Social Pyschology

S-4 Subject Index/Glossary explanatory style: One’s habitual way of situational influences and overestimate explanations of, 288–290 explaining life events. A negative, pes- dispositional influences upon others’ and legal issues, 584–585 simistic, depressive explanatory style behavior. (Also called correspondence real-life examples, 285–288 attributes failure to stable, global, and bias, because we so often see behavior risky shift phenomenon, 283–284 internal causes, 533, 535, 537, 543–544, as corresponding to a disposition), group pressure, 197–198 546–547 105–112, 487, 494 group salience, 503 group selection, 453–454 explanatory style therapy: A cognitive G group-serving bias: Explaining away therapy that helps people reverse their outgroup members’ positive behaviors; negative beliefs about themselves and gender: In psychology, the characteristics, also attributing negative behaviors to their futures, 546–547 whether biological or socially influ- their dispositions (while excusing such enced, by which people define male and behavior by one’s own group), 71–72, explicit attitudes: Consciously controlled female, 168–185 339–340 attitudes, 51, 125–126, 233 and aggression, 173, 180 groupthink: “The mode of thinking that and biology-culture interaction, persons engage in when concurrence- expressiveness, 163 186–187 seeking becomes so dominant in a external locus of control: The belief that and culture, 181–185 cohesive in-group that it tends to override defined, 168 realistic appraisal of alternative courses of chance or outside forces determine one’s and depression, 535 action.” — Irving Janis (1971), 290–295, 494 fate, 58–59 evolutionary psychology on, 175–180 guilt, 446, 474–475 eye contact, 236, 437 and group influence, 277 guns, 368–370, 388, 389 eyewitness testimony, 561–572 and group polarization, 285 and helping, 451–452, 470 H error reduction, 567, 569–572 and hormones, 180–181 and feedback, 568–569 and independence vs. connectedness, happiness inaccuracy rates, 562–564, 565 169–171 enhancing, 555–556 misinformation effect, 564, 566–567 and loneliness, 537 and helping, 447–448, 556 and persuasion, 561–562 and love, 423 and materialism, 555, 598–604 retelling, 567 and medical treatment, 541 and national well-being, 607 and misattribution, 102–103 and relationships, 438, 552–555, 556, F and prejudice, 312–313, 315–318 606 and self-disclosure, 431 and religion, 556, 606 facial expressions, 146–148, 170, 195 and sexuality, 173–175 false beliefs, 194 and social comparison, 411 health, 549–552 false consensus effect: The tendency to and social dominance, 171–173 psychology of, 540–544 See also prejudice See also behavior problems overestimate the commonality of one’s opinions and one’s undesirable or gender role: A set of behavior expectations health psychology: The study of the psy- unsuccessful behaviors, 68–69, 103, 413 (norms) for males and females, 181–185 chological roots of health and illness. false memories, 564, 566–567 Provides psychology’s contribution to false modesty, 75 generational explanations, 251 behavioral medicine, 540–544 false uniqueness effect: The tendency to genes, 357–358, 426. See also evolutionary underestimate the commonality of one’s Hearst, Patricia, 221 abilities and one’s desirable or success- psychology heat, 366–367 ful behaviors, 69 genocide, 383, 464. See also Nazi Germany Heaven’s Gate, 255, 257, 258 family, 170, 363–364 Genovese, Kitty, 459, 463 helpfulness, 5, 194–195 favoritism, 327–328, 458 global warming, 592–595. See also helping, 441–480 fear, 240–242. See also emotions fearful attachment: An avoidant relation- sustainability and attribution theory, 450–451, ship style marked by fear of rejection, 428 Gore, Al, 230–231 478–479 fear of failure, 73 GRIT: Acronym for “graduated and field research: Research done in natural, bystander inaction, 459–464 real-life settings outside the laboratory, 18 reciprocated initiatives in tension empathy-induced altruism, 454–459 first impressions, 406 reduction”—a strategy designed to de- evolutionary psychology on, 452–454 flow: An involved, focused state of con- escalate international tensions, 519–520 and gender, 451–452, 470 sciousness, with diminished awareness group: Two or more people who, for lon- and happiness, 447–448, 556 of self and time, resulting from optimal ger than a few moments, interact with increasing, 473–480 engagement of one’s skills, 555, 606 and influence one another and perceive and modeling, 464–465, 477 fluency, 248 one another as “us”, 268, 325–330 and norms, 449–452 folie à deux, 258 and personality, 469–470 foot-in-the-door phenomenon: The ten- size of, 211, 279, 489 and religion, 470–472 dency for people who have first agreed See also group influence and similarity, 466–469 to a small request to comply later with a group influence, 267–304 social-exchange theory, 443–448 larger request, 134–136, 206, 256 group polarization, 282–290, 494, and time pressures, 465–466 framing: The way a question or an issue is heuristic: A thinking strategy that enables posed; framing can influence people’s 584–585 quick, efficient judgments, 94–97 decisions and expressed opinions, 23–24 group problem solving, 295–298 hindsight bias: The tendency to exaggerate, free riders: People who benefit from the groupthink, 290–295, 494 after learning an outcome, one’s ability group but give little in return, 275, 277 and legal issues, 583–588 to have foreseen how something turned friendship, 165, 169, 171, 277, 503–504. See and minority influence, 299–304, 584 out. Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along also relationships positive aspects of, 304 phenomenon, 14–17, 87, 178–179, 528 frustration: The blocking of goal-directed social facilitation, 268–273, 274 Holocaust. See Nazi Germany behavior, 359 social loafing, 273–278, 296 homophobia, 308 frustration-aggression theory: The theory group polarization: Group-produced hormones, 180–181, 358–359 that frustration triggers a readiness to enhancement of members’ preexist- hostile aggression: Aggression driven by aggress, 359–362 ing tendencies; a strengthening of the anger and performed as an end in itself. functionalism, 178 members’ average tendency, not a split (also called affective aggression), 355, fundamental attribution error: The ten- within the group, 282–290 387–388 dency for observers to underestimate and conflict, 494 experiments in, 284–285

Subject Index/Glossary S-5 hostile sexism: Antagonistic attitudes informational influence: Conformity K toward women, 316 occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people, kin selection: The idea that evolution has humility, 72 216–217, 288 selected altruism toward one’s close hypothesis: A testable proposition that relatives to enhance the survival of informed consent: An ethical principle mutually shared genes, 452–453 describes a relationship that may exist requiring that research participants be between events, 17–18 told enough to enable them to choose Koresh, David, 255, 258 whether they wish to participate, 28 I L infrahumanization, 328–329 IAT (implicit association test). See implicit ingratiation: The use of strategies, such as labeling, 12–13, 41 association test (IAT) laboratory research, 18 flattery, by which people seek to gain leadership: The process by which certain “I knew it all along” syndrome (hindsight another’s favor, 417 bias), 14–17, 87, 178–179, 528 ingroup: “Us”—a group of people who group members motivate and guide the share a sense of belonging, a feeling of group, 291, 294, 301–304 illness. See clinical psychology common identity, 326–330 learned helplessness: The sense of hope- illusion of control: Perception of uncontrol- ingroup bias: The tendency to favor lessness and resignation learned when one’s own group, 326–328, 453–454, a human or animal perceives no control lable events as subject to one’s control or 476, 494, 507 over repeated bad events, 59–60, 542 as more controllable than they are, 99–100 instinctive behavior: An innate, unlearned legal issues, 559–589 illusion of invulnerability: An excessive behavior pattern exhibited by all mem- optimism that blinds people to warnings bers of a species, 356 death penalty, 582–583 of danger, 292, 293 institutional authority, 204–205 defendant characteristics, 572–575 illusion of transparency: The illusion that institutional support for prejudice, 322–324 and group influence, 583–588 our concealed emotions leak out and can instrumental aggression: Aggression that judge’s instructions, 575–577 be easily read by others, 36–37, 461, 502 is a means to some other end, 355 juror comprehension, 578–580 illusion of unanimity: During groupthink, insufficient justification: Reduction of jury selection, 580–581 the overestimating of group members’ dissonance by internally justifying one’s victim characteristics, 577–578 consensus, 293 behavior when external justification is See also eyewitness testimony illusory correlation: Perception of a rela- “insufficient”, 142–143, 148 legitimate authority, 202–204 tionship where none exists, or percep- integrative agreements: Win-win agree- life cycle explanations, 251 tion of a stronger relationship than ments that reconcile both parties’ inter- life satisfaction, 608 actually exists, 98–99, 527 ests to their mutual benefit, 515 likeness. See similarity illusory thinking, 90, 98–100, 119–120 interaction: A relationship in which the liking. See attraction imitation, 377, 413, 517 effect of one factor (such as biology) linguistic intergroup bias: The tendency immigration, 308, 325, 513, 514 depends on another factor (such as envi- to communicate positive ingroup and immune neglect: The human tendency ronment), 186, 188 negative outgroup behaviors in gen- to underestimate the speed and the interdependent self: Construing one’s eral, trait terms (and to describe nega- strength of the “psychological immune identity in relation to others, 42 tive ingroup and positive outgroup system,” which enables emotional internal locus of control: The belief that behaviors in more limited, specific recovery and resilience after bad things one controls one’s own destiny, 58–59 terms), 340 happen, 50 Internet, 280, 286–287, 432–433, 462 locus of control: The extent to which impact bias: Overestimating the enduring intuition, 88–90 people perceive outcomes as internally impact of emotion-causing events, 49–50 Iraq war controllable by their own efforts or as implicit association test (IAT): A computer- externally controlled by chance or out- driven assessment of implicit attitudes. and belief perseverance, 85 side forces, 58–59 The test uses reaction times to measure and cognitive dissonance, 141, 142 loneliness, 430, 536–538 people’s automatic associations between and common external threats, 505 looking-glass self, 41 attitude objects and evaluative words. and conformity, 208, 219 love, 420–427 Easier pairings (and faster responses) and empathy, 170 companionate, 424–425, 431, 438 are taken to indicate stronger uncon- and frustration-aggression theory, passionate, 421–423, 426–427 scious associations, 126–127, 310 and physical attractiveness, 411–412 implicit attitudes: Automatic, unconscious 360–361 low-ball technique: A tactic for getting attitudes, 51, 125–126, 233 and group influence, 278, 294 people to agree to something. People implicit egotism: The tendency to like and helping, 458 who agree to an initial request will often what we associate with ourselves, such and instrumental aggression, 355 still comply when the requester ups the as the letters in our name, 400 and leadership, 301 ante. People who receive only the costly impression management. See self- and misperception, 496–497, 498 request are less likely to comply with presentation and overconfidence phenomenon, it, 135 incest taboo, 167 independent self: Defining the self apart 92, 93 M from others, 42 and persuasion, 230 independent variable: The experimental and prejudice, 307, 321 marriage. See relationships factor that a researcher manipulates, and self-esteem, 71 mass delusions, 197 25–26 and social dilemmas, 488 mastery experiences, 62 individualism: The concept of giving and social influence, 8, 125 matching phenomenon: The tendency for priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in J men and women to choose as partners terms of personal attributes rather than those who are a “good match” in attrac- group identifications Jones, Jim, 255, 256, 257, 258 tiveness and other traits, 404–405 judge’s instructions, 575–577 materialism: In its economic meaning, and communitarianism, 521–522 juror judgments. See legal issues refers to prioritizing the accumulation of and conformity, 225 jury selection, 580–581 money and material possessions, often defined, 42 just-world phenomenon: The tendency of and depression, 536 and self-concept, 42–47 people to believe that the world is just and See also culture that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get, 340–342

S-6 Subject Index/Glossary involving conspicuous consumption, moral hypocrisy, 124–125 observational learning, 363. See also 598–608 moral inclusion, 475–476 modeling morality, 136–138 and adaptation-level phenomenon, mug-shot-induced bias: An effect by opinion leaders, 249–250 602–603 opposing arguments, 243–244, 252, 260 which exposure to mug shots of a sus- optimism, 66–68, 542–544 alternatives to, 605–608 pect increases the likelihood that the ostracism: Acts of excluding or ignoring increase in, 598 witness will later choose that suspect in and social comparison, 603–604 a lineup, 571 someone, 394–396 wealth-happiness correlations, 555, multiculturalism, 513–514 outgroup: “Them”—a group that people mundane realism: Degree to which an 598–602 experiment is superficially similar to perceive as distinctively different from mating preferences, 176–178 everyday situations, 27, 198 or apart from their ingroup, 326–330 media murder. See aggression outgroup homogeneity effect: Perception mutual attraction, 415–418, 420 of outgroup members as more similar to and juror judgments, 476–477 My Lai massacre, 205, 206 one another than are ingroup members. pornography, 370–374 Thus, “they are alike; we are diverse,” and prosocial behavior, 378, 381, 477 N 333–334 television violence, 25–26, 374–379, overconfidence phenomenon: The narcissism, 54–55, 74 tendency to be more confident than 388 national well-being, 607–608 correct—to overestimate the accuracy of video games, 379–382 natural selection: The evolutionary pro- one’s beliefs, 90–94, 528 See also persuasion overgeneralization, 309 media awareness education, 373–374 cess by which heritable traits that best overjustification effect: The result of brib- mediation: An