BAQ109_Introduction to Sociology(English)

Society: Basic Social Concepts 45 2. _________ are those social norms which dictate what is right or wrong. (a) Group (b) Mores (c) Society (d) Order 3. __________ is a complicated web of social relationships. (a) Folkways (b) Society (c) Group (d) Values 4. An Association has a definite _______. (a) Goal (b) Region (c) Flag (d) Poster 5. The members of a Community share common values and ______. (a) Beliefs (b) Age (c) Location (d) Role Ans.: 1. (b), 2. (b), 3. (b), 4. (a), 5. (a). 3.16 References 1. www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756384/obo- 9780199756384-0080.xml 2. www.sociologyguide.com/basic-concepts/Community.php 3. https://cec.vcn.bc.ca/cmp/whatcom.htm 4. www.sociologygroup.com/association-meaning-characteristics/ 5. https://sociology.iresearchnet.com/sociology-of-organizations/oragnization-in-sociology/ 6. www.sociologyguide.com/organization-and-individual/definition.php 7. https://study.com/academy/lesson/folkways-in-sociology-definition-patterns- examples.html CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

46 Introduction to Sociology - I 8. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3ASociology(Boundless)/3 %3ACulture/3.2%3A_The_Symbolic_Nature_of_Culture/3.2J53a_Folkways_and_Mores 9. www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/13-most-important-characteristics-or-elements-of- community/6231 10. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_organization 11. http://sociology.iresearchnet.com/sociology-of-organizaions/organization-in-sociology/ 12. Giddens, Anthony, “Sociology”, 2nd ed.,1999, Polity Press, London. 13. Schaefer, Richard, “Sociology”, 2005, McGraw-Hill. 14. Horton and Hunt, “Sociology”, McGraw-Hill, Kogakusha Ltd. 15. Leslie, Larson, Gorman, “Sociology”, 1998, Oxford University Press. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Society 47 UNIT 4 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIETY Structure: 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Introduction to Society: Meaning and Characteristics 4.3 Theories of Origin of Society- Organic and Social Contract 4.4 Relationship between Individual and Society 4.5 Summary 4.6 Key Words 4.7 Learning Activity 4.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 4.9 References 4.0 Learning Objectives  To understand the meaning of society, its characteristics and theories of its origin.  To gain knowledge about the relationship between individual and society. 4.1 Introduction In sociology, there are various theories and concepts which need to be studied in order to understand man as a member of society. It is the individual as a member of society and his/her interactions and relations with other members which have an impact on him. These affect the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

48 Introduction to Sociology - I individual, and well as affect the other interrelations with other members in society. This chapter, looks into what is society, as well as relationship between individuals and society. 4.2 Introduction to Society: Meaning and Characteristics The term ‘society’ refers to people inhabiting a specific territory and sharing a common way of life. They interact with each other in certain patterned ways on a regular and continuous basis. This social interaction is regulated and facilitated by certain norms of behaviour that are formulated by certain institutions. It is also characterized by a distinct way of life that is referred to as ‘culture’. Definitions  According to Horton and Hunt: ‘Society is a relatively independent, self-perpetuating human group which occupies a territory, shapes a culture and has most of its associations within this group.’  According to Mac Iver and Page: ‘Society is a complicated web of social relationships.’ Characteristics of Society 1. First and foremost, society is characterized by a system of social relationships: A social relationship is one that is bound by mutual awareness and reciprocity. It is based on the fact that human behaviour is oriented towards other people in various ways. For Example – the daughter-in-laws efforts to please her mother-in-law, the employees’ efforts to please the boss, a child’s efforts to win over his teacher’s affection. 2. Society is characterized by both likeness and difference: Social relationships lead to a ‘we feeling’ or a kind of oneness or commonness. Society exists among those who are alike to some degree in body and mind and who are able to sense this uniformity. As Giddings defines society – ‘a number of like-minded individuals, who know and enjoy their like-mindedness and are therefore, able to work together for common ends.’ Society however, cannot function only on likeness. If all people were simply alike, their social relationships would be limited and as such, there would be less give and take, less CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Society 49 reciprocity. Hence, differences also have to exist. In all social systems, differences complement one another in all relationships. Example: Parent-child, husband-wife. In one family for example, there are several grounds of differentiation with respect to sex, economic function, psychology, etc. Hence in society, there is a definite interplay of likeness and difference, of co-operation and conflict, of agreement and dissent – without which, society would find it difficult to function efficiently. 3. In society, the differences are subordinate to the likeness: If we consider a factor like specialization or division of labour in society – our first observation is that there are differences. However, a closer look reveals that division of labour is more for co- operation than it is for division. This is because people have wants and needs that are alike, therefore people associate together in performing different functions to obtain these similar wants. Example – The Indian society consists of various religious groups, races, castes, economic classes, political parties and so on. But all these different sub- groups associate together for the progress of the nation. 4. A man is dependent on society: This ‘dependence of man’ is more important than the sense of uniformity and likeness. Aristotle had stated – ‘Man is a social animal’. By this he meant that man needs society. Man is dependent on other people in society for protection, comfort, nurture, education, equipment, opportunities and countless other services. Thus, ostracism or being outcaste from society is one of the worst punishments for man as it deprives him of his most fundamental need. 5. Society is not static, it is dynamic: Changeability is an inherent quality of human society. New associations, institutions and groups may come into being and old ones may die a natural death. 6. Social control: Society has its own ways and means of controlling the behaviour of its members. No doubt cooperation exists in society, but, side by side, competitions, conflicts, revolts are also prevalent. However if these are left unattended, they may damage the fabric of society. Hence they have to be controlled. Society has various formal and informal means of social control. Example: Customs, traditions, etc., are informal means of social control and law, legislation, etc., are the formal means of social control. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

50 Introduction to Sociology - I 7. Culture: Every society is unique because it has its own way of life called culture. It includes our attitudes, judgements, morals, values, beliefs, ideas and our institutions: political, legal, economic; our sciences and philosophies. 8. Finally, society can be classified into varied types: There have been several attempts to classify societies. The 19th century sociologists made a sharp distinction between Simple and Complex societies. A Simple society refers to a relatively smaller, primitive; non-literate economically backward and undifferentiated type of society. A Complex society, on the other hand refers to a modern, industrialized, educationally and economically advanced and differentiated society. A more recent type of classification is done between open and closed societies – the closed society can be illustrated by a traditional, simple society, which resists change, whereas an open society is one, which admits changes in its institutions especially through free criticism. 4.3 Theories of Origin of Society- Organic and Social Contract There are theories regarding the origin of society. One such theory is the Organic theory. This theory views society as a living organism. In the manner, the human body is dependent upon its different organs, and is unable to exist apart from its parts or organs, society is the same. Even human society is unable to exist without individuals. And the individuals are incomplete without society. In the way, we are unable to imagine a human being, without its body parts, similarly, the concept of society, without individuals, will not hold meaning. Moreover, even individuals are not independent of society. One of the advocates of this theory was Herbert Spencer. The social nature of man is pointed out by this theory. Man is a social animal and requires the company of others. This theory is an outgrowth of other theories regarding the relations between society and individuals. The Organic theory also puts forward that individuals in society depend on each other and that they wish to live by mutual contact with others. Society and individuals are also interdependent and inseparable. This theory puts forward a natural view of society by means of organic relations. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Society 51 The Organic theory has been criticized as not being satisfactory because the organs of a human body cease to exist at death of an individual. But society does not stop existing even when individual members die. It still continues to function. Social Contract theory is another theory in relation to origin of society. This theory views society as an artificial phenomenon. Social contract theory tries to explain the relation between individuals and society. It puts forward that initially people lived independently. They did not have reciprocal relations. They assumed that they were self-sufficient enough. Gradually, over a period of time, they started to get into contact with others and this led to a formation of a society. Society was formed on the basis of personal advantage. Hence, it is believed that emergence of society happens to be a mechanical process in which individuals came together. The main advocates of this theory are Thomas Hobbes, Rousseau and John Locke. All of them, had their own views to explain this theory. Social contract theory has been criticised as not being satisfactory, as it is not based on historical fact or any logical truth. It has also been criticised as an attempt to give justification to the relations between society and individuals. 4.4 Relationship between Individual and Society There are four categories under which contemporary sociological theory classifies the relationship between individuals and society. These are- (i) Nominalism (ii) Interactionism (iii) Neo-nominalism (iv) Realism (i) Nominalism is a theory: It sees individuals as the only reality. Other concepts like culture, society, values and group are not considered helpful for studying human behaviour. It is only human behaviour which can be explained and is very helpful. This CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

