Nature Guide_ Snakes and Other Reptiles and Amphibians_clone

frogs and toads | Bufonidae 299 velvety black skin undersides of the yellow markings are hands are red scattered on the back and limbs Warning colours full vieW The redbelly toad’s striking black and yellow coloration and the red Melanophryniscus stelzneri markings on its underside serve as a warning to predators. Redbelly toad Profile this little toad occurs in grassy valleys among the sierras of northern argentina. it is most commonly seen e Argentina after rain near the stony streams in which it breeds. its f Grassland and fields back is velvety black with irregular yellow blotches, and b 2.5–3 cm (1–11⁄4 in) the undersides of its hands and feet have bright red markings. if it feels threatened, the toad arches its back Eggs laid in water and displays the bright red markings below, in much Unknown the same way as the european fire-bellied toad (p.261), Diurnal even though they are not related. k Least Concern The redbelly toad is active during the day and feeds on very small invertebrates, such as ants and aphids. a poor swimmer, the female attaches a sticky mass of eggs to submerged stems in shallow water. The small tadpoles are difficult to see in their natural environment and grow to only about 1 cm (3⁄8 in) in length. There is variation in the colours and patterns of different populations and these were formerly regarded as subspecies. Since 2000, however, many have been separated into new species.

300 Frogs and toads | Bufonidae ProFile bony ridge horizontal e S. USA (Texas) and Central and South pupils America; introduced into wide mouth Australia and elsewhere long front limbs f Varied, often around allow the head human dwellings to be raised b 8.5–22 cm (3¼–9 in) Eggs laid in water 8,0 0 0 –17,0 0 0 Mainly diurnal and crepuscular k Least Concern Front vieW nostril prominent warts The nostrils are used mainly for breathing, as the toad breathes with its mouth shut. Webbing web of skin as is common in most toads, the external hind feet are webbed eardrum for swimming during This feature helps the breeding season. the toad to listen for breeding choruses and home in on them. Rhinella marina well as other large glands on the thighs and dorsal surface. These glands marine toad produce toxins that are strong enough to kill a dog or a snake. a voracious the marine toad, so-called because feeder, the marine toad eats almost it can tolerate brackish water, is also anything, including dog food, rice, known as the cane toad, especially in and scraps, making it one of the australia, where it was introduced to most adaptable amphibians. control beetle pests of sugar cane. it has also been found sitting at However, it failed to be effective, and the entrances of beehives, became a serious pest itself, preying snapping up bees as they on native wildlife, competing with local come and go, although frogs and toads for shelter and breeding some individuals seem sites, and poisoning predatory animals to have learnt to avoid with its toxic secretions. The toad has stinging insects. spread over much of the eastern half of the country and occurs in massive numbers in places. it is now more common in australia than within its natural range, and great efforts are being made to limit its spread westwards. The marine toad has a pair of very large poison glands behind its eyes as

Frogs and toads | Bufonidae 301 robust species behaviour The marine toad is extremely robust, and has a massive head This is an extremely adaptable toad that can breed in almost with bony ridges above any body of water, including the eyes. brackish pools, hence its common and scientific names. it thrives in disturbed habitats Mating embrace because it can hunt more easily amplexus is axillary in this when vegetation has been species, and it breeds throughout cleared and there are more the year if conditions are suitable. ponds and ditches in which to breed. it is incredibly prolific, probably laying more eggs than any other amphibian. tough, leathery, warty skin

