour of its members. There are various ways of controlling human behaviour. One effective way is through social norms. These are the rules which specify do’s and don’ts. Norms occur in all societies and human behaviour is always according to some or the other norms. These norms are necessary and functional, both for the society and the individual. Society: Norms control human behaviour. Thus, social control results in social stability and order which is essential for the survival, continuity and development of the society. Individual: Conformity to norms gives security and a sense of belongingness to the individual towards the group. Definition by P. H. Landis – Social Control is “a social process by which the individual is made group responsive, and by which social organization is built and maintained”. Definition by Ogburn and Nimkoff – Social Control is “the pattern of pressure which the society exerts to maintain order and established rule”. Social control may also be defined as any influence which the society exerts upon its members for the purpose of providing welfare for the group as a whole. 8.2 Features of Social Control (a) Social control is an influence: Which may be exerted through public opinion, social suggestion, and religion, etc. (b) The influence is exercised by society: There are various agencies of social control and the effectiveness of each agency depends largely upon the circumstances. Example: Belief, religion, social ideals, etc. (c) The influence is exercised for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole: Through the ages, the means of social control have been determined from time-to-time by the social ideals cherished at that particular time: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
122 Introduction to Sociology - I Primitive times: Societies employed customs and traditions for controlling individuals and groups. Middle ages: Since feudal customs and Church were the highest authority, the whole social life was controlled by the Church. Over time, authority of the Church diminished and the power got shifted to the King. Kings: Ruled the state by what was called the “Divine Right of the Kings”. They believed that God has ordained the King as His representative on earth. Period of Laissez-faire: The control of the state over the individual has become less. With advances in technology and economic transformations, new social problems cropped up which necessitated the control of the state. This time however, the state represented not the will of the autocratic rule, but the collective will of the community. Economic, social, and political associations were formed which controlled social life. And today, social control is so vast and widening that at every step of his life each individual finds himself under the control of one agency or the other. 8.3 Conformity to Social Norms and Values Why do we conform to norms, values and institutionalized patterns of behaviour? Conformity to social norms and values seems to develop as we are socialized. Although a few individuals, for various reasons, fail to conform, majority of us obey the elders and behave according to social expectations. The factors and forces which bring about this conformity are as follows: (a) Indoctrination: We are taught many ‘do’s’ and ‘don’ts’ as we grow up. We gradually imbibe these 'prescriptive' and ‘proscriptive’ norms and values. They become a part of our total being. Example: Of prescriptive norms – rules laid down by society like one must be truthful and one must not cheat. Example: Of proscriptive norm – those governed by law like one must not drink alcohol while driving or consume alcoholic drink before driving. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 123 (b) Habituation: When we repeat a certain action because it is rewarding, it leads to habit formation. Example: We get used to removing our shoes before entering a temple, washing hands before eating, showing respect to elders. (c) Utility: A growing child is curious to know many things. It is a process of learning for him; and parents very often explain why he should observe certain ways of behaviour. The utility of conformity to social norms and values is understood and makes us obedient. Example: A child realizes both through instruction and his own experience, that it is useful, to be clean to promote good health, to be polite in order to have pleasant relationships with others. (d) Identification: Being social by nature, we need to belong to the group that supports us, looks after us, and provides for our various needs. By following its ways, observing its norms, we identify ourselves with our group like family and peer group. Identification is a psychological need that makes us norm abiding. (e) Fear of Punishment: Solitary confinement is the worst of all punishments, for it deprives an individual of his freedom and social companionship. It can be very frustrating. We therefore fear being punished and avoid wrong-doing. 8.4 Non-Conformity to Social Norms and Values Different Explanations 1. Improper Socialization: An individual learns social norms and conformity to norms during the process of socialization. If this socialization is not adequate, then the individual may fail to learn and conform to the norms. 2. Role Conflict: In modern society, every individual is supposed to perform several roles. Every role has specific demands and expected norms to be follow. It is difficult to follow all the norms of all the social roles. Sometimes, these roles may conflict with each other. In such a situation, the individual cannot perform both the roles well. This leads to deviation (non- conformity). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