52 Introduction to Sociology - I theory is similar to Social Contract theory, wherein, society is seen as an artificial phenomenon. (ii) Interactionism: It puts forward that we cannot discuss individuals or society, independently. They both interact with each other. This helps to meaningfully discuss the relation between them. Individuals and society are inseparable and interconnected. The Organic theory of society holds similarity with this concept, as both look at society as being interconnected to its parts-individuals, like the human body and its organs are interconnected. (iii) Neo-nominalism: It accepts the existence of a group as an objective reality. It also considers individuals as fundamental units. It proposes that it is persons and processes, which make up society. Individual phenomenon can be used to explain social phenomena. This concept also puts across that it is society, which is made up of persons, cannot be termed as an artificial appearance. It is similar to Group mind theory. (iv) Realism: It upholds that individual and group are both real. Both are abstract entities by nature and not concrete. Additionally, it also puts across that groups are understandable as well as explicable. This is in terms of social factors and processes, but not in reference to behaviour of individuals. There are various thinkers who look at the relationship between society and individuals from different perspectives. Emile Durkheim says that social processes are independent of human will, and so, social phenomena cannot be reduced to individual phenomena. It is the combination of individual consciousness in a particular manner which leads to the emergence of social life. There exists a tendency to explain social life on the basis of psychological factors, but this is not correct. Collective life is not derived from individual life. Individuals cannot explain collective, but it aids an explanation. In contrast, there are views of George Homans, that sociology can be derived from psychology, and that the social processes, can be brought down to laws from behavioural psychology. There is another group of thinkers like Znaniecki and Charles Horton Cooley, for whom, the society and individuals are two sides of the same reality. Individuals are neither products of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Society 53 their milieu, nor do they produce their own milieu, but we can say both. White, another thinker, has suggested that individuals are the only genuine reality. Man is much more than a psychological animal due to being a product of culture. Even society is not simply a collection of individuals, in fact, it is an entity. So, social phenomena cannot be reduced to psychological phenomena, or vice versa in relation to society and individuals. 4.5 Summary The term ‘society’ refers to people inhabiting a specific territory and sharing a common way of life. They interact with each other in certain patterned ways on a regular and continuous basis. This social interaction is regulated and facilitated by certain norms of behaviour that are formulated by certain institutions. It is also characterized by a distinct way of life that is referred to as ‘culture’. Characteristics of Society: 1. First and foremost, society is characterized by a system of social relationships 2. Society is characterized by both likeness and difference 3. In society, the differences are subordinate to the likeness 4. A man is dependent on society 5. Society is not static, it is dynamic 6. Social control 7. Culture 8. Finally, society can be classified into varied types Theories of Origin of Society- Organic and Social Contract There are theories regarding the origin of society. One such theory is the Organic theory. This theory views society as a living organism. In the manner, the human body is dependent upon its different organs, and is unable to exist apart from its parts or organs, society is the same. Even human society is unable to exist without individuals. And the individuals are incomplete without society. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

54 Introduction to Sociology - I Social Contract theory is another theory in relation to origin of society. This theory views society as an artificial phenomenon. Social contract theory tries to explain the relation between individuals and society. It puts forward that initially people lived independently. They did not have reciprocal relations. Gradually, over a period of time, they started to get into contact with others, and this led to a formation of a society. Society was formed on the basis of personal advantage. Relationship between Individual and Society There are four categories, under which contemporary sociological theory, classifies the relationship between individuals and society. These are- (i) Nominalism (ii) Interactionism (iii) Neo-nominalism (iv) Realism (i) Nominalism is a theory. It sees individuals as the only reality. Other concepts, like culture, society, values and group are not considered helpful for studying human behaviour. (ii) Interactionism puts forward that we cannot discuss individuals or society, independently. They both interact with each other. This helps to meaningfully discuss the relation between them. (iii) Neo-nominalism accepts the existence of a group as an objective reality. It also considers individuals as fundamental units. It proposes that it is persons and processes, which make up society. (iv) Realism upholds that individual and group, are both real. Both are abstract entities by nature, and not concrete. There are various thinkers, who look at the relationship between society and individuals, from different perspectives. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Society 55 Man is much more than a psychological animal, due to being a product of culture. Even society is not simply a collection of individuals, in fact, it is an entity. So, social phenomena cannot be reduced to psychological phenomena, or vice versa in relation to society and individuals. 4.6 Key Words  Social relationships: total of all social interactions  Dynamic: characterized by constant change  Nominalism: theory that individuals are the only reality  Interactionism: how individuals shape society and are in turn shaped by society through meaning in interactions  Neo-nominalism: group is seen as objective reality  Realism: both individuals and groups are real 4.7 Learning Activity 1. Write down how you are connected to your society, and how strong the social bonds are? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Describe yourself as an individual in a society. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Discuss the concept of society, focus on its meaning and characteristics. 2. Explain the Organic theory of society. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

56 Introduction to Sociology - I 3. Elaborate on the Social Contract theory of society. 4. Write a note on the relationship between Individual and Society. 5. Concept of society 6. Organic theory 7. Social Contract theory B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. The term _________ refers to people inhabiting a specific territory and sharing a common way of life. (a) Political party (b) Society (c) Culture (d) Economy 2. Society is characterized by both likeness and __________. (a) Goal (b) Group (c) Difference (d) Theory 3. Organic theory views society as a living __________. (a) Association (b) Control (c) Static (d) Organism 4. Social Contract theory, views society as an ________ phenomenon. (a) Artificial (b) Dynamic (c) Organic (d) Theory 5. Man is much more than a __________ animal, due to being a product of culture. (a) Economic (b) Political (c) Psychological (d) Historical Ans.: 1. (b), 2. (c), 3. (d), 4. (a), 5. (c). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Society 57 4.9 References 1. Giddens, Anthony, “Sociology”, 2nd ed.,1999, Polity Press, London. 2. Schaefer, Richard, “Sociology”, 2005, McGraw-Hill. 3. Horton and Hunt, “Sociology”, McGraw-Hill, Kogakusha Ltd. 4. Leslie, Larson, Gorman, “Sociology”, 1998, Oxford University Press. 5. www.kkhsou.in/main/philosophy/individual_society.html CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