attempt by a neutral third enable organisms to survive and repro- ing people to do what they already like party to resolve a conflict by facilitating duce in particular environments are doing; they may then see their actions as communication and offering sugges- passed to ensuing generations, 159 externally controlled rather than intrin- tions, 514, 515–518 nature-nurture issue, 8–9, 160 sically appealing, 148–150, 151, 478–479 memory Nazi Germany, 4–5 overpersonalizing, 539–540 priming, 80–81, 88, 297, 379, 471 own-race bias: The tendency for people to and social perception, 80–81, 85–88 and attitudes, 138–139 more accurately recognize faces of their See also eyewitness testimony and bystander inaction, 464 own race (Also called the cross-race effect men. See gender and conformity, 202, 206, 207, 213 or other-race effect), 334, 467–468 mere-exposure effect: The tendency for and evil, 208–209 novel stimuli to be liked more or rated and helping, 441–442, 469, 477, 478 P more positively after the rater has been and persuasion, 229, 242 repeatedly exposed to them, 399–402 and prejudice, 325 pain, 365–366, 395–396 mere presence, 268–273 and social identity, 330 passionate love: A state of intense long- Milgram, Stanley, 199–201, 205 need for cognition: The motivation to mindguarding: A phenomenon that feeds think and analyze. Assessed by agree- ing for union with another. Passionate groupthink when some members pro- ment with items such as “The notion of lovers are absorbed in each other, feel tect the group from information that thinking abstractly is appealing to me” ecstatic at attaining their partner’s would call into question the effective- and disagreement with items such as “I love, and are disconsolate on losing it, ness or morality of its decisions, 293 only think as hard as I have to,” 252 421–423, 426–427 minority influence, 299–304, 584 need to belong: A motivation to bond patronizing, 319 minority slowness effect: A tendency for with others in relationships that provide peace: A condition marked by low levels of people with minority views to express ongoing, positive interactions, 393–396 hostility and aggression and by mutu- them less quickly than do people in the neuroscience. See social neuroscience ally beneficial relationships, 484. See also majority, 299 new religious movements. See cult peacemaking mirror-image perceptions: Reciprocal non-zero-sum games: Games in which out- peacemaking, 484, 499–522 views of each other often held by parties comes need not sum to zero. With coop- in conflict; for example, each may view eration, both can win; with competition, and communication, 514–519 itself as moral and peace-loving and the both can lose. (Also called mixed-motive and conciliation, 519–520 other as evil and aggressive, 494–497 situations), 488 and proximity, 499–504 misattribution: Mistakenly attributing a normative influence: Conformity based See also cooperation behavior to the wrong source, 102–103 on a person’s desire to fulfill others’ Pearl Harbor, 291 misinformation effect: Incorporating expectations, often to gain acceptance, peer influence, 184–185 “misinformation” into one’s memory of 216–217, 288–289 perceived injustice, 493 the event, after witnessing an event and norm formation, 193–197 perceived self-control, 56–62 receiving misleading information about norms: Standards for accepted and peripheral route to persuasion: Occurs it, 86, 564, 566–567 expected behavior. Norms prescribe when people are influenced by inciden- misperception, 493–499, 515–518 “proper” behavior. (In a different sense tal cues, such as a speaker’s attractive- modeling, 464–465, 477 of the word, norms also describe what ness, 232–233, 234, 239, 252, 548 modern prejudice, 312–313 most others do—what is normal) personal control, 187–188 modesty, 75 and conformity, 207–208 personal identity: A sense of one’s per- moods and culture, 162–164, 165 sonal attributes, 326 and conformity, 219 and helping, 449–452 personal influence, 248–249, 473–474 and helping, 446–448 and social dilemmas, 490–491 personality, 8, 218–220, 320–321, 469–470, 541 and persuasion, 240 personal space: The buffer zone we like and priming, 81 O to maintain around our bodies. Its size and social judgment, 100–101 depends on our familiarity with who- See also depression; emotions obedience: Acting in accord with a ever is near us, 163 Moon, Sun Myung, 255 direct order or command, 192. See also persuasion: The process by which a mes- moral exclusion: The perception of certain conformity sage induces change in beliefs, attitudes, individuals or groups as outside the or behaviors, 229–265 boundary within which one applies obesity prejudice, 25, 307–308 and audience, 250–253, 257 moral values and rules of fairness. central vs. peripheral routes, 232–234, Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one’s circle of moral concern, 476 239, 252, 288, 548