124 Introduction to Sociology - I 3. The Functionalist Perspective: According to the functionalists, deviance is a common part of human existence, having positive (as well as negative) consequences for social stability. Deviance helps to define the limits of proper behaviour. (a) Durkheim’s Legacy: E. Durkheim focused his sociological investigations mainly on criminal acts, yet his conclusions have significant implications for all types of deviant behaviour. In his view, the punishments established within a culture help to define acceptable behaviour and thus contribute to stability of the society. Durkheim introduced the term anomie to describe the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behaviour becomes ineffective. Anomie is a state of normlessness that typically occurs during a period of profound social change and disorder. People become more aggressive or depressed, this results in higher rates of violent crime and suicide. During times of revolution, sudden prosperity or economic depression, there exists less agreement, thus conformity and obedience become less significant as social forces. However, it also becomes much more difficult to state exactly what constitutes deviance. (b) R. Merton’s Theory: In every society, there are social goals. These goals are desirable, difficult to achieve and are common to all the members of the society. In every society, there are different ways of achieving these goals. Out of all various ways, certain ways are approved by the society. These approved ways are called ‘institutionalized ways’. There are also other ways which are not approved by the society which are called as ‘non-institutionalized’ ways. In a modern society, people belong to various socio- economic classes, like upper-class, middle-class and lower-class. Though social goals are common to all the classes, but institutionalized means are not equally available to all. Hence there are different reactions. Merton classifies these reactions into five different categories as follows: ● Conformists: These are the normal people who aspire for achieving social goals and follow the institutionalized ways to achieve these goals. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 125 ● Ritualists: They have abandoned the goal of material success and have become compulsively committed to the institutional means. For them, work becomes simply a way of life rather than a means to achieve the goal of success. ● Retreatists: These have basically withdrawn (or retreated) from both the goals and the means of a society. ● Innovators: They accept the goals of society but pursue them with means that are regarded as improper. ● Rebels: They feel alienated from the dominant means and goals and may seek a dramatically different social order. 4. Interactionist Perspective: Some interactionists maintain that people learn criminal behaviour by interacting with others (cultural transmission). To them deviance results from exposure to attitudes which are favourable to criminal acts (differential association). Other interactionists stress that for a crime to occur, there must be a convergence of motivated offenders and suitable targets of crime. 5. Feminist Perspective: This perspective emphasizes that cultural attitudes and differential economic relationships help to explain gender differences in deviance and crime. 8.5 Types and Agents of Social Control A. Informal Agents of Social Control The influence on individuals is exercised by society and it is expressed through customs, traditions and norms. The informal controls differ from group-to-group and society-to-society. Individuals are socialized consciously or unconsciously in a culture of a society. The individuals get rewarded or punished as per their acceptable or unacceptable behaviour. Conformity by individuals gives them security and a sense of belongingness to the group. This helps to establish social order, social harmony and social stability. 1. Control through Belief: The belief in supernatural sanctions to conduct has great advantages. It is effective and inexpensive. The belief that the Great Something knows CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
126 Introduction to Sociology - I the thoughts and the true intents of an individual, that he approves the types of conduct accepted by the group, and that he punishes with dreadful penalty for those who offend and rewards with blessings to those who conform, becomes a fundamental force of individual motivation. It creates a specific type of anxiety which can be reduced only by practicing the approved behaviour. These beliefs, resting on the concept of a personal God or Gods, are the most fundamental basic foundations of conduct and they seriously modify the motives of a believing individual. Efficacy of these beliefs depends upon the individual’s wholehearted acceptance of them. 2. Control by Social Suggestion: This generally operates subconsciously because the individual while awake and conscious of his acts does not clearly understand as to from what motives is he performing those actions. The effectiveness of this method of control is seen in the children, who quickly and easily adopt the beliefs and customs of their country. This social atmosphere which presses upon us with a force often remains unrecognized and constantly affects our behaviour. Social suggestion operates through ideals conveyed by the written and the spoken word. Propaganda is a subtle form of suggestion. Example: Modern advertising in the press and over the radio. Social suggestion is exercised by customs and traditions; it is a moulding process that starts long before a child begins his schooling. 3. Control by Religion: Religion is another method of social control. In any long- established religion, customs and traditions are the most dominating and controlling elements. Human brotherhood, the value of each individual in God’s view, and the promise of the rectification of the injustices brought about by the social order are the fundamental elements of any religion. Religion is a binding force which lays certain norms and values, which are to be followed by every individual as a member of society. This in turn provides the individual with a sense of peace, brotherhood, harmony, security and well-being. 4. Control by Social Ideals: Social ideals are standards or patterns that set objectives of behaviour to be followed by each individual as member of society. Individuals adapt themselves to these sets of ideals, to become a well-adjusted social animal. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 127 Example: Lenin and Stalin by holding before the Russian peasant and proletarian the ideal of equality for those who have never known it before. This lifted the mass of the depressed into activities and modes of life alien to their whole past. Example: The ideal of justice in the relations between management and labour is transforming the pattern of behaviour of the financiers and industrialists. 5. Control by Ceremony, Rites and Rituals: Ceremony – Whether among the primitive savages of Australia or the highly civilized peoples of Europe or America, every act of unusual significance is surrounded by mysterious rites. Under the spell of these elemental emotions, the will is dominated by the suggestions of those in charge of the ceremony, and the whole congregation is subjected to the influence of the presiding personality or group. Ceremonies give our most sacred institutions an impressiveness which they do not possess naturally. Example: Court marriage vs. ceremonial marriage. The latter gives the institution of marriage an added colour, an extravagance and impressiveness. Example: The disposition of the dead, and those acts by which man is reminded of his connection with other beings and with the supernatural sanctions which are attached to the dead. All these are occasions when it is important for the welfare of the society that each onlooker be most reminded impressively that he has important social duties. Rite also refers to a ceremony. It sometimes conveys secrecy of a ceremony known only to the initiated. Ritual is also a ceremony but it is characterized by repetition. It is repeatedly performed. Example: Republic Day, May Day, Wedding anniversary. It introduces temporal regularity and a precision of detail into many of the events that characterize our social life. 6. Control by Means of Art: By means of poetry, painting, sculpture, music and through its various other forms, art has the power to control man through the domination of his feelings. These appeal to the emotions of every individual. Art, moreover, arouses social sympathy and it binds people together by a common feeling. Its appeal is universal; the sentiments which it arouses are common to all individuals. It is used in wars, in religion and in the establishment of a new order of things. Another thing that art does for us is to glorify our social symbols. Example: The flag becomes a thing of great beauty. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
128 Introduction to Sociology - I 7. Control by Customs: Many of our daily activities are regulated by customs. Our ways of dressing, speaking, eating, worshipping, celebrating festivals, etc., are all controlled by customs. They are self-accepted rules of social life. They provide guidelines for people in every activity. They are conformed most unconsciously. Every individual learns them from his childhood and goes on obeying them. These rules are basic to our collective life. They are more influential and dominant in the primitive society than in the modern society. 8. Control by Folkways and Mores: Folkways refer to the ways of the people. They are the norms to which people conform because it is expected of them. Conformity to the folkways is neither required by law nor enforced by any special agency of society. Still we perform many such activities without thinking about them. It is a matter of usage. Example: To wash clothes, to take bath, to brush teeth, etc. they constitute an important part of the social structure. They contribute to the order and stability of social relations. Human infants learn them from the elders through the process of socialization. ‘Mores’ or ‘Morals’ represent another category of norms. When ‘folkways’ act as regulators of behaviour then they become ‘mores’. Mores are considered to be essential for group welfare. The positive mores prescribe behaviour patterns while the negative mores or taboos prescribe or prohibit behaviour patterns. Example: Mores instruct people to love their country, to tell the truth, etc. They also insist on people not to become unpatriotic, not to cheat, not to steal, etc. These are morally right and their violation is morally wrong. Mores contribute towards the solidarity and harmony of the group. 9. Control by Morality: Morality is an institution which is closely related to religion. Morality is concerned with the conceptions of goodness and evil. It refers to “that body of rules and principles concerned with good and evil as manifested to us by conscience”. These rules are admitted by the community. Example: Honesty, faithfulness, truthfulness, kindness, etc., represent some of the moral concepts. Morality helps to make a distinction between right and wrong. Hence morality acts as a guide for human behaviour. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 129 10. Control by Sanctions: Sanctions are the supporters of norms. Sanctions refer to “the rewards and punishments used to establish social control, that is, to enforce the norms in a society”. Their basic function is to bring about conformity. They are used to force or persuade an individual or group to conform to social expectations. Example: Positive sanctions include verbal methods such as flattery, praise, suggestion, advertising, slogans, etc. and negative sanctions include gossip, slander, name-calling, threats, etc. 11. Control by Fashion: Fashion may be defined as permitted range of variation around a norm. It permits and regulates variety and thereby avoids a dull and deadening uniformity. These help us to express our individuality without going against norms. Fashion has become all pervasive. Example: People want to eat fashionable foods, wear fashionable clothes, use fashionable mobiles, etc. B. Formal Agents of Social Control: In democratic societies, the goals and mechanisms of formal social control are determined through legislation by elected representatives. These are expressed through rules and regulations conducted by the government and law enforcement organizations. Thus, the behaviour of the members of a society is controlled by the rules which provide the do’s and the don’ts. These in turn are necessary for the survival, continuity and development of the society. 