58 Introduction to Sociology - I UNIT 5 SOCIAL GROUP Structure: 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Characteristics of Social Groups 5.3 Importance of Social Groups 5.4 Need for Social Groups 5.5 Important Classifications 5.6 Summary 5.7 Key Words 5.8 Learning Activity 5.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 5.10 References 5.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the definition of Social Group.  Elaborate the characteristics of Social Group.  Analyse the importance of Social Groups.  Describe the need for Social Groups.  Illustrate the important Classifications. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 59 5.1 Introduction Meaning and Definition Every person usually begins the day as a participating member of a social group – generally a family group. During course of the day, he meets different types of persons, members of a variety of groups and is engaged in giving and receiving stimuli. The members of groups laugh, get angry, feel sad together or disagree and have interesting discussions. In such interactions, not only does an exchange of experiences occur, but each individual undergoes some change in personality. Thus, every day is composed of experiences – dull, interesting or exciting. Each experience affects the personalities involved in different ways. Groups are amongst the most stable and enduring of social units. They are important both to their members in particular and to the society at large. Groups form the foundation upon which society rests through encouraging such regular and predictable behaviour. It exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than just a simple collection of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus-stop, or people waiting in a queue. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background and kinship ties. Paul Hare regards the defining characteristic of a group as social interaction. The members of a group have “regular interaction” and they have a common identity, rules, structure, etc. According to Horton and Hunt, a group is “any number of persons who share a consciousness of membership and of interaction”. Example: Two persons waiting for a bus would not be a group but become one when they start a conversation, a fight or any other kind of interaction. Social groups are defined as consisting of two or more persons who interact in patterned ways, share beliefs, values and goals, and have a sense of membership. They consist of persons whose relationships depend upon a set of inter-related roles and statuses. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

60 Introduction to Sociology - I Features of Social Groups According to social scientists, two or more people make up a group when five things are true: (i) First, individuals in a group interact. The behaviour of each member of a group affects the behaviour of the other members. (ii) The members of a group depend on each other for the fulfillment of their primary and secondary needs. They are interdependent. (iii) Members of a group share common goals or interests. Groups always originate, start and proceed with common interests. (iv) They share meanings. In other words, each member understands the rules of the group and knows how to behave. (v) The members of a group develop a strong sense of ‘we feeling’ and ‘consciousness of kind’. It is a psychological awareness of belonging to one another and is a proof of their being social. 5.2 Characteristics of Social Groups (a) Collection of individuals: Social group consists of people. Without individuals there can be no social group. Just as we cannot have a college or university without students and teachers, we cannot have a group in the absence of people. (b) Interaction among members: Social interaction is the fundamental basis of group life. Hence, mere collection of individuals does not make a group. The members must have some interaction. The limits of social groups are marked by the limits of social interaction among its members. (c) Mutual awareness: Group life involves mutual awareness. Group members are aware of one another and their individual behaviour is determined by this mutual recognition. This may be due to “consciousness of kind”. (d) We-feeling: It refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify themselves with the group. It represents group unity. We-feeling creates group sympathy and fosters co-operation among members. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 61 (e) Group unity and solidarity: Group members are tied by a sense of unity. The solidarity or integration of a group largely depends upon the frequency, the variety and the emotional quality of the interactions among its members. (f) Common interests: The interests and ideals of each group are common. In fact, people not only join groups but also form groups for realization of their specific objectives or interests. Form of the group differs depending upon the common interests of the group. Example: There are political groups, religious groups, economic groups, etc. (g) Shared mission: Out of the common interest arise shared expectations. The group members’ work together to complete tasks and accomplish the goals set forth by the group for the benefit of members, people outside of the group or both. The collaborative efforts of a social group are at the core of its identity and existence. Teamwork has to occur to guarantee success of the shared mission. Without collaboration, the group ceases to uphold and represent its values. (h) Group norms: Every group has its own rules and norms which the members are supposed to follow. These norms may be in the form of customs, folkways, mores, traditions, laws, etc., there may be written or unwritten norms or standards. (i) Similar behaviour: The members of group behave in more or less similar ways for the pursuit of common interests. Social groups represent collective behaviour. (j) Size of the group: It may be small as that of two-member group of husband and wife or as big as a political party having lakh of members. Size has its own impact on the character of the group. (k) Groups are dynamic: They are not static but dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow or rapid. (l) Leadership: The ability to direct members in an effective way is essential for a social group. (m) Sense of order: A group worthy of flourishing is a group which has concrete infrastructure. Having order within the inner workings of the group as well on the surface is essential at the core of its existence and survival. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

62 Introduction to Sociology - I (n) Significance of identity: A social group must have a face that exhibits its true purpose. Having a strong identity sets the group apart from other groups. 5.3 Importance of Social Groups Social groups play an important role in daily life: (a) Belonging: Social groups are needed for survival of all individuals. They fulfil the basic psychological needs of survival and belonging. Feeling needed and wanted, psychologically motivates a person to stride forward and stay mentally healthy. An example of belonging is found in Maslow’s pyramid of psychological hierarchy of needs. (b) Friendship: Friends make a social group. A social group is not always made-up of friends, however, friendships may form within a group. Spending a lot of time with people builds relationships. (c) Communication: Communicating promotes well-being. Social groups are a form of communication amongst friends or peers. Communication plays an essential and vital role in life. Communication has many forms and is used in one form or another on a daily basis. It is not mentally healthy to be alone all the time as it often leads to inverted personality traits and depression. (d) Family: Social groups do not just consist of friends. Families are also a form of social groups. Families play a vital role by teaching all family members acceptable behaviour and beliefs to live by. (e) Support: Social groups take many forms. For all individuals they act as a great support system when needed. Groups can identify and unify to help solve every member’s problems or anguish. Example: Any addiction rehabilitation programme. (f) Society: Society has many social groups in co-existence and they exist for many reasons. Example: Protesters unite to express personal beliefs towards an opposing group or force. The purpose of the protest is to accomplish a unified goal. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 63 5.4 Need for Social Groups The social groups are the basic components of society. They in their very nature represent sociality or the sociability of man and therefore are the reflection of the very nature of what we understand about ‘society’. (a) Socialization of Newcomers: In a very simple sense, social groups serve as social factories where an individual or individuality is designed and manufactured according to the established cultural demands of a given society. The social process through which this objective is accomplished is known as socialization. It begins in the family group and extends to the neighbourhood, kinsman, schools, etc. (b) Social Control through Social Groups: To a great extent, social control is exerted mainly through social groups. (i) An important aspect of social control is how individuals are socialized within a given society. The acquisition of a reasonably good personality is highly conducive to ensure social conformity which is the soul of social order and hence objective of social control. (ii) Social action or interaction which constitutes the individuals' social behaviour is the practical manifestation of the true spirit of group culture which includes its patterns, norms, values, ideas, beliefs, etc. This type of group culture develops a concept of rewards and punishments in each individual. The fear and love of parents as well as teachers, serves as a strong social sanction behind bringing individual behaviour, in line with the expectations of the culture. Thus, it is the group that defines realities to the individual and the group. Definition of these social realities becomes instrumental in ensuring social control. (c) Preservation and Transmission of Culture through Social Groups: Social groups are the source of preservation and transmission of the culture of a particular society. They inherit it from their forefathers and internalize it. The groups then transmit it with love and affection, in an accumulated form to the succeeding generations through the process of socialization. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