302 Frogs and toads | DenDrobatiDae proFile 2–12 striking appearance Diurnal Sometimes known as bumble-bee e N. South America frogs, these poison dart frogs are f Lowland rainforest k Least Concern easily identified by the yellow and b 3–4 cm (1¼–1½ in) black markings on their body. Eggs laid on land markings differ in shape from one frog to another black eyes digits have small toe pads similar species Dendrobates leucomelas green and black poison Yellow and black dart frog (Dendrobates poison dart frog auratus) Found in Central america; adapts well to one of the easiest species to keep and breed captivity and is bred in in captivity, this poison dart frog has yellow and black large numbers markings that, like fingerprints, are unique to each individual. the toxins in its skin are derived from its diet, which comprises mostly of ants; captive frogs lose the ability to produce toxins unless they are fed on ants, and are relatively harmless. Males make a variety of buzzing trills to attract females. an elaborate courtship follows, which involves the two frogs circling each other in a series of short hops. eventually, the female lays the eggs and the male fertilizes them. the clutch size is small, with females laying many clutches in a single year. the male frog attends the eggs, keeping them moist and rolling them occasionally so that they receive enough oxygen. When the eggs begin to hatch, the male carries them to a small pool of water, often at the base of a bromeliad plant.

frogs and toads | DenDrobatiDae 303 Bright coloration black eyes the bright blue coloration of the blue poison dart frog is unique among frogs, and is intended to warn off predators. it also makes it popular among frog enthusiasts. black spots on light blue background thin, dark blue limbs Profile Dendrobates tinctorius azureus e N.E. South America Blue Poison f Tropical rainforest Dart Frog b 3–5 cm (1¼–2 in) the blue poison dart frog is a subspecies of the dyeing Lays eggs on land 5–10 poison frog, D. tinctorius. its colour is startling blue with a Diurnal pattern of black oval spots on its back. its limbs are dark k Least Concern blue and unmarked. as in most poison dart frogs, this is a warning coloration, signalling that it produces toxins in its skin. For this reason, it has little to fear from predators and is active by day. During the breeding season, males call to attract females. the eggs are laid on the ground and are attended by both sexes until they hatch. the parents encourage the tadpoles to crawl dyeing poison frog up on to their back, and take them (D.t. tinctorius) to the water-filled centre of a the nominate subspecies plant such as a bromeliad, where of D. tinctorius, this frog they continue their development. has yellow markings and is less blue in colour.

304 frogs and toads | DenDrobatiDae Muted colour this species is not as brilliantly coloured as some of the other poison dart frogs. However, it produces toxins and has similar breeding habits. pale stripe may be cream or light blue short limbs for making small hops silvery iris Profile Epipedobates tricolor e Ecuador phantasmal f Lowland rainforest poison frog b 2 cm (¾ in) this small, striped frog is endangered as its natural Eggs laid on land habitat is being destroyed by logging, conversion to About 10 banana plantations, and water pollution. it has disappeared Diurnal from several of the localities where it was formerly known. it was used for medical research in the 1990s, as one k Endangered of the substances extracted from its skin secretions, epidatidine, was found to be beneficial as a non-addictive painkiller. However, the species was protected owing to its rarity, and medical research came to a halt until a synthetic version of the substance was developed. these frogs breed readily in captivity and can be very prolific, but captive-raised individuals do not produce epidatidine because their diet is different from wild individuals. Members of this genus are not considered to be among the most poisonous frogs in the Dendrobatidae family and can be handled safely.

frogs and toads | DenDrobatiDae 305 profile Up to 20 Black-tipped toes Diurnal the poison dart frog has a uniform e Colombia body coloration, which is typically f Rainforest k Endangered golden yellow, but it can also be pale b 4.5–4.7 cm (1¾–2 in) green or orange. the lips and toes have prominent black markings. Eggs laid on land unmarked skin lips are edged in black feet are black toes not webbed Phyllobates terribilis similar species golden poison Black-legged poison dart dart frog frog (Phyllobates bicolor) Slightly smaller, with more the skin toxins produced by the golden poison dart frog black markings and less are among the most powerful in the animal kingdom powerful skin toxins and up to 20 times as toxic as those from other poison dart frogs. Secretions from a single frog are enough to kill several people, and this species is one of three used by native South americans to tip their blowgun darts when hunting, using folded leaves or short sticks to handle the frogs themselves. Despite their toxicity, a certain species of snake, Erythrolamprus epinephelus, is apparently immune to the toxins and preys on these frogs. the female lays eggs on the ground and the newly hatched tadpoles are carried to small pools of water by the male. the tadpoles are black, and the recently metamorphosed young frogs have a pair of golden stripes down their back; the full adult coloration does not appear until they are about 4–6 months old. related species retain a striped pattern throughout their lives.