1. Control through Leadership: Probably the first steps in social control were taken by dominant personalities. Leadership and submission are correlated and are frequently observed in life. In earlier times there was leadership by great leaders like Hitler and Lenin and submission to them was unconditional. In democracy there is no leadership of a single leader. It raises the ability of an average man and develops his responsibility. Thus democracy, in emphasizing the importance of a common man, destroys the bonds of the old social control and brings into operation other forces of quite a different character. 2. Control by Education: Education may be defined as a process whereby the social heritage of a group is passed on from one generation to another. It is concerned with just transmission of a way of life. In the present times it is largely devoted to the communication of modern knowledge. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
130 Introduction to Sociology - I The main purpose of education is to train people, especially young people in the methods essential for understanding reality. Education is not primarily to stock the mind with information, but to train people to think, to discriminate between truth and error and to understand reality. Education can be used as a means of social control in teaching people how to arrive at truth, it trains them in the use of their intelligence and thus increases the scope of their control through the sense of reason rather than the feelings, customs and traditions. Education from infancy to adulthood is a vital means of social control. Through education new generation learns the social norms and the penalties for violating them. Thus education converts social control into self-control and is a necessary condition for the proper exercise of social control. 3. Control by Force: It has become mandatory for the government to establish certain laws which have punishments attached to them in order to control the most selfish, greedy and the irresponsible individuals. Hence, courts have been established for the trial of disputes between individuals or between two or more individuals and corporations. These courts, with the officers attached, have been given the power to enforce their decisions. The government goes further in that it establishes courts to enforce the laws to punish those offenders who jeopardize the interests of innocent people. It establishes prisons for punishments for offenders and processes for the control of the insane. 4. Control through Law and Administration: In the absence of control by customs and tradition, law is the formal method of control by means of which people's lives are regulated, their rights, duties, and privileges defined; the offences against individuals and society determined, and the punishments for violators decided. And the government, instituted for the enforcement of the law, is able to do so, by exercising a police control over the community to maintain social order. The government establishes social commissions and legislative committees and other administrative agencies to enforce the laws impartially to search for facts, to publish the findings of investigations, and thus to enable the people to find peace and order for their private enterprises. Thus, law can be defined as governmental social control. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 131 Sociologists see the creation of laws as a social process. Laws are passed in response to needs perceived for formal social control. Sociologists have sought to explain how and why such perceptions arise. In their view, law is not merely a static body of rules handed down from generation-to-generation. Rather, it reflects continually changing standards of what is right and wrong, of how violations are to be determined, and of what sanctions are to be applied. Socialization is actually the primary source of confirming and inculcating obedient behaviour, including obedience to law. Generally, it is not external pressure from a peer group or an authority figure which makes us go along with social norms. Rather, we have internalized such norms as valid and desirable and are committed to observe them. In a profound sense, we want to see ourselves (and to be seen) as loyal, cooperative, responsible and respectful of others. Other Forms of Social Control 1. Copyright Copyright is a legal term describing rights given to creators for their literary and artistic works. Copyright exists to encourage the production of original artistic, literary and musical creations; from books and paintings to movies, recordings and software. The copyright system rewards artistic expression by allowing the creator to commercially benefit from his work. In addition to granting economic rights, copyright also bestows ‘moral rights’ which allow the creator to claim authorship of and prevent mutilation or deformation of his work. To qualify for copyright protection, the work has to be an original creation. Copyright protection lasts from the time of creation of the work until 50 or 70 years after the author’s death. 2. Intellectual Property Right Intellectual property right is one such formal method of control by which each individual’s life is regulated and his rights over his innovative creations are determined by the enforcement of law. It is defined by the World Intellectual Property Organization: Literary, artistic and scientific works, performances or performing artists, phonograms and broadcasts; inventions in all fields of human endeavour; scientific discoveries; industrial designs; trademarks; service marks and commercial names and designations; all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