64 Introduction to Sociology - I (d) Social Groups are the Sources of Psychological Security: With all his qualities of being a social and biological being, the individual is a ‘psychological entity’. He is an abode of the feelings of sorrow and happiness. In both the psychological cases, he needs to be either enclosed or appreciated by his nearest and dearest ones. In case of his failure to receive these responses, he may become prone to psychological disorders which in every probability bring the individual closer to deviant and abnormal behaviour. Thus, it is in their respective group, that each individual feels emotionally secure and psychologically satisfied. 5.5 Important Classifications  Charles H. Cooley’s classification of groups into primary and secondary is widely accepted. Primary Group He defined primary groups as “…those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation”. The essential attributes of the primary group are “intimate face-to-face association”, the “we-feeling or sense of belonging together”. Cooley called it the nursery of human nature. Familiar primary groups include families and children’s play groups. Close friendship groups are also primary. Generally, primary relationships arouse strong emotional responses in people. The members of a primary group provide each other with love and affection, however at the same time are also capable of deeply hurting one another. Primary groups exert a strong influence upon the development of the human personality. Within his family and his play groups, the individual learns most of the habits, attitudes and beliefs which he carries through life. Thus, they are largely responsible for making the type of person an individual ultimately becomes. Primary groups help to transform the human infant so utterly dependent at birth, into a capable, functioning member of society. Through his early group contacts the child is gradually introduced to the demands of social living. He learns what the group expects of him – which CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 65 forms of behaviour are acceptable and unacceptable. Thus, by the time he reaches maturity, he is generally capable of taking his place in the adult world. In a primary group, the sense of group identity and loyalty is strong, involving each person deeply and resting upon the “mutual identification” of members with one another. It tends to be more informal and spontaneous group in which the members come together by choice and share common interests. A member may do anything; even sacrifice his own comforts and life for the well-being of his group. Secondary Group A secondary group tends to be large, formal and impersonal. The interaction between the members is indirect, official and contractual, at times even with a degree of indifference and lack of involvement. Secondary groups have become predominant in our own modern society, as we need to be trained and qualified for various specialized tasks or occupations to earn a good living. Secondary groups are those groups which the person encounters as he begins to widen the range of his experience. Unlike primary relationships, secondary relationships do not demand total involvement of the human personality. Rather, the parties to such relationships exhibit only a part of their personalities to one another. Example: Between an employer and employee, there is no need for total involvement. While primary groups tend to be small, there is virtually no limit to the size of secondary groups. This is possible because intimate ties do not have to be established among all the members. Secondary groups do not exert the same influence upon the human personality as do primary groups. Secondary contacts rarely alter the basic structure of an individual’s personality; however they often do help to modify certain personality traits. They do so by testing the individual, by subjecting his ingrained habits, attitudes and beliefs in the light of objective examination. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

66 Introduction to Sociology - I Secondary groups serve as the media through which human beings together can perform a number of activities which they would not be able to do by working solely through primary groups. They thus permit a much higher degree of organizational complexity as compared to primary groups. Though the secondary groups may be very predominant and indispensable yet they can never displace the intimate primary groups which cater to the emotional, social and physical needs of the members. Other Classifications (i) Ferdinand Tonnies divides groups into ‘Gemeinschaft’ and ‘Gesellschaft’:  Gemeinschaft societies have the following characteristics: (a) They are usually small in size. (b) They tend to have simple division of labour and role specialization. (c) Family is the basic unit in such societies and the societies and the social organization revolve around the kinship groups – clans and tribes. (d) Social relationship is of primary nature – durable, personal and emotional. (e) Individual and group behaviour are more influenced by customs and traditions. (f) These societies lack social differentiation and are more homogeneous.  Gesellschaft societies display characteristics which are just opposite of those mentioned above: (a) They are usually large in size. (b) There exists complex division of labour and extensive specialization of functions. (c) The family’s position as the essential social unit is affected by other social institutions and social groups. Kinship groups lose their importance. (d) Social relations are of secondary nature – transient, impersonal and unemotional. (e) Formal rules and regulations as well as codified laws regulate human behaviour. (f) Society is heterogeneous and multi-group, thus unity diminishes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 67 (ii) Sumner has Classified groups into: In-group and Out-group: In-groups are those to which we belong, we identify with and refer to the members as ‘we’. There are other groups to which we do not belong. Other families, cliques, occupations, races, nationalities, religions are ‘out- groups’ for those who are outside them. When groups have a sense of themselves as “us”, there will be a complementary sense of other groups as “them”. The distinction is commonly characterized as in-groups versus out- groups. The concept was originally elaborated by the early sociological theorist W.I. Thomas. The emotional charge attached to in-groups and out-groups can be dramatic and has been the focus of much research, ranging from work on families and gangs to the sociology of racism and nationalism. Generally, people are prone to regard out-group persons with suspicion, whereas in- group members are favoured with liking and trust. We perceive people in our in-group positively and those in out-groups negatively. What we disapprove in an out-group individual, we ascribe to a flaw in their group. What we approve of in the same person, we ascribe to luck or some special circumstances. Rather than giving up our prejudices about out-groups, we are more likely to invent explanations for non-stereotype behaviour which preserve our original bias. (iii) Reference Groups There are groups, which are important to us as models even though we ourselves may not be a part of the group. Reference groups serve as the sources of self-evaluation. Individuals identify with them psychologically. A reference group is any group to which we ‘refer’ when making judgements, any group whose value judgements become our value-judgements. Lower-class people, for instance, may aspire to achieve middle-class status, whereas middle-class people may envy those who are richer, live and travel in comfort and have all ‘good things’. Thus, groups higher up in the social scale become ‘reference groups’ for those ‘below’. (iv) Community and Association:  Community: The term ‘community’ means sharing the basic conditions of a common life. It is a group of people living near one another in order to satisfy most of their daily needs. The community is a self-conscious social unit and a focus of group identification. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

68 Introduction to Sociology - I Regardless of their size and location, all communities perform certain necessary social functions. Example: Marketplace where the inhabitant can engage in trade. However, communities are much more than just economic centres. They also serve as centres for political, recreational, religious, and other activities. According to Mac Iver and Page, community is defined as “the members of any group, small or large, living together in such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest, but the basic conditions of a common life”. A community is often characterized:  A common locality  Community sentiment  Association: on, the other hand, is a group organized expressly for the purpose of pursuing certain interests. Associations are groups of people who have come together to achieve some specific goal or goals. Associations are also characterized by organized rules of procedures and a formal system of leadership. Due to the limited involvement of their members, relationships usually are impersonal. Since they are organized to fulfil a specific purpose, associations tend to be structured along rather formal lines. Each member of an association has a fairly well-defined role to play in fulfilling his obligation to the entire group. Associations are by no means limited to highly complex, modern societies; on the contrary, they also can be found in primitive villages. Example: Among the Indians who once inhabited the south–western United States, associations existed in the form of secret societies which only men were permitted to join. These societies gathered to perform important religious rituals. An individual can belong to only one community, whereas he may choose to become a member of different associations though in different capacities. Example: Clubs, Gyms, Lions, Club, etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 69 (v) Formal and Informal groups: Groups may be formal. Such groups are organized and follow customary patterns of procedure. They possess distinctive culture patterns and established usages or rules that must not be broken. They have stability, length of life and definite structure. However, they impinge upon some of the desires of the members and inhibit personalities in some particulars while giving them freedom in other directions. Example: Workplace, educational institutions like school, college and university. Characteristics (a) A specific function: Formal groups have their own specific functions. Example: University has the main function of promoting education but it may also promote the specific artistic, literary, athletic and other interests of its members. (b) Norms: They have their own norms or rules of social behaviour. They also lay down procedures to be followed by its members. Example: Managers, clerks, teachers, etc., observe norms in their interaction. (c) Status and division of labour: Members of a group have different statuses. Example: A bank may have manager, a public relations officer, a cashier, etc., which determine one’s social relations with other members. Such division of labour is a typical characteristic of all groups and it greatly contributes to the efficiency of the group. Division of labour leads to specialization. Example: A hospital may consist of different specialists, all working together. (d) Authority: The formal group creates authority. Authority is one of the most significant criterion of a formal group. (e) Bureaucracy: It refers to the administrative aspect of the formal group, i.e., arrangement of the group designed to carry out its day-to-day business. (f) Relative permanence: The formal groups are relatively permanent. Some groups last for longer time while others perish within a short period of time. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