306 frogs and toads | DEnDrobaTiDaE Profile 3–17 compact body Diurnal e Central America f Tropical forest k Least Concern b 2–2.5 cm (3⁄4–1 in) Eggs laid on land dark blue hind limbs Bright red slender This tiny frog’s bright forelimbs red coloration warns predators that its skin contains powerful toxins, including one called pumiliotoxin, named after this species. Oophaga pumilio Strawberry poiSon dart frog the typical colour of this small frog is male. He tends to the eggs until they hatch bright red with dark blue legs, sometimes known as the “blue jeans” form, although seven days later, at which point the female there are several colour variations. The strawberry poison dart frog feeds almost returns. The tadpoles wriggle on to her entirely on ants and mites, eating roughly equal numbers of each; the poison in its back and she carries each one to a small skin is derived from its insect food. pool of water that collects in the centre an active and lively species, males call constantly to advertise their territories and of bromeliad plants. The female returns fight with other males that challenge them. receptive females approach a calling to each tadpole every two or three days male and they move to a fallen leaf for courtship. There is no amplexus and the and lays one or pair face away from each other with their vents touching. The female lays a small more unfertilized clutch of eggs, which are fertilized by the eggs, which the tadpole eats. Their development takes 6–8 weeks. Eight other species Colour variation in this genus a highly variable species, have similar some colonies are mainly breeding habits. blue, brown, or green; others are completely red.

frogs and toads | DenDrobatiDae 307 rounded snout Habitat Strawberry poison dart frogs come from lowland rainforests and are most numerous in forest clearings, including abandoned plantations and gardens. Males require small patches of sunlight to display and females require bromeliad plants in which to raise their tadpoles. these urn-shaped plants with a central well in which rainwater collects provide safe nurseries for tadpoles. moist skin gives a bromeliad plant glossy appearance almost exclusively tropical american, bromeliad plants toes with grow among rainforest branches. adhesive pads Eye Poison dart frogs have large, dark eyes set on either side of their head. they use vision, as well as sound, during their displays. Parental care the female poison dart frog feeds and cares for her tadpoles until they metamorphose. they cannot survive without her attention. toe pads the adhesive toe pads of poison dart frogs have an unusual underlying structure of t-shaped bones.

308 frogs and toads | DenDrobatiDae profile 2–5 small but stunning Diurnal the red-headed poison dart frog is e Peru not only one of the smallest poison f Rainforest k Near Threatened dart frogs, but also one of the most b 2 cm (¾ in) strikingly coloured species. Egg-laying reticulated black head and the neck and white pattern are mostly red or orange triangular toe-pads siMilar species Ranitomeya fantastica Mimic poison dart frog Red-headed poison (Ranitomeya imitator) daRt fRog Variable frog that is identical to the red-headed poison the red-headed poison dart frog occurs only in dart frog in areas where primary and secondary rainforests where there are they are both found plenty of bromeliads (air plants), as it uses the central “urns” formed by the plants’ leaves to raise its tadpoles. the female lays the eggs on a leaf near the ground and the male guards them. When the eggs hatch, the tadpoles wriggle on to his back and he takes them to a suitable bromeliad to continue their development. the markings on this species are very similar to that of another poison dart frog, R. imitator. in regions where their ranges overlap, they are thought to be Müllerian mimics of each other. this is a type of mimicry in which two or more distasteful or poisonous species benefit by having similar markings – predators learn to avoid both species after encountering either one.