132 Introduction to Sociology - I Intellectual property is a product of the intellect which is owned in some way by an individual or an organization, who can then choose to share it freely or to control its use. Example: If you are drinking a cup of coffee while you are reading this page, you may be holding a cupful of intellectual property rights. The shape of the cup, the brand name that attracted you to that particular coffee, the geographical province of the coffee beans, and even the variety of coffee plant that could use those beans, could qualify for intellectual property rights. The mundane object of intellectual property right generally is to exclude third parties from exploiting protected subject matter without explicit authorization of the right holder, for a certain duration of time. Intellectual property rights help creative and inventive activity of orderly marketing of proprietary goods and services. 3. Censorship Films With regard to films, there are four categories of certificates – ‘U’ Unrestricted Public Exhibition, ‘A’ Restricted to Adult Audiences, ‘UA’ Unrestricted Public Exhibition subject to Parental Guidance for children below the age of 12 and ‘S’ Restricted to specialized audiences. The objectives of film certification are: The medium of film remains responsible towards values and standards of society. Artistic expression and creative freedom are not unduly curbed. Certification is responsive to social change. The medium of film provides clean and healthy entertainment. The film is of aesthetic value and cinematically of a good standard. Advertising The code for self-regulation in advertising was set-up to control the content of advertisements which may be found offensive by some people, for whatever reasons, and not to hamper the sale of products. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 133 Following are the fundamental principles of this code: To ensure truthfulness and honesty of representations and claims made by advertisements and to safeguard against misleading advertisements. To ensure that advertisements are not offensive with respect to the generally accepted standards of public decency. To safeguard against the indiscriminate use of advertising for the promotion of products which are regarded as hazardous to society. To ensure that advertisements observe fairness in competition so that the consumers get the information about the choices available in the marketplace and also that the principles of generally accepted competitive behaviour in business are served. 4. Trademark A trademark is a distinctive sign of some kind which is used by an individual, business organization or other legal entity to uniquely identify the source of its products and/or services to consumers, and to distinguish its products or services from those of other entities. A trademark is a type of intellectual property, and it typically comprises a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. Trademarks are the distinctive symbols of authenticity through which the products of particular manufacturers or the saleable commodities of particular merchants can be distinguished from those of others. It is a device, word or combination of words, or a symbol which indicates the source or ownership of a product or service. A trademark can be a name, such as Adidas, or a symbol, such as McDonald’s golden arches, or it can be a combination of the two, such as when the NIKE name is written with the “swoosh” symbol beneath it. In very limited cases, a shape or even a distinctive colour can become a trademark. The owner of a registered trademark may commence legal proceedings for trademark infringement to prevent unauthorized use of his trademark. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
134 Introduction to Sociology - I 5. Patent A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to a patentee (the inventor or assignee) for a fixed period of time in exchange for the regulated, public disclosure of certain details of a device, method, process or composition of matter (substance) (known as an invention) which is new, inventive, and useful or industrially applicable. It is a grant made by a government that confers upon the creator of an invention the sole right to make, use, and sell his invention for a set period of time. Contrary to a common public misconception, a patent is not a right to practice or use the invention. Rather, a patent provides the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the patented invention for the term of the patent, usually 20 years from the date of filing. A patent is, in effect, a limited property right that the government offers to inventors in exchange for their agreement to share the details of their inventions with public. Like any other property right, it may be sold, licensed, mortgaged, assigned or transferred, given away, or simply abandoned. Inventors may be paid royalties when their inventions are produced and marketed. Authors may get royalties when books they have written are sold. Land owners leasing their property to an oil or mining company may receive royalties based on the amount of oil or minerals extracted from their land. Royalties are set in advance as a percentage of income arising from the commercialization of the owner’s right to property. 6. Royalty A royalty agreement is part of the contract that the creator of the work negotiates with the business house which seeks to make productive use of the creation. A royalty can be as simple as a fixed amount of money for each copy of a book or compact disc sold by the business. For example, a novelist agrees to let a publisher publish his new book. For granting the publisher the rights to the book, the novelist will receive $ 3 from the publisher for each copy sold. If the novelist is a best-selling author, the publisher may agree to pay a higher royalty rate. Book and music publishers sometimes give an advance against royalties to an author or musician when the contract is signed. For example, the novelist might receive $ 5,000 as an advance payment against his royalties. In this case the publisher will keep the first $ 5,000 of the royalties to cover the cash CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 135 advance. However, if the book fails to produce enough royalties to cover the advance, the publisher would write-off the difference as a loss. Nevertheless, a publisher might sue an author to recover an advance if the author fails to produce a publishable manuscript within the stipulated time. Under the law royalties are considered as personal property. When a person dies, the heirs receive the royalties. For example, when Elvis Presley died, his estate went to his daughter Lisa Marie, who now collects the royalties from the music company that sells her father's recordings. 