70 Introduction to Sociology - I (g) Tests of membership: All groups require certain qualification. Membership in a group is almost always an achieved status, seldom nearly an ascribed status. Groups may be informal. In such groups, relationships are neither governed by any written constitution, nor is there a president. On the other hand, they have come to understand each other’s ways of doing, feeling and thinking, and to govern their actions accordingly. Example: A group of three or more intimate friends. Informal groups may be long-lived or short-lived. The first is illustrated by intimate friends, but the second refers to any casual coming together of persons anywhere, provided that some interaction occurs between them. Example: Groups such as ‘gangs’, ‘cliques’, ‘friendship groups’, ‘peer groups’ etc. represent the informal groups. People are not only the members of formal groups but also are connected with informal groups. Example: Members of formal groups like banks, colleges, universities, hospitals, etc., are likely to develop informal relations among themselves. Their tastes, interests and attitudes may also be more or less similar. These informal groups may also be formed on the basis of ethnicity, religion, caste or language. 5.6 Summary Groups are amongst the most stable and enduring of social units. They are important both to their members in particular and to the society at large. Groups form the foundation upon which society rests through encouraging such regular and predictable behaviour. According to Horton and Hunt, a group is “any number of persons who share a consciousness of membership and of interaction”. According to social scientists, two or more people make up a group when five things are true: (i) First, individuals in a group interact. (ii) The members of a group depend on each other for the fulfilment of their primary and secondary needs. . CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 71 (iii) Members of a group share common goals or interests. (iv) They share meanings. (v) The members of a group develop a strong sense of ‘we feeling’ and ‘consciousness of kind’. Characteristics of Social Groups Social group consists of people. Social interaction is the fundamental basis of group life. Hence, mere collection of individuals does not make a group. The members must have some interaction. Group life involves mutual awareness. There is a we-feeling with the group. Group members are tied by a sense of unity. The interests and ideals of each group are common. The members have a shared mission. Every group has its own rules and norms which the members are supposed to follow. The members of group behave in more or less similar ways for the pursuit of common interests. Social groups represent collective behaviour. It may be small as that of two- member group of husband and wife or as big as a political party having lakh of members. Size has its own impact on the character of the group. Groups are dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow or rapid. Social groups may be characterized by the presence of a leader. A group worthy of flourishing is a group which has concrete infrastructure. A social group must have a face that exhibits its true purpose. Having a strong identity sets the group apart from other groups. Social groups play an important role in daily life Social groups are needed for survival of all individuals. They fulfil the basic psychological needs of survival and belonging. Friends make a social group. A social group is not always made- up of friends, however, friendships may form within a group. Spending a lot of time with people builds relationships. Communicating promotes well-being. Social groups are a form of communication amongst friends or peers. Communication plays an essential and vital role in life. Social groups do not just consist of friends. Families are also a form of social groups. Social groups take many forms. For all individuals they act as a great support system when needed. Society has many social groups in co-existence and they exist for many reasons. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

72 Introduction to Sociology - I Need for Social Groups The social groups are the basic components of society. They in their very nature represent sociality or the sociability of man and therefore are the reflection of the very nature of what we understand about ‘society’. Social groups serve as social factories where an individual or individuality is designed and manufactured according to the established cultural demands of a given society. To a great extent, social control is exerted mainly through social groups. Social groups are the source of preservation and transmission of the culture of a particular society. Social Groups are the Sources of Psychological Security. Classifications: Charles H. Cooley’s classification of groups into primary and secondary is widely accepted. He defined primary groups as “…those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation”. The essential attributes of the primary group are “intimate face-to-face association”, the “we-feeling or sense of belonging together”. Primary groups help to transform the human infant so utterly dependent at birth, into a capable, functioning member of society. Through his early group contacts the child is gradually introduced to the demands of social living. In a primary group, the sense of group identity and loyalty is strong, involving each person deeply and resting upon the “mutual identification” of members with one another. It tends to be more informal and spontaneous group in which the members come together by choice and share common interests. A secondary group tends to be large, formal and impersonal. The interaction between the members is indirect, official and contractual, at times even with a degree of indifference and lack of involvement. Secondary groups are those groups which the person encounters as he begins to widen the range of his experience. Unlike primary relationships, secondary relationships do not demand total involvement of the human personality. Rather, the parties to such relationships exhibit only a part of their personalities to one another. While primary groups tend to be small, there is virtually no limit to the size of secondary groups. This is possible because intimate ties do not have to be established among all the members. Secondary contacts rarely alter the basic CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 73 structure of an individual’s personality; however they often do help to modify certain personality traits. They do so by testing the individual, by subjecting his ingrained habits, attitudes and beliefs in the light of objective examination. Secondary groups serve as the media through which human beings together can perform a number of activities which they would not be able to do by working solely through primary groups. They thus permit a much higher degree of organizational complexity as compared to primary groups. Other Classifications Ferdinand Tonnies divides groups into 'Gemeinschaft' and ‘Gesellschaft’:  Gemeinschaft societies have the following characteristics: They are usually small in size. They tend to have simple division of labour and role specialization. Family is the basic unit in such societies. Social relationship is of primary nature – durable, personal and emotional. Individual and group behaviour are more influenced by customs and traditions. These societies lack social differentiation and are more homogeneous.  Gesellschaft societies display characteristics which are just opposite of those mentioned above. They are usually large in size. There exists complex division of labour and extensive specialization of functions. The family’s position as the essential social unit is affected by other social institutions and social groups. Kinship groups lose their importance. Social relations are of secondary nature – transient, impersonal and unemotional. Formal rules and regulations as well as codified laws regulate human behaviour. Society is heterogeneous and multigroup, thus unity diminishes. Sumner has Classified groups into In-group and Out-group: In-groups are those to which we belong, we identify with and refer to the members as ‘we’. There are other groups to which we do not belong. Other families, cliques, occupations, races, nationalities, religions are ‘out- groups’ for those who are outside them. Reference Groups - There are groups, which are important to us as models even though we ourselves may not be a part of the group. Reference groups serve as the sources of self-evaluation. Community and Association:  Community: The term ‘community’ means sharing the basic conditions of a common life. It is a group of people living near one another in order to satisfy most of their daily needs. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

74 Introduction to Sociology - I The community is a self-conscious social unit and a focus of group identification. Regardless of their size and location, all communities perform certain necessary social functions.  Association: on, the other hand, is a group organized expressly for the purpose of pursuing certain interests. Associations are groups of people who have come together to achieve some specific goal or goals. Associations are also characterized by organized rules of procedures and a formal system of leadership. Due to the limited involvement of their members, relationships usually are impersonal. Since they are organized to fulfil a specific purpose, associations tend to be structured along rather formal lines. Each member of an association has a fairly well-defined role to play in fulfilling his obligation to the entire group. Formal and Informal groups: Groups may be formal. Such groups are organized and follow customary patterns of procedure. They possess distinctive culture patterns and established usages or rules that must not be broken. They have stability, length of life and definite structure. However, they impinge upon some of the desires of the members and inhibit personalities in some particulars while giving them freedom in other directions. Groups may be informal. In such groups, relationships are neither governed by any written constitution, nor is there a president. On the other hand, they have come to understand each other’s ways of doing, feeling and thinking, and to govern their actions accordingly. Example: A group of three or more intimate friends. Informal groups may be long-lived or short-lived. The first is illustrated by intimate friends, but the second refers to any casual coming together of persons anywhere, provided that some interaction occurs between them. 5.7 Key Words  Social Group: two or more persons who interact in patterned ways, share beliefs, values and goals, and have a sense of membership  Primary group: intimate face-to-face association CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 75  Secondary group: tends to be large, formal and impersonal  Gemeinschaft: homogeneous , small in size and tend to have simple division of labour and role specialization  Gesellschaft: heterogeneous, large in size , complex division of labour and extensive specialization of functions  In-group: those groups to which we belong, we identify with and refer to the members as ‘we’  Out-group: these are other groups to which we do not belong  Reference group: a group that we compare ourselves to for the purpose of evaluating our behaviours  Community: group of people living near one another in order to satisfy most of their daily needs  Association: a group organized expressly for the purpose of pursuing certain interests  Formal groups: are organized and follow customary patterns of procedure  Informal groups: emerge naturally due to the response and common interests of the members of an organization 5.8 Learning Activity 1. Make a note of the different social groups that you are a part of in society. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Identify and explain their characteristics. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