frogs and toads | Microhylidae 309 profile 1,000–1,500 Conspicuous female Nocturnal Female tomato frogs, such as the e N. Madagascar one shown here, are larger and f Wet forests and k Near Threatened more brightly coloured than males. fields, and gardens b 6–10.5 cm (2¼–4¼ in) Eggs laid in temporary pools and ditches smooth orange skin long front digits plump body similar speCies Dyscophus antongilii less brightly coloured TomaTo frog than the tomato frog a large, heavy-bodied species, the tomato frog is sabava tomato frog bright orange in colour. Females are larger and more (Dyscophus guineti) Very brightly coloured than males. Their coloration warns similar; some authorities believe predators that these frogs can secrete irritants from that the two are geographic their skin – these can also cause swellings and rashes variations of a single species in humans. When threatened, their first line of defence is to inflate their bodies to make themselves look larger than they are, which also makes it difficult for predatory snakes to swallow them. Tomato frogs breed during the rainy season, with the male calling loudly to attract a female. The female lays the eggs in temporary bodies of water, including drains and ditches. The small eggs float on the surface and many perish as their pools and puddles dry out. although this species is classed as threatened, it is commonly found in the towns and villages around the Bay of antongil in northeastern Madagascar, where the local people often catch them to show to tourists.

310 Frogs and toads | Microhylidae proFile Unknown distinctive band Nocturnal The painted bullfrog can be e S. Asia identified by its cream or orange f Cultivated fields k Least Concern band, which extends from each eye and along the side of its and villages thick pale-coloured brownish body. band is edged in black b 5.5–7.5 cm (2¼–3 in) blunt snout Eggs laid in temporary pools characteristic brown and tan pattern underside is paler similar species long toes with expanded tips Kinabalu sticky frog (Kalophrynus baluensis) Kaloula pulchra resembles a dead leaf when resting painted Bullfrog speckled back the painted bullfrog is invariably found in areas that have been altered by human activities, and even occurs rufous-sided sticky frog in villages, towns, and cities. it hides underground or (Kalophrynus pleurostigma) beneath logs and debris in the dry season and emerges has a pointed snout; releases in large numbers during rain storms. When threatened, a sticky substance when the bullfrog inflates its body and secretes a sticky threatened substance from its glands, which appears to be distasteful to predators, but is not toxic. Painted bullfrogs generally breed during the rainy season, and large choruses can be heard during and after rainfall. Males float on the surface of temporary pools and puddles, even under buildings, and make a loud groaning call, similar to a bull bellowing. The eggs are laid separately and the tadpoles are small when they first hatch but develop quickly. Voracious eaters, bullfrogs emerge at night from their hiding places to feed almost exclusively on ants and termites in the wild, but will eat other small invertebrates in captivity.

frogs and toads | Microhylidae 311 slightly Warty texture warty skin This small and selective treehole frog is typically mottled brown with a slightly warty texture and eyes that match its body coloration. blunt snout Profile Metaphrynella pollicaris e Peninsular Malaysia malaysian f Montane forest Treehole frog b 2–3 cm (3⁄4–11⁄4 in) this frog is found only in the highland forests of the Eggs laid in tree holes Malaysian Peninsula, where it lives in tree holes, and is Unknown rarely seen. its repetitive piping calls, however, can be Nocturnal heard over long distances. k Least Concern These frogs breed in tree holes that are partially filled with water. Males find a suitable site and call to attract a mate. They have the ability to alter the pitch of their call to suit the acoustics of the particular hole in which they live, and this is thought to amplify it. Females hear the call and home in on the tree hole, where amplexus takes place. The eggs and tadpoles of this species have not been described. The only other member of its genus, M. sundana, lives in the lowland forests of Borneo, where it also breeds in tree holes. although currently classed as least concern by the iUcN, development of the Malaysian highlands could have a negative effect on the population of the treehole frog.