7. Defamation It is any intentional false communication, either written or spoken, that harms a person’s reputation; decreases the respect, regard, or confidence in which a person is held in the society; or induces disparaging, hostile, or disagreeable opinions or feelings against a person. In law, issuance of false statements about a person that injure his reputation or that deter others from associating with him are also termed as defamation. Libel and slander are the legal subcategories of defamation. Libel is defamation in print, pictures, or any other visual symbols. A libel plaintiff must generally establish that the alleged libel refers to him or her specifically, that it was published to involve others (third parties), and that as a result some injury occurred to him. The US Supreme Court has ruled that public persons (e.g., celebrities or politicians) alleging libel may recover damages only if they prove that the statement in question was made with “actual malice” – i.e., with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard for the truth (New York Times vs. Sullivan, 1964). Slander is defamation by oral communication. A legal action for slander may be brought without alleging and proving special injury if the statement has a plainly harmful character, as by imputing to the plaintiff criminal guilt, serious sexual misconduct, or a characteristic negatively affecting his business or profession. The defense in defamation cases often takes the form of seeking to establish the truth of the statements in question. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
136 Introduction to Sociology - I 8. The Right to Information Act, 2005 It is an act which provides for setting out the practical regime of right to information for citizens to secure access to information under the control of public authorities, in order to promote transparency and accountability in the working of every public authority, the Constitution of a Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It is an empowering tool in the hands of the citizen. Citizens have a right to ask for and get information and access official records. The state cannot always take shelter under the Official Secrets Act and the state must be held accountable to the people. It promotes transparency and reduces corruption by pinning down responsibility on the concerned official who has to furnish the information asked within the stipulated time. With RTI an ordinary citizen has become entitled to seek information which hitherto had been a privilege of MPs and MLAs that too only on the floor of the House. RTI thus ensures better governance and converts purely electoral democracy into a truly participatory democracy in which the elected government becomes accountable to the electorate. 8.6 Summary Social control refers to the way in which society controls the behaviour of its members. There are various ways of controlling human behaviour. One effective way is through social norms. These are the rules which specify do’s and don’ts. P. H. Landis has defined Social Control. It is “a social process by which the individual is made group responsive, and by which social organization is built and maintained”. Social control is an influence which may be exerted through public opinion, social suggestion, and religion, etc. The influence is exercised by society, there are various agencies of social control and the effectiveness of each agency depends largely upon the circumstances. The influence is exercised for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole: Through the ages, the means of social control have been determined from time-to-time by the social ideals cherished at that particular time. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 137 The factors and forces which bring about this conformity are as follows: (i) Indoctrination: We are taught many ‘do’s’ and ‘don’ts’ as we grow up. We gradually imbibe these 'prescriptive' and ‘proscriptive’ norms and values. They become a part of our total being. (ii) Habituation: When we repeat a certain action because it is rewarding, it leads to habit formation. (iii) Utility: The utility of conformity to social norms and values is understood and makes us obedient. (iv) Identification: Identification is a psychological need that makes us norm abiding. (v) Fear of Punishment: Solitary confinement is the worst of all punishments, for it deprives an individual of his freedom and social companionship. We therefore fear being punished and avoid wrong-doing. Non-Conformity to Social Norms and Values 1. Improper Socialization: An individual learns social norms and conformity to norms during the process of socialization. If this socialization is not adequate, then the individual may fail to learn and conform to the norms. 2. Role Conflict: In modern society, every individual is supposed to perform several roles. Sometimes, these roles may conflict with each other. In such a situation, the individual cannot perform both the roles well. This leads to deviation. 3. The Functionalist Perspective: According to the functionalists, deviance is a common part of human existence, having positive (as well as negative) consequences for social stability. (a) Durkheim’s Legacy: In his view, the punishments established within a culture help to define acceptable behaviour and thus contribute to stability of the society. Durkheim introduced the term anomie to describe the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behaviour becomes ineffective. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