76 Introduction to Sociology - I 5.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. What are social groups? Write the features and need for social groups. 2. Enumerate the characteristics of social groups. 3. Social groups play an important role in society. Discuss. 4. Functions of Primary group and Secondary group. 5. Write short note on classification of groups. 6. Give Difference between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft 7. Give Difference between Community and Association 8. Give Difference between Formal and Informal groups B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Group characterized by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation. (a) Social (b) Primary (c) Secondary (d) Special 2. Emotional warmth and spontaneity exist in _______________ group. (a) Social (b) Primary (c) Secondary (d) Special 3. Group tends to be large, formal and impersonal. (a) Social (b) Primary (c) Secondary (d) Special 4. These tend to have simple division of labour and role specialization. (a) Gemeinschaft (b) Gesellschaft (c) Both of the above (d) None of the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Group 77 5. These tend to have formal rules and regulations as well as codified laws that regulate human behaviour. (a) Gemeinschaft (b) Gesellschaft (c) Both of the above (d) None of the above 6. Those groups to which we belong, we identify with and refer to the members as ‘we’. (a) Social (b) Special (c) In-groups (d) None of the above 7. Groups that serve as sources of self-evaluation. (a) Social (b) Reference (c) In-groups (d) None of the above 8. Group sharing the basic conditions of a common life. (a) Community (b) Social (c) Association (d) None of the above 9. A group organized expressly for the purpose of pursuing certain interests. (a) Community (b) Social (c) Association (d) None of the above 10. Such groups are organized and follow customary patterns of procedure. (a) Informal (b) Personal (c) Formal (d) None of the above Ans.: 1. (b), 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (a), 5. (b), 6. (c), 7. (b), 8. (a), 9. (c), 10. (c). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

78 Introduction to Sociology - I 5.10 References 1. Giddens, Anthony, “Sociology”, 2nd ed.,1999, Polity Press, London. 2. Schaefer, Richard, “Sociology”, 2005, McGraw-Hill. 3. Horton and Hunt, “Sociology”, McGraw-Hill, Kogakusha Ltd. 4. Leslie, Larson, Gorman, “Sociology”, 1998, Oxford University Press. 5. Bogardus E.S.: “Sociology”, 1950, The Macmillan Company. 6. Andersen & Taylor: Sociology, 2002, Wadsworth, Thomson Learning. 7. Dominick Joseph R.: “Dynamics of Mass Communication” 2009– Media in the Digital Age, McGraw-Hill, . 8. Sharma R.N.: “Principles of Sociology” 1968, Asia Publishing House. 9. www.wikipedia.com 10. www.sociologyguide.com CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Culture 79 UNIT 6 CULTURE Structure: 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Culture: Meaning and Characteristics 6.3 Cultural Diffusion, Acculturation and Assimilation 6.4 Cultural Pluralism 6.5 Dimensions of Culture 6.6 Cultural Lag (Ogburn): Material and Non-Material Culture 6.7 Culture and Civilization 6.8 Cultural Invasion 6.9 Summary 6.10 Key Words 6.11 Learning Activity 6.12 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 6.13 References 6.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Comprehend the meaning of Culture and its characteristics.  Gain understanding of Cultural Diffusion, Acculturation and Assimilation, Cultural Pluralism, Dimensions of Culture.  Know more about Cultural Lag, Culture and Civilization and Cultural Invasion. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

80 Introduction to Sociology - I 6.1 Introduction Study on culture is essential to the understanding of society. There are many concepts related to culture. It is culture which enables a man to lead a proper life as a member of society. It is a heritage passed down from one generation to the other. Each society has its own culture, but which is distinct. All these different elements related to the study of culture have been explained in this chapter. 6.2 Meaning and Characteristics The term ‘culture’ is commonly used to mean ‘social heritage’, that is all the knowledge, beliefs, customs and skills that are available to the members of a society. The social heritage is the “distinctive way of life of a group of people, their complete design for living”. The first comprehensive definition of ‘culture’ was given by Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor. He defined it as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. It is essentially a human, social product. It is through social interaction that culture is created, transmitted and perpetuated by man in association with others. Attributes of Culture Sociologist George Murdock (1940) has enumerated the following attributes of culture: 1. Culture is learnt: None of us is born with culture, nor do we acquire it through heredity. We need to learn the norms and values, beliefs and practices, which constitute our culture. It is through the process of socialization that culture is learnt and inculcated. 2. Culture is transmitted: Just as no society is static, no culture remains stagnant. It is passed on from one generation to the other. 3. Culture is social: Evolution of culture takes place only through groups of people interacting with each another. Social norms, values and institutions evolve in groups. All these are contained within the culture which tends to be essentially ‘social’. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Culture 81 4. Culture is ideal: “Culture does not include individual norms or actual behaviour rather; it is a blueprint of what that behaviour should be”. 5. Culture is gratifying: Humans tend to satisfy the biological needs such as hunger and thirst, and social needs like security and companionship through culture. 6. Culture is adaptive: The physical environment in which people live makes certain demands for adjustment upon them. A culture can survive only if it can provide ways to meet people’s needs in a changing environment. 7. Culture is integrative: For any society to survive it is necessary that its culture has some degree of integration. In normal conditions, those sharing a common culture, feel a sense of unity and solidarity, and to that extent, culture is integrative. Characteristics of Culture Kroeber and Kluckhohn have provided a composite view of culture by pointing out some of its fundamental characteristics: 1. Culture is that product of social interaction, which is uniquely human. 2. Culture includes all the accumulated knowledge, ideas, values, goals and material objects of a society that are shared by all members of the society and that have been passed from one generation to the other. 3. Each member of a society learns culture during socialization. 4. It provides each member of a society with ways of satisfying biological and emotional needs in a manner which is approved by the society. 5. Each human society develops a culture which is distinct from other cultures. 6. Culture and society are in a constant state of flux. It changes according to the circumstances. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

82 Introduction to Sociology - I 6.3 Cultural Diffusion, Acculturation and Assimilation Cultural Diffusion Diffusionism is an approach that views the transformation of culture change and evolution of society. It is another school of thought that has used the comparative method to explain why different societies are at different levels in terms of their development. Diffusionism developed in the early part of the 20th century. It maintains that societal change takes place when societies borrow cultural traits from one another. It is from one society to another that cultural knowledge relating to technology, religion, economy or art get diffused. This theory focuses on the process whereby material traits, values, ideas, institutions, cultural patterns spread from one centre of civilization to the others. It is a process of change whereby two cultures meet at a given point in time and interact with one another, and as a result of which elements and traits are borrowed and they get diffused. In the history of diffusion, there have been two broad approaches: 1. One group of anthropologists called Extreme Diffusionists – included Smith and Perry. They were the British group. They believed that civilization has originated only once in human history. It originated in Ancient Egypt. From here, all the aspects of civilization, ranging from technology to religion, spread to other parts of the world. 2. The other group is called the Historical Diffusionists – included Graebner, Schmidt and Koppers - the German-Austrian group. They maintain that civilization originated in a literate area in Middle East - (Iraq, Persia, and Syria) and then spread to the rest of the world. 3. Alfred L. Kroeber contributed to the theory of diffusionism. According to him, diffusion is a process by which cultural material spreads. The diffused cultural material contains specific elements by which diffusion can be recognized. Diffusion in some cases is piecemeal, where only fragments of a larger system reach or are accepted by the affected culture. In such a situation, these fragments may be put into a new context in the culture entered into. These partial bits may diffuse more widely than the culture complexes of which they form a part. Kroeber put forward “idea transmission” or “stimulus CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Culture 83 transmission”. “Idea transmission” is a mechanism of diffusion which is different from diffusions of specific culture content or form. He extends the concept of diffusion to independent inventions or growths. Kroeber says that the civilization which is receiving, becomes conscious of some potentiality, which has already been realized before in some other place. Then the receiving civilization achieves that potentiality in its own way and through its own materials. The examples given by him are of porcelain making in Europe which developed due to conscious experiments in order to reproduce the porcelain imported from China, or of Chinese discovery of tones in their language which could possibly be due to exposure to Buddhist-carried philology of Sanskrit. In his article, Stimulus Diffusion (1940), he said that, cultural products may be imitated by people who did not have direct contact with its originators. A broad idea is passed on from one culture to another, but the receiving culture or civilization only internalizes those pieces of the original idea which are suitable for them. Acculturation According to sociologist Kroeber, “Acculturation comprises those changes produced in a culture by the influence of another culture which results in the increased similarity of the two.” The process of acculturation tends to be gradual rather than abrupt. According to some sociologists, it is the strongest mechanism of culture change. Acculturation has certain features, they are: (a) According to sociologist Linton, acculturation is always the impact of a dominant prestige laden society, which influences the backward people. The culture of the backward people could also influence the dominant group. (b) Acculturation studies the changes, which are purposely directed or controlled by the superior society through political domination or market domination. (c) Acculturation may result in the disappearance of the minority group/culture in its cultural and social fusion. Acculturation is a social process. It helps us understand social change. For example: Britishers coming to India to rule the Indian territory. With their politico administrative policies, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