312 frogs and toads | Microhylidae profile Unknown adaptable species Nocturnal The brightly coloured Madagascan e S. Madagascar rainbow frog lives in a very specific f Rocky gorges k Endangered habitat, and is well adapted for both b 2–4 cm (¾–1½ in) a climbing and burrowing lifestyle. Eggs laid in distinctive red, green, and temporary pools black pattern on a greyish body rotund body expanded toe discs for climbing rock faces tubercle on hind feet for digging siMilar species Scaphiophryne gottlebei Marbled rain frog Madagascan (Scaphiophryne rainbow frog marmorata) More widespread; lives in forests this frog was only recently discovered in the isalo where it burrows into leaf Massif, a remote part of southern Madagascar. it lives in litter; breeds in stagnant pools deep limestone gorges with vertical walls and sandy bottoms. it uses the spade-like horny tubercles on its hind feet to dig down into the sand, emerging at night to climb the rock walls in search of food. if the gorges flood following heavy rains, it hides in rock crevices above the water line. The Madagascan rainbow frog breeds in small temporary pools that form in the sand following rainfall, and is rarely seen at other times. The tadpoles have a unique pattern of feeding. during the day, they push their heads into the sandy bottom and filter out edible particles that have been trapped between grains. at night, however, they leave the bottom of the pool and swim around, filtering small particles from the water. if more rain falls, many tadpoles are swept away and may complete their development downstream.

frogs and toad | Brevicipitidae 313 globular body rotund body large eyes the small Namaqua rain frog has a rotund body, short dumpy legs, a flattened face, and proportionately large eyes. irregular brown and yellowish markings Profile Breviceps namaquensis e Namaqualand, Namaqua raiN frog (S.W. Africa) an effective burrower, the Namaqua rain frog uses f Sandy, vegetated dunes the hardened “spades” on its hind feet to dig backwards. b 3–4.5 cm (1¼–1¾ in), it spends most of its life below the surface, emerging after rains, hence its common name. during dry weather, females being larger it secretes a layer of mucus over its entire body to than males waterproof the skin, and can remain in this state of Eggs probably laid suspended animation for many months. underground Unknown Namaqua rain frogs feed on insects, and if threatened Nocturnal they inflate their body to deter predators. their breeding habits are unknown, but in related species, mated pairs k Least Concern glue themselves together with a secretion from the male’s chest, as the female is too large and the male’s arms are too short for conventional amplexus to be possible. they burrow down into the sand in this position, and form a nest chamber underground, where the eggs are laid and fertilized. the eggs develop directly into small froglets, without undergoing a free-living tadpole stage.

314 frogs and toads | Hemisotidae Loud call brown and yellow the plump-looking marbled marbled pattern shovel-nosed frog has a small head with a prominent pointed snout. it also has a loud buzzing call, similar to the sound produced by crickets. pointed and hardened snout for burrowing ProfiLe Hemisus marmoratus e Africa (south of Marbled shovel- the Sahara) nosed frog f Grassland this is a burrowing frog with a difference: it digs b 3.5–5.5 cm (1½–2¼ in), head-first, using its muscular front limbs and the hardened, pointed snout to drive itself forward through leaf litter and females being larger wet soil. the frog feeds only on ants and termites, and has than males a specialized rod-like tongue that it can shoot out rapidly to Eggs laid in wet soil the front and sides, allowing it to feed in a confined space. 150 –20 0 Nocturnal this frog’s breeding habits are equally interesting. the male calls from under a leaf at the muddy edge of a k Least Concern pool. When a female appears, he grasps her in amplexus, and is then dragged beneath the surface as she digs a burrow in the mud. the eggs are laid at the bottom of the burrow, sometimes under a log or rock, with a layer of infertile egg masses over them to prevent them from drying out. When rains flood the nest, the tadpoles get washed out into the main pool or stream; in some cases, the female digs a channel between the nest and the water to release the tadpoles.