Subject Index/Glossary S-7 and channels of communication, and pluralistic ignorance, 502 rape myth, 371 246–250 and proximity, 499–500 rational-emotive therapy, 545 racial, 310–315 rationalization: A defense mechanism and communicator, 234–239, 257 reducing, 350–351 and content, 239–246, 257 scapegoat theory, 325 that offers self-justifying explanations cults, 254–259 and self-fulfilling prophecies, 344–345 in place of the real, more threatening, and eyewitness testimony, 561–562 and self-perpetuating stereotypes, unconscious reasons for one’s actions, and group polarization, 288–289 292 resistance to, 259–265 342–344 reactance: A motive to protect or restore and therapy, 548 social identity theory, 325–330, 333 one’s sense of freedom. Reactance arises physical attractiveness, 402–412 social sources of, 319–324 when someone threatens our freedom of and averageness, 408, 409 and stereotype threat, 345–347 action, 222–223, 576 and culture, 407–408 See also peacemaking realistic group conflict theory: The theory and dating, 402–404 preoccupied attachment: Attachments that prejudice arises from competition evolutionary psychology on, 408–409, marked by a sense of one’s own unwor- between groups for scarce resources, thiness and anxiety, ambivalence, and 325, 491–493 410 possessiveness, 428 reality, construction of, 5–6 and juror judgments, 573 pride, 72 recency effect: Information presented and love, 411–412 primacy effect: Other things being equal, last sometimes has the most influence. matching phenomenon, 404–405 information presented first usually has Recency effects are less common than and persuasion, 237 the most influence, 245 primacy effects, 245–246 physical-attractiveness stereotype, priming: Activating particular associations reciprocity norm: An expectation that in memory, 80–81, 88, 297, 379, 471 people will help, not hurt, those who 405–407 prior commitment, 214–215 have helped them, 449, 453–454 and reward theory of attraction, 420 Prisoner’s Dilemma, 485–486 regression toward the average: The sta- and social comparison, 409, 411 prison simulation experiment, 132–133 tistical tendency for extreme scores or physical-attractiveness stereotype: The problem solving, 295–298 extreme behavior to return toward one’s presumption that physically attractive professional advice, 12 average, 99–100 people possess other socially desirable propaganda, 230–231. See also persuasion regulation, 488–489 traits as well: What is beautiful is good, prosocial behavior: Positive, constructive, rejection, 394–396 405–407 helpful social behavior; the opposite of relationships, 393–438 placebo effect: Experimental results antisocial behavior, 378, 381, 477. See also caused by expectations alone; any effect helping and attachment, 426–428 on behavior caused by the administra- proximity: Geographical nearness. dissolution of, 434–437 tion of an inert substance or condition, Proximity (more precisely, “functional encouraging, 438 which is assumed to be an active agent, distance”) powerfully predicts liking, and equity, 428–430 543–544 397–402, 420, 499–504 and gender, 169, 171 planning fallacy: The tendency to under- psychological immune system: People’s and group influence, 277 estimate how long it will take to com- strategies for rationalizing, discount- and happiness, 438, 552–555, 556, 606 plete a task, 48, 92, 94 ing, forgiving, and limiting emotional and health, 549–551 play, 169, 170 trauma, 50 and Internet, 432–433 pluralistic ignorance: A false impression punctuality, 163 love, 411–412, 420–427, 431, 438 of what most other people are thinking need to belong, 393–396 or feeling, or how they are responding, Q and norms, 165 289, 501, 502, 503 and self-disclosure, 430–432 pornography, 370–374 quality of life, 608 See also attraction positive illusions, 534 relative deprivation: The perception that positive thinking, 57, 59, 118–119, 240, 606 R one is less well-off than others with possible selves: Images of what we dream whom one compares oneself, 361–362 of or dread becoming in the future, racial prejudice, 310–315. See also prejudice religion 39–40 racism: (1) An individual’s prejudicial cults, 254–259 postmodernism, 589 and evolutionary psychology, 179 poverty, 551–552. See also socioeconomic attitudes and discriminatory behavior and happiness, 556, 606 status toward people of a given race, or (2) and helping, 470–472 preconceptions, 11–12, 81–84, 494 institutional practices (even if not moti- and moral inclusion, 476 prejudice: A preconceived negative judg- vated by prejudice) that subordinate and prejudice, 321–322 ment of a group and its individual people of a given race, 310. See also racial repetition, 247–248, 400–402 members, 130–131, 138, 307–351 prejudice representativeness heuristic: The ten- and attributions, 339–342 random assignment: The process of dency to presume, sometimes despite avoiding, 330–331 assigning participants to