84 Introduction to Sociology - I brought about changes in the Indian society in the socio-economic spheres. Indians adopted their language ‘English’, style of wearing clothes, lifestyle, food habits, etc. After 50 years of independence, it is difficult to say what the original ‘Indianess’ was. Assimilation Assimilation is a type of social interaction. It is a form of social adjustment like accommodation. But its effect is more permanent than accommodation. It is the process whereby persons and groups take up the culture of other groups within which they come to live in by virtue of adopting its way of life. According to Horton and Hunt, “The process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation”. When different cultural groups come into contact initially they are quite hostile but gradually they assimilate elements from each other. Their separate identities are merged into one identity. It is also a process of learning similar to socialization but it begins when people or groups come into contact. It is a social and psychological process. 6.4 Cultural Pluralism Cultural Pluralism is a dynamic. Through cultural pluralism, the minority groups in a dominant society are able to participate, but still manage to hold onto their cultural differences. A society, in which many varied groups interact, yet display some amount of tolerance for the other cultures, is a pluralistic society. In such a society, many different cultures coexist, without having major clashes amongst them. Moreover, the minority cultures are also encouraged to practice their own customs. This term is used to denote that society in which the smaller groups maintain their own unique identities. Besides this, their practices and values are also accepted by the larger culture within which they exist. A society with cultural pluralism have various groups which co-exist and also look at the qualities of the other groups as being aspects which are worth as being a part of the dominant culture. Such societies stress on the integration of members within the society. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Culture 85 6.5 Dimensions of Culture Geert Hofstede put forward a theory on the Dimensions of Culture. It is a framework for cross-cultural communication. This theory is about the impact of a society’s culture on the values of its members, also the relation of these values to behaviour. This is done by making use of a structure which has been obtained from factor analysis. Hofstede, put across four dimensions of culture, with their cultural values, which can be analysed. These four dimensions are as below: - 1. Individualism: Collectivism - this looks into the relationships individuals in a society have with others. The emphasis in on what degree, values of individualism and collectivism are given by society. There are some societies, where stress is on high individual ranking, individual rights and individualism. Bonds with other members in society are not as cohesive. For example- United States, Australia, etc. There are other societies where in contrast, individualism has a low ranking, instead, they are more collectivist, stressing on close relations among members. Focus is on extended families and collectives. Members are from their birth, integrated into strong cohesive in-groups. 2. Uncertainty Avoidance: This looks into the need of individuals to avoid having uncertainty regarding the future as well as work relationships. Those societies having high uncertainty avoidance ranking are rule-oriented societies. Whereas those societies having low ranking for uncertainty avoidance display higher tolerance for uncertainty as well as ambiguity. 3. Power Distance (strength of social hierarchy): The emphasis in this is the extent to which those members in a society who are less powerful, accept and expect the unequal distribution of power. 4. Masculinity: Femininity (task-orientation versus person-orientation): Masculinity, according to Hofstede is a society where gender roles are very distinct. Men in the society are supposed to be more tough and the women more modest and tender. Femininity refers to that society where the gender roles overlap. Men and women, both are supposed to be tender, modest, as well as concerned about quality of life. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

86 Introduction to Sociology - I This work of Hofstede led to an important tradition of research in cross-cultural psychology. It has been used by various consultants and researchers for a variety of fields. 6.6 Culture Lag William Ogburn, a sociologist has given two forms of culture- Material Culture, and Non- material Culture. Material culture, includes all those things which man has created, which are observable and tangible. For example- tools, table, chair ,etc. Certain elements of material culture in society can be observed through: (i) Art (ii) Architecture and Housing (iii) Tools of communication (iv) Food Non-material culture refers to various symbolic creations of man. It consists of the intangible products of human society. Example: values, norms, attitudes. Non-material culture in society can be observed through: A. Cognitive (i) Knowledge (ii) Beliefs B. Normative (i) Values (ii) Norms Non-material culture of a society is manifested through folklores, myths, legends and aesthetics. Both, material and non-material cultures are organically linked. Material culture emerges out of non-material culture. Material culture changes more frequently, whereas non-material culture is slow to change. This gap between their paces of change is known as Culture Lag. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Culture 87 Sociologist Ogburn has made a useful distinction between the elements of material and non- material culture. Material culture refers to the physical or technological aspects of our daily life, including food items, houses, factories and raw materials. Non-material culture refers to ways of using material objects and to customs, beliefs and philosophies. Generally, the non-material culture is more resistant to change than the material culture. Material culture appears first and changes faster than non-material culture. The concept of culture lag grew out of this difference in rates of culture change. Material inventions bring changes which require adjustments in non-material culture. Culture lag refers to the period of maladjustment when the non-material culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions. It is the time (or gap) between a new material invention and appropriate adjustments in the non-material culture. Example: The ethics of using the internet, particularly issues concerning privacy and censorship, has not yet caught up with the explosion in internet use and technology. 6.7 Culture and Civilization Culture refers to the characteristics of people. It is seen as the sum total of their ways of life. This gets passed down from one generation to the next. Culture of a society is apparent through its artifacts, lifestyle, music, painting, literature, etc. Civilization refers to a society which has an advanced state of social development, for instance, it has complex legal, religious and political organizations. Civilization, is also the total of culture, industry, government and science of a society. Many cultures can exist within the same civilization. A civilization, apart from having an advanced stage of development, also, displays science, religion, art, political and social organizations at a high level. Civilizations are thought of as superior culture. When a particular culture reaches an advanced stage and writing is also used to a great extent, it can be termed as a civilization. Moreover, it also has to have progress in science and arts, its economic, political and social institutions are sufficiently developed for dealing with issues like security, efficiency and order in complex societies. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