Frogs and toads | ArthroleptidAe 315 large eyes and vertical distinguishing features pupils improve this tree frog has large eyes, night-time vision a short head, and a blunt snout, typical of the genus. its bright green coloration is marked with a brown lateral stripe. smooth skin large eardrum small adhesive brown stripe runs along pads on the toes the length of its body ProFile Leptopelis nordequatorialis e W. Africa west cameroon f Savanna forest tree frog b 4–5.4 cm (1½–2¼ in) sometimes collectively known as bush frogs, the Egg-laying Leptopelis species are found throughout Africa, south Unknown of the Sahara, but many species have restricted ranges. Nocturnal the West Cameroon forest tree frog has a limited range in Cameroon, and is found only in upland savanna k Least Concern between 1,100 and 2,000 m (3,610 and 6,560 ft). Males call from small bushes with a loud clacking sound. hence, these frogs are sometimes known as “clackers“. the breeding habits of the West Cameroon forest tree frog are unknown, but closely related species bury small clutches of eggs in the soil or in a depression that fills with water after the rain. the tadpoles are eel-shaped when they hatch, and wriggle across wet ground until they find a suitable place to continue their development.

316 frogs and toads | Hyperoliidae striped pattern breaks up the frog’s outline horizontal pupils long, spindly limbs Conspicuous stripes Fornasini’s spiny reed frog has variable coloration, ranging from yellowish brown to yellowish green, and can be identified by the dark stripe that is bordered by white down the centre of its back. Profile Afrixalus fornasini e E. Africa Fornasini’s spiny f Reedbeds and savanna reed Frog b 3–4 cm (11⁄4–11⁄2 in) spiny reed frogs are also known as leaf-folding frogs Eggs laid on vegetation or banana frogs. They live among reeds or tall grasses above water and sedges, where their light weight and adhesive toe 30–80 pads give them great agility – after leaping they often Nocturnal hang by a single toe until they can pull themselves up to a more secure position. k Least Concern These frogs breed in stagnant pools with plenty of emergent reeds and sedges. They spawn on leaves about 1 m (31⁄4 ft) above the water level, and the female folds the edges of the leaf over the eggs as she lays them. They hatch after about five days and the long, thin tadpoles wriggle down into the water. They are carnivorous, feeding on mosquito larvae and similar aquatic invertebrate prey. The adult frogs also feed on invertebrates but have been known to eat the eggs of other frogs that lay them out of water.

frogs and toads | Hyperoliidae 317 Prominent snout marking Profile Eggs laid in permanent and although variable in coloration, the temporary pools small Madagascar reed frog has a e Madagascar Unknown distinguishing dark band between f Trees and bushes Nocturnal its snout and eyes, orange-coloured feet, and a whitish yellow underside. in fields, dunes, and k Least Concern often near water b 3.5–4 cm (11⁄2in) prominent rhomboid pupils dark bands unique to this genus on its snout similar sPecies Heterixalus madagascariensis White-spotted reed frog, Madagascar (Heterixalus alboguttatus) reed frog dark with white or cream spots; habits are similar to By far the most common reed frog in Madagascar, those of H. madagascariensis this frog is often found in places with human activity: gardens, parks, ricefields, and villages. it usually lives in trees and shrubs close to water and, in the daytime, sits motionless in an exposed position, usually on top of a leaf in full sun. There are many colour forms, and even in the same locality they may be bright blue, yellow, brown, or white by day, changing at night to become yellowish brown, sometimes with many black spots. This frog breeds throughout the year and is dependent on rainfall; it rests during the dry season and becomes active after rains. The eggs are laid in clusters in temporary or permanent pools, which may contain eggs as well as tadpoles at all stages due to the more-or-less continuous breeding season. This is a very common species that has probably benefited from land clearance for agriculture.