the conditions contrary odds, that someone or some- and categorization, 332–335 of an experiment such that all persons thing belongs to a particular group if and cooperation, 509–511 have the same chance of being in a given resembling (representing) a typical definitions, 308–310 condition. (Note the distinction between member, 94–95 and desegregation, 499, 500–501, random assignment in experiments and research methods, 17–30 random sampling in surveys. Random correlational research, 18–24 509–511, 512 assignment helps us infer cause and experimental research, 19, 24–28, 30, and distinctiveness, 335–339 effect. Random sampling helps us gen- and dual attitudes, 310 eralize to a population), 26–27 570–571 gender, 312–313, 315–318 random sample: Survey procedure in generalization, 28–29 and helping, 468 which every person in the population hypotheses, 17–18 and judgments of individuals, being studied has an equal chance of and legal issues, 587–588 inclusion, 21–22 virtual reality, 238 348–350 responsibility diffusion, 382–383, 463–464 and juror judgments, 574–575 retelling, 567 and jury selection, 581 reward theory of attraction: The theory and mere-exposure effect, 401 that we like those whose behavior is modern, 312–313 and obesity, 25, 307–308

S-8 Subject Index/Glossary rewarding to us or whom we associate self-esteem: A person’s overall self- and helping, 442 with rewarding events, 418–420 evaluation or sense of self-worth, 52–56 and hindsight bias, 16 reward theory of helping, 444–448 and attraction, 417 and prejudice, 130–131, 307, 325 rhyming, 248 and culture, 45 and social identity, 330 Rickey, Branch, 512 defined, 52 and social intuitions, 7 risk-taking, 172 and depression, 535 serotonin, 359 risky shift phenomenon, 283–284 low vs. secure, 55–56 sexism: (1) An individual’s prejudicial Robinson, Jackie, 512 and narcissism, 54–55 attitudes and discriminatory behavior role reversal, 222 and persuasion, 250 toward people of a given sex, or (2) insti- role: A set of norms that defines how and self-concept, 41 tutional practices (even if not motivated people in a given social position ought to vs. self-efficacy, 57–58, 62 by prejudice) that subordinate people of behave, 40, 132–133, 181–185, 220–222 and self-serving bias, 70–72 a given sex, 310. See also gender rosy retrospection: Recalling mildly pleas- and social identity, 326, 330 sexuality, 173–175, 176–178 ant events more favorably than the sexual violence, 370–374. See also actual experience of them, 86–87 self-fulfilling prophecy: A belief that aggression rule-breaking, 163, 213–214 leads to its own fulfillment, 4, 113–117, shyness, 538–540 rumination, 387, 535 344–345 similarity and attraction, 412–415, 420 S self-handicapping: Protecting one’s self- and culture, 165–167 image with behaviors that create a evolutionary psychology on, 453 scapegoating, 325, 446 handy excuse for later failure, 73 and helping, 466–469 schema: A concept or framework that and juror judgments, 573–575 self-help groups, 545 and persuasion, 237–238 organizes and interprets information, self-justification, 141–145, 494. See also simplistic thinking, 497 39, 89 Simpson, O. J., 559–560 secure attachment: Attachments rooted in cognitive dissonance situational attribution: Attributing behav- trust and marked by intimacy, 427 self-knowledge, 47–51 ior to the environment, 104 self self-monitoring: Being attuned to the way slavery, 133, 143 sleep, 556 and illusion of transparency, 36–38 one presents oneself in social situations sleeper effect: A delayed impact of a mes- perceived self-control, 56–62 and adjusting one’s performance to cre- sage that occurs when an initially dis- self-presentation, 72–76 ate the desired impression, 74–75 counted message becomes effective, as and sotlight effect, 36, 38 self-perception theory: The theory that we remember the message but forget the See also self-concept; self-esteem; when we are unsure of our attitudes, reason for discounting it, 235 we infer them much as would someone social beliefs, 166 self-serving bias observing us, by looking at our behavior social capital: The mutual support and coop- self-affirmation theory: A theory that (a) and the circumstances under which it eration enabled by a social network, 449 occurs, 145–150, 151 social comparison: Evaluating one’s abili- people often experience a self-image self-perpetuating stereotypes, 342–344 ties and opinions by comparing oneself threat, after engaging in an undesirable self-presentation: The act of expressing with others, 40–41 behavior; and that (b) they can compen- oneself and behaving in ways designed and group polarization, 288–289 sate by affirming another aspect of the to create a favorable impression or an and materialism, 603–604 self. Threaten people’s self-concept in impression that corresponds to one’s and physical attractiveness, 409, 411 one domain and they will compensate ideals, 