138 Introduction to Sociology - I (b) R. Merton’s Theory: Merton classifies the reactions into five different categories as follows: ● Conformists: These are the normal people who aspire for achieving social goals and follow the institutionalized ways to achieve these goals. ● Ritualists: They have abandoned the goal of material success and have become compulsively committed to the institutional means. ● Retreatists: These have basically withdrawn (or retreated) from both the goals and the means of a society. ● Innovators: They accept the goals of society but pursue them with means that are regarded as improper. ● Rebels: They feel alienated from the dominant means and goals and may seek a dramatically different social order. 4. Interactionist Perspective: Some interactionists maintain that people learn criminal behaviour by interacting with others (cultural transmission). To them deviance results from exposure to attitudes which are favourable to criminal acts (differential association). 5. Feminist Perspective: This perspective emphasizes that cultural attitudes and differential economic relationships help to explain gender differences in deviance and crime. A. Informal Agents of Social Control The influence on individuals is exercised by society and it is expressed through customs, traditions and norms. The informal controls differ from group-to-group and society-to-society. Individuals are socialized consciously or unconsciously in a culture of a society. 1. Control through Belief: The belief in supernatural sanctions to conduct has great advantages. It is effective and inexpensive. The belief that the Great Something knows the thoughts and the true intents of an individual, that he approves the types of conduct accepted by the group, and that he punishes with dreadful penalty for those who offend and rewards with blessings to those who conform, becomes a fundamental force of individual motivation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 139 2. Control by Social Suggestion: This generally operates subconsciously because the individual while awake and conscious of his acts does not clearly understand as to from what motives is he performing those actions. Social suggestion operates through ideals conveyed by the written and the spoken word. 3. Control by Religion: Religion is a binding force which lays certain norms and values, which are to be followed by every individual as a member of society. This in turn provides the individual with a sense of peace, brotherhood, harmony, security and well- being. 4. Control by Social Ideals: Social ideals are standards or patterns that set objectives of behaviour to be followed by each individual as member of society. 5. Control by Ceremony, Rites and Rituals: Ceremonies give our most sacred institutions an impressiveness which they do not possess naturally. All these are occasions when it is important for the welfare of the society that each onlooker be most reminded impressively that he has important social duties. Rite and ritual also refers to a ceremony. It introduces temporal regularity and a precision of detail into many of the events that characterize our social life. 6. Control by Means of Art: By means of poetry, painting, sculpture, music and through its various other forms, art has the power to control man through the domination of his feelings. These appeal to the emotions of every individual. Art, moreover, arouses social sympathy and it binds people together by a common feeling. 7. Control by Customs: Our ways of dressing, speaking, eating, worshipping, celebrating festivals, etc., are all controlled by customs. They are conformed most unconsciously. 8. Control by Folkways and Mores: Folkways refer to the ways of the people. Conformity to the folkways is neither required by law nor enforced by any special agency of society. Still we perform many such activities without thinking about them. ‘Mores’ or ‘Morals’ represent another category of norms. When ‘folkways’ act as regulators of behaviour then they become ‘mores’. Mores are considered to be essential for group welfare. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
140 Introduction to Sociology - I 9. Control by Morality: It refers to “that body of rules and principles concerned with good and evil as manifested to us by conscience”. These rules are admitted by the community. 10. Control by Sanctions: Sanctions refer to “the rewards and punishments used to establish social control, that is, to enforce the norms in a society”. Their basic function is to bring about conformity. 11. Control by Fashion: Fashion may be defined as permitted range of variation around a norm. It permits and regulates variety and thereby avoids a dull and deadening uniformity. B. Formal Agents of Social Control: In democratic societies, the goals and mechanisms of formal social control are determined through legislation by elected representatives. These are expressed through rules and regulations conducted by the government and law enforcement organizations. 1. Control through Leadership: Leadership and submission are correlated and are frequently observed in life. Democracy, in emphasizing the importance of a common man, destroys the bonds of the old social control and brings into operation other forces of quite a different character. 2. Control by Education: Education may be defined as a process whereby the social heritage of a group is passed on from one generation to another. It is concerned with just transmission of a way of life. In the present times it is largely devoted to the communication of modern knowledge. Education can be used as a means of social control in teaching people how to arrive at truth, it trains them in the use of their intelligence and thus increases the scope of their control through the sense of reason rather than the feelings, customs and traditions. 