318 FrogS and ToadS | HyperoliidAe translucent broad body Sexual dimorphism green skin Male argus reed frogs are pale translucent green, but females are very different and can be mistaken for a separate species. horizontal pupils small toe pads Hyperolius argus ProFile Argus reed frog e E. and S. Africa This species, as well as others in the Hyperolius genus, f Temporary and are known as reed frogs or sedge frogs because of their permanent pools ability to climb stems with their expanded toe pads. b 3.5 cm (1½ in) Unusually for frogs, it displays sexual dimorphism – the Eggs laid in temporary pools colour varies between the sexes; the bold markings of 200 Nocturnal the females are highly variable and no two are alike. k Least Concern Argus reed frogs are associated with water lilies, and males frequently call from the surface of a lily pad. The species breeds in temporary pools that form in shallow depressions after rain, probably choosing such sites due to the absence of predatory fish. The breeding season is extended, and Female Females are brown with a cream females produce eggs every V-shaped marking on the head few weeks for as long as there and a number of dark-edged is water in the pool. The eggs are laid in clusters of about 30. cream spots on the back.

Variable reed frog frogs and toads | Hyperoliidae 319 Found in a number of habitats throughout southern africa, the slender body marbled reed frog is a small, slender, and agile frog with variable coloration and patterns. This pattern of wide black and narrow orange stripes is one of the most frequent. prominent eyes feet may be orange or red Profile Hyperolius marmoratus e S. Africa Marbled reed frog f Ponds, reedbeds, this is a highly variable frog with at least 14 colour savanna, and river patterns, all of which can occur within the same margins population; individuals may be striped, plain, speckled, or spotted in a number of different colours and combinations b 4.3 cm (13⁄4in) but, as far as is known, they will all interbreed to produce viable offspring. during the breeding season, males call Egg-laying repeatedly to attract females, making a sound like a 150–600; in small clumps squeaky wheelbarrow being moved. Females lay their Nocturnal eggs in small clumps in water, and the tadpoles take about two weeks to hatch. k Least Concern This species often sits out in full sun, but may use several techniques to reduce the amount of water it loses. For example, it stores water in its bladder or sits in a hunched position to cover the thin skin on its underside. The frog also makes good use of light showers or dew by absorbing water quickly through the thin skin on its feet and flanks, and it can change colour to become almost white to reflect the sunlight on very hot days.

320 frogs and toads | hyperoliidae bright red markings Concealed flash colours are hidden until The spotted running frog has the frog moves smooth greyish brown skin with dark brown or black oval spots that are edged with a thin pale line. its characteristic bright red patches are hidden beneath its limbs and flanks. protruding eyes with vertical pupils Profile Kassina maculata e E. Africa Spotted f Permanent pans and running frog lakes in grassland this frog is common in low-lying grasslands, where it hides among the dead vegetation or in the curled-up b 5–6.5 cm (2–21⁄2 in) leaves of banana plants. as its name suggests, it prefers to run rather than hop, and although its expanded toe Egg-laying discs are small, it can climb quite well. The frog is heavily Unknown spotted with bright red patches on its armpits, thighs, Nocturnal and lower flanks. The red patches are normally hidden while the frog is resting and act as flash colours when it k Least Concern moves. This may help to momentarily confuse or startle predators, giving the frog enough time to escape. a second line of defence is provided by skin secretions, which give the frog a characteristic smell. This species feeds largely on reed frogs, which share its habitat. it breeds in well-vegetated, shallow lakes and ponds. The eggs are attached to submerged vegetation, and the tadpoles have high fins and bold markings.