88 Introduction to Sociology - I 6.8 Cultural Invasion Cultural Invasion is especially visible in developing countries. What takes place is that a foreign culture and technology impinges on indigenous populations, which could be backward and so, not in a position to compete with its invaders. As a result, they are made to rely on the new system. Cultural invasion, when it takes place in developed countries, leads to adverse dependency. It also contributes to debt and the disruption of that society. The impact of cultural invasion is greater in such cases, where the invading culture overwhelms and demolishes the integrity of that culture, which is at the receiving end. An example is of those indigenous societies, whose lands have been taken over for purposes of economic growth. They are not only deprived of their land, but also their way of life gets disrupted. Moreover, it also results in loss of their self-respect and autonomy, as well as are rendered in such a state that are not able to adapt to their modified economic state. Ultimately, this leads to poverty, malnutrition and disease. So, it can be observed that cultural invasion is seen as having negative impact on cultural diversity. Initially, cultural invasion mostly took place in form of colonization as well as political domination. In recent times, it has become less overt, but still occurs widely. It can be observed through international trade and industrial growth, which is helmed by powerful nations. This results in great debt and high foreign investment by countries who face it. Cultural invasion, is apparent, especially in the developing countries, here it can be seen that the donor cultures impose certain of their cultural aspects on the receiving cultures. This is done by disregarding the culture of the receiving country. Loss of cultural heritage is visible whenever cultural invasion takes place. 6.9 Summary Meaning and Characteristics The term ‘culture’ is commonly used to mean ‘social heritage’, that is all the knowledge, beliefs, customs and skills that are available to the members of a society. The social heritage is the “distinctive way of life of a group of people, their complete design for living”. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Culture 89 The first comprehensive definition of ‘culture’ was given by Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor. He defined it as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. Attributes of Culture Sociologist George Murdock (1940) has enumerated the following attributes of culture: 1. Culture is learnt: We need to learn the norms and values, beliefs and practices, which constitute our culture. 2. Culture is transmitted: Just as no society is static, no culture remains stagnant. It is passed on from one generation to the other. 3. Culture is social: Evolution of culture takes place only through groups of people interacting with each another. 4. Culture is ideal: “Culture does not include individual norms or actual behaviour rather; it is a blueprint of what that behaviour should be”. 5. Culture is gratifying: Humans tend to satisfy the biological needs such as hunger and thirst, and social needs like security and companionship through culture. 6. Culture is adaptive: A culture can survive only if it can provide ways to meet people’s needs in a changing environment. 7. Culture is integrative: For any society to survive it is necessary that its culture has some degree of integration. Characteristics of Culture Kroeber and Kluckhohn have provided a composite view of culture by pointing out some of its fundamental characteristics: 1. Culture is that product of social interaction, which is uniquely human. 2. Culture includes all the accumulated knowledge, ideas, values, goals and material objects of a society that are shared by all members of the society and that have been passed from one generation to the other. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

90 Introduction to Sociology - I 3. Each member of a society learns culture during socialization. 4. It provides each member of a society with ways of satisfying biological and emotional needs in a manner which is approved by the society. 5. Each human society develops a culture which is distinct from other cultures. 6. Culture and society are in a constant state of flux. It changes according to the circumstances. Cultural Diffusion, Acculturation and Assimilation Cultural Diffusion Diffusionism is an approach that views the transformation of culture change and evolution of society. Diffusionism developed in the early part of the 20th century. It maintains that societal change takes place when societies borrow cultural traits from one another. It is a process of change whereby two cultures meet at a given point in time and interact with one another, and as a result of which elements and traits are borrowed and they get diffused. In the history of diffusion, there have been two broad approaches: 1. One group of anthropologists called Extreme Diffusionists – included Smith and Perry. They were the British group. They believed that civilization has originated only once in human history. It originated in Ancient Egypt. From here, all the aspects of civilization, ranging from technology to religion, spread to other parts of the world. 2. The other group is called the Historical Diffusionists – included Graebner, Schmidt and Koppers - the German-Austrian group. They maintain that civilization originated in a literate area in Middle East - (Iraq, Persia, and Syria) and then spread to the rest of the world. Alfred L. Kroeber contributed to the theory of diffusionism. According to him, diffusion is a process by which cultural material spreads. The diffused cultural material contains specific elements by which diffusion can be recognized. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Culture 91 Acculturation According to sociologist Kroeber, “Acculturation comprises those changes produced in a culture by the influence of another culture which results in the increased similarity of the two.” Acculturation has certain features, they are: (a) According to sociologist Linton, acculturation is always the impact of a dominant prestige laden society, which influences the backward people. The culture of the backward people could also influence the dominant group. (b) Acculturation studies the changes, which are purposely directed or controlled by the superior society through political domination or market domination. (c) Acculturation may result in the disappearance of the minority group/culture in its cultural and social fusion. Assimilation According to Horton and Hunt, “The process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation”. When different cultural groups come into contact initially they are quite hostile but gradually they assimilate elements from each other. Their separate identities are merged into one identity. Cultural Pluralism Cultural Pluralism is a dynamic. Through cultural pluralism, the minority groups in a dominant society are able to participate, but still manage to hold onto their cultural differences. A society in which many varied groups interact, yet display some amount of tolerance for the other cultures, is a pluralistic society. Dimensions of Culture Geert Hofstede put forward a theory on the Dimensions of Culture. It is a framework for cross-cultural communication. Hofstede, put across four dimensions of culture, with their cultural values, which can be analysed. These four dimensions are- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

92 Introduction to Sociology - I 1. Individualism/Collectivism: This looks into the relationships individuals in a society have with others. The emphasis in on what degree, values of individualism and collectivism are given by society. 2. Uncertainty Avoidance: This looks into the need of individuals to avoid having uncertainty regarding the future as well as work relationships. 3. Power Distance: (Strength of social hierarchy)- the emphasis in this is the extent to which those members in a society who are less powerful, accept and expect the unequal distribution of power. 4. Masculinity: Femininity (task-orientation versus person-orientation)- Masculinity according to Hofstede, is a society, where gender roles are very distinct. Culture Lag William Ogburn, a sociologist, has given two forms of culture- Material Culture, and Non- Material Culture. Material culture, includes all those things which man has created, which are observable and tangible. Non-material culture refers to various symbolic creations of man. It consists of the intangible products of human society. Both, material and non-material cultures are organically linked. Material culture emerges out of non-material culture. Material culture changes more frequently, whereas non-material culture is slow to change. This gap between their paces of change is known as Culture Lag. Culture lag refers to the period of maladjustment when the non-material culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions. It is the time (or gap) between a new material invention and appropriate adjustments in the non-material culture. Culture and Civilization Culture refers to the characteristics of people. It is seen as the sum total of their ways of life. This gets passed down from one generation to the next. Culture of a society is apparent through its artifacts, lifestyle, music, painting, literature, etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Culture 93 Civilization refers to a society which has an advanced state of social development, for instance, it has complex legal, religious and political organizations. Many cultures can exist within the same civilization. Cultural Invasion Cultural Invasion is especially visible in developing countries. What takes place is that a foreign culture and technology impinges on indigenous populations, which could be backward, and so, not in a position to compete with its invaders. As a result, they are made to rely on the new system. Cultural invasion, when it takes place in developed countries, leads to adverse dependency. It also contributes to debt and the disruption of that society. 6.10 Key Words  Culture: ideas, customs and behavior of a group of people  Cultural diffusion: spread of cultural beliefs and activities  Acculturation: process of cultural change  Assimilation: process by which minority culture starts resembling the majority culture  Cultural Pluralism: smaller groups within a larger culture maintaining their unique culture  Cultural Lag: gap between material and non-material culture  Material and Non: Material Culture- material culture are tangible aspects of culture, non-material culture are intangible aspects of culture  Civilization: advanced stage of human society  Cultural Invasion: an invading culture overwhelming and destroying the integrity of the invaded culture CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

94 Introduction to Sociology - I 6.11 Learning activity 1. From your everyday life, identify any five forms of material culture and non material culture. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. With examples from your day to day life, explain assimilation, acculturation, diffusion and cultural pluralism. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6.12 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. Define Culture. Enumerate the characteristics of culture. 2. Explain Diffusionism. 3. Discuss the features of Acculturation. 4. “The process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation”. Comment. 5. Discuss the dimensions of culture. 6. Enumerate the similarities and differences of Culture and Civilization. 7. Explain the concept of Cultural Invasion. 3. Write short note on Acculturation, Assimilation, Cultural Pluralism & Cultural Lag. 7. Discuss Material culture and Non-Material Culture. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)