72–76, 140–141 social contagion, 194, 383 either by refocusing or by doing good self-reference effect: The tendency to social dilemma: An ironic situation in deeds in some other domain, 151 process efficiently and remember well which individuals’ rationally pursuing self-awareness: A self-conscious state in information related to oneself, 51 their individual interests leads to collec- which attention focuses on oneself. It self-schema: Beliefs about self that orga- tive harm, 484–491 makes people more sensitive to their nize and guide the processing of self- Prisoner’s Dilemma, 485–486 own attitudes and dispositions, 110, 129, relevant information, 39 resolving, 488–491 281–282 self-serving attributions: A form of self- Tragedy of the Commons, 486–487 self-blame, 535, 536 serving bias; the tendency to attribute social dominance orientation: A motiva- self-concept: A person’s answers to the positive outcomes to oneself and nega- tion to have one’s group dominate other question “Who am I?,” 39–51 tive outcomes to other factors, 63–64 social groups, 171–173, 319–320, 321 self-serving bias: The tendency to perceive social-exchange theory: The theory that and conformity, 224 oneself favorably, 63–72 human interactions are transactions and culture, 41–47 that aim to maximize one’s rewards and defined, 39 and arbitration, 519 minimize one’s costs, 443–448 development of, 40–42 and attraction, 400, 405 social explanations. See attribution theory and helping, 474–475 and attributions, 63–64 social facilitation: (1) Original mean- possible selves, 39–40 and conflict, 494 ing: the tendency of people to perform self-knowledge, 47–51 explanations of, 69–70 simple or well-learned tasks better when and social identity, 327 false consensus effect, 68–69, 103, 413 others are present. (2) Current meaning: self-confidence, 300 false uniqueness effect, 69 the strengthening of dominant (preva- self-confirming diagnosis, 529 and group polarization, 289 lent, likely) responses in the presence of self-consciousness, 336 and optimism, 66–68 others, 268–273, 274, 276 self-control, 56–62 and prejudice, 339–340 social identity: The “we” aspect of our self-disclosure: Revealing intimate aspects and self-esteem, 70–72 self-concept; the part of our answer to of oneself to others, 430–432 self-verification: Seeking, eliciting, and “Who am I?” that comes from our group self-efficacy: A sense that one is compe- recalling feedback that confirms one’s memberships, 325–330, 333, 383 tent and effective, distinguished from beliefs about himself or herself, 93–94 and cooperation, 506–507, 513–514 self-esteem, which is one’s sense of self- self-worth, 444 social inequalities, 319–320, 504, 552, 604. worth. A bombardier might feel high September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks See also socioeconomic status; status self-efficacy and low self-esteem, 57–58, and availability heuristic, 96 61–62, 547 and common external threats, 505 and evil, 208–209 and frustration-aggression theory, 360–361 and group polarization, 287

Subject Index/Glossary S-9 social influence, 7–8 and conformity, 220 and persuasion, 230–231 and attitudes, 125–127 and health, 551–552 and social dilemmas, 484–485, vs. personal control, 187–188 and Internet, 433 and therapy, 547–548 and persuasion, 257 490–491 See also conformity; culture; gender; and social comparison, 604 See also materialism persuasion See also social inequalities spontaneous trait inference: An effortless, T social intuitions, 6–7 automatic inference of a trait after expo- socialization, 320–322, 475–480 sure to someone’s behavior, 84, 104, 108 task leadership: Leadership that organizes social judgment, 88–102 sports rivalry, 506–507 work, sets standards, and focuses on spotlight effect: The belief that others are goals, 301 and counterfactual thinking, 97–98 paying more attention to one’s appear- and heuristics, 94–97 ance and behavior than they really are, teacher expectations, 113–115 and illusory thinking, 90, 98–100, 35, 36, 38 television violence, 25–26, 374–379, 388 statistics temperature, 366–367, 537 119–120 and clinical judgments, 529–531 terrorism importance of, 117–119 and juror comprehension, 579–580 and intuition, 88–90 status and frustration-aggression theory, juror judgments, 572–578 and conflict, 493 361 and moods, 100–101 and conformity, 213–214 overconfidence phenomenon, 90–94 and juror judgments, 572 and group polarization, 287–288 social leadership: Leadership that builds and prejudice, 319–320, 329 and groupthink, 494 teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers universal norms, 166–167 and instrumental aggression, 355 support, 301 See also social inequalities and mirror-image perceptions, 495 social learning theory: The theory that we stereotype: A belief about the personal and persuasion, 257 learn social behavior by observing and attributes of a group of people. Stereo- and