3. Control by Force: It has become mandatory for the government to establish certain laws which have punishments attached to them in order to control the most selfish, greedy and the irresponsible individuals. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 141 4. Control through Law and Administration: In the absence of control by customs and tradition, law is the formal method of control by means of which people's lives are regulated, their rights, duties, and privileges defined; the offences against individuals and society determined, and the punishments for violators decided. Other Forms of Social Control: 1. Copyright Copyright exists to encourage the production of original artistic, literary and musical creations; from books and paintings to movies, recordings and software. The copyright system rewards artistic expression by allowing the creator to commercially benefit from his work. 2. Intellectual Property Right It is defined by the World Intellectual Property Organization: Literary, artistic and scientific works, performances or performing artists, phonograms and broadcasts; inventions in all fields of human endeavour; scientific discoveries; industrial designs; trademarks; service marks and commercial names and designations; all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. 3. Censorship Films The objectives of film certification are: The medium of film remains responsible towards values and standards of society. Artistic expression and creative freedom are not unduly curbed. Certification is responsive to social change. The medium of film provides clean and healthy entertainment. The film is of aesthetic value and cinematically of a good standard. Advertising The code for self-regulation in advertising was set-up to control the content of advertisements which may be found offensive by some people, for whatever reasons, and not to hamper the sale of products. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
142 Introduction to Sociology - I 4. Trademark A trademark is a type of intellectual property, and it typically comprises a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. 5. Patent It is a grant made by a government that confers upon the creator of an invention the sole right to make, use, and sell his invention for a set period of time. 6. Royalty A royalty agreement is part of the contract that the creator of the work negotiates with the business house which seeks to make productive use of the creation. 7. Defamation It is any intentional false communication, either written or spoken, that harms a person’s reputation; decreases the respect, regard, or confidence in which a person is held in the society; or induces disparaging, hostile, or disagreeable opinions or feelings against a person. 8. The Right to Information Act, 2005 It is an act which provides for setting out the practical regime of right to information for citizens to secure access to information under the control of public authorities, in order to promote transparency and accountability in the working of every public authority, the Constitution of a Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. 8.7 Key Words Social Control: refers to the way in which society controls the behaviour of its members Belief: an acceptance that something exists or is true Social ideals: are standards or patterns that set objectives of behaviour to be followed by each individual as member of society Folkways: the customs or conventions of daily life Mores: social norms, manners, and trends that are considered very important and necessary, without which a society might collapse. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Social Control 143 Copyright: the exclusive and assignable legal right, given to the originator for a fixed number of years, to print, publish, perform, film, or record literary, artistic, or musical material. Intellectual property right: refers to the legal rights granted with the aim to protect the creations of the intellect Trademark: a symbol, word, or words legally registered or established by use as representing a company or product. Patent: a government authority or licence conferring a right or title for a set period, especially the sole right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention. Royalty: a sum paid to a patentee for the use of a patent or to an author or composer for each copy of a book sold or for each public performance of a work. Defamation: intentional false communication 8.8 Learning Activity 1. Identify and elaborate on the different agents of social control in your life. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Which are the different agents of social control playing an important role in your everyday life. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Why do we conform to norms, values and institutionalized patterns of behaviour? 2. What is social control? Analyze the reasons of non-conformity to social values. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
144 Introduction to Sociology - I 3. Discuss the role of the agents of social control in our life. 4. Social control is exercised for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole. Comment. 5. What is the Intellectual Property Right? 6. Explain Force as an Agent of Social Control. 7. Describe the Functionalist perspective on Non-conformity to norms. 8. Enlist the features of Social Control. 9. How is education an Agent of Social Control? 10. Explain the following agents of social control:- (a) Censorship (b) Royalty (c) RTI (d) Trademark and Patent B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Features of social control (a) Social control is an influence (b) The influence is exercised by society (c) The influence is exercised for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole (d) All of the above 2. Which among the following is an informal method of social control? (a) Customs (b) Coercion (c) Law (d) Education 3. Which among the following is a formal method of social control? (a) Customs (b) Social suggestion (c) Beliefs (d) Education CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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