social identity, 330 imitating and by being rewarded and types are sometimes overgeneralized, and social learning theory, 362 punished, 362–365, 387–388 inaccurate, and resistant to new infor- See also September 11, 2001 terrorist social loafing: The tendency for people to mation, 126, 148, 309, 315, 316 exert less effort when they pool their and categorization, 332–333 attacks efforts toward a common goal than and conflict, 494 terror management: According to “ter- when they are individually accountable, and groupthink, 292 273–278, 296 and judgments of individuals, ror management theory,” people’s social movements, 138–139 self-protective emotional and cognitive social networking, 74 348–350 responses (including adhering more social neuroscience: An integration and juror judgments, 573, 574 strongly to their cultural worldviews of biological and social perspectives and physical attractiveness, 405–407 and prejudices) when confronted with that explores the neural and psycho- self-perpetuating, 342–344 reminders of their mortality, 329–330 logical bases of social and emotional See also prejudice testosterone, 358–359 behaviors, 9 stereotype threat: A disruptive concern, theory: An integrated set of principles that social perception, 80–88 when facing a negative stereotype, that explain and predict observed events, 17–18 belief perseverance, 84–85 one will be evaluated based on a nega- theory of planned behavior, 127–128 importance of, 117–119 tive stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling therapy, 259, 544–548 and memory, 80–81, 85–88 prophecies that hammer one’s reputa- time, 465–466, 555 and preconceptions, 81–84 tion into one’s self-concept, stereotype time-lagged correlations, 21 priming, 80–81 threat situations have immediate effects, Titanic, 293, 451 social psychology: The scientific study of 345–347 Tragedy of the Commons: The “com- how people think about, influence, and stigma consciousness: A person’s expecta- mons” is any shared resource, including relate to one another, tion of being victimized by prejudice or air, water, energy sources, and food and common sense, 13–17 discrimination, 336–337 supplies. The tragedy occurs when defined, 3–5 stress, 70–71, 169, 542–543 individuals consume more than their major themes in, 5–9 subgrouping: Accommodating individu- share, with the cost of their doing so dis- and values, 10–13 als who deviate from one’s stereotype persed among all, causing the ultimate social representations: Socially shared by forming a new stereotype about this collapse—the tragedy—of the commons, beliefs—widely held ideas and values, subset of the group, 344 486–487 including our assumptions and cultural subjectivity, 11–12 traits, 165–166 ideologies. Our social representations subliminal stimuli: Stimuli with intensity transformational leadership: Leadership help us make sense of our world, 11 below one’s absolute threshold for con- that, enabled by a leader’s vision and social-responsibility norm: An expecta- scious awareness, 81, 90 inspiration, exerts significant influence, tion that people will help those needing subtyping: Accommodating individuals 302–304 help, 449–451, 465 who deviate from one’s stereotype by trust, 257, 517 social roles. See role thinking of them as “exceptions to the trustworthiness, 236 social scripts: Culturally provided mental rule,” 344 two-factor theory of emotion: Arousal ϫ instructions for how to act in various suggestibility, 194, 196 its label ϭ emotion, 422–423 situations, 378 superordinate goal: A shared goal that two-step flow of communication: The social skills training, 545–546 necessitates cooperative effort; a goal process by which media influence often social trap: A situation in which the that overrides people’s differences from occurs through opinion leaders, who in conflicting parties, by each rationally one another, 508–509 turn influence others, 249–250 pursuing its self-interest, become survey research, 21–24 caught in mutually destructive behav- sustainability, 591–609 U ior. Examples include the Prisoner’s and common external threats, 507 Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Com- and downward comparison, 605–606 unconscious thinking, 89 mons, 485–488 enabling, 595–598 Unification Church, 255, 256, 258 socioeconomic status need for, 592–595 uniqueness, 223–225

S-10 Subject Index/Glossary W includes the view that women are more understanding, kind, and helpful than V war, norms of, 167 men, 316 wealth. See materialism values, 10–13 weapons, 368–370, 388, 389 Y victim distance, 202 weight discrimination. See obesity victim personalization, 203 yawning, 195 video games, 379–382 prejudice Vietnam War, 291, 458, 487–488, 496 women. See gender violence. See aggression women-are-wonderful effect: A virtual reality, 238 vocations, 170 favorable stereotype of women that



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