frogS And toAdS | pTychadenidae 321 large eyes are positioned Spots and stripes on top of the head The Mascarene grass frog is brownish with a number of dark dorsal stripe spots on its body. Some individuals have a thin yellow or orange stripe down the middle of their back; plain and striped forms can occur alongside each other. ridges on skin dark spots long hind legs for leaping Profile Ptychadena mascareniensis e Madagascar and Mascarene introduced to grass frog Mascarene and Seychelles Islands; Apart from primary rainforests, Mascarene grass individuals from frogs are abundant throughout Madagascar. They are mainland Africa may especially common near villages and cultivated fields, belong to several and have benefited from the clearance and degradation distinct species of forests. The frogs are extremely agile and avoid capture by making a series of jumps in rapid succession, f Ponds, swamps, often changing direction with each jump, but usually grassland, and fields heading away from water. They are preyed upon by snakes, birds of prey, and possibly small mammals. b 4–5.5 cm (1½–2¼ in) The frog breeds in shallow water, often in temporary Eggs laid in small puddles and wheel ruts but also at the shallow edges of bodies of water large lakes or swamps. The eggs are small and are laid Probably about 1,000 throughout the year. Frogs belonging to the genus Diurnal and nocturnal Ptychadena are collectively known as ridged frogs, as they have ridges of folded skin running down their back. k Least Concern

322 frogs and toads | CeratobatraChidae Mimicking nature horns over its eyes the Solomon island horned frog break up the outline has an earthy, mottled coloration. this gives it the appearance of a ridges down either decaying leaf, enabling the frog to side of the back hide from predators while waiting for potential prey. triangular head relatively short hind limbs Profile Ceratobatrachus guentheri e Solomon Islands Solomon ISland f Lowland forests horned frog and plantations this species has several common names, including the triangle frog and eyelash frog. its shape and colour b 8–12 cm (3¼–4¾ in) are cryptic, making it difficult to see when it is resting among dead leaves on the forest floor. the horns over Eggs laid on land its eyes also help to disguise its outline; a feature that 8–22 is reminiscent of the asian horned frog (p.264). the leaf Nocturnal frog varies in colour, from brown and reddish brown to yellow ochre, while some individuals also have a stripe k Least Concern along their back. armed with a pair of tusks in its lower jaw, the Solomon island horned frog ambushes prey that wander within striking distance, including other frogs and its own species. Females lay a small cluster of large eggs in a damp place. this species undergoes direct development; they skip the free-living tadpole stage and hatch after about 32 days as fully formed froglets, measuring 1 cm (3⁄8 in) in length.

frogs and toads | Conrauidae 323 massive hind limbs Elusive frog help make long leaps Found along river banks in West africa, the Goliath frog is an alert species and is difficult to catch. dark greenish coloration long front toes lack webbing heavily webbed hind feet ProfilE Conraua goliath e W. Africa Goliath froG f Fast-flowing rivers thought to be the largest frog in the world, the and streams Goliath frog is more than 30cm (12in) in length and weighs about 3 kg (6½ lb); males are larger than females. They b 17–32 cm (6½–12½ in) live on rocks along rapids and cascades in the remote rainforests of West africa. armed with heavily webbed hind Eggs laid in water feet, they are powerful swimmers, leaping into the water Several hundred at the slightest disturbance. Their smooth, slippery skin Nocturnal allows them to move efficiently through the water while also making it difficult for predators to grab hold of them. k Endangered adult Goliath frogs feed on a variety of invertebrates and vertebrates, including other frogs. They breed in fast-flowing, well-oxygenated water, attaching their eggs to underwater vegetation. For the first few weeks, the tadpoles feed on a particular plant, Dicraea warmingii, that covers the rocks where they live. The large sucker-like discs on the underside of the tadpoles prevent them from being washed away. This species is widely hunted for its meat by the local people. Small numbers are also collected for the pet and zoo trade.

324 Frogs and toads | PyxicePhalidae horizontal pupils wide mouth warts and ridges Full view thick, blunt front toes on the skin efficient digger ProFile african bullfrogs are olive-green or brown in colour with a notable e S. Africa large head and horny, spade-like f Dry grassland (savanna) tubercles on their hind feet, which b Up to 23 cm (9 in) they use for digging. Eggs laid in shallow water Pyxicephalus adspersus Unknown (usually a large number) AfricAn bullfrog Mainly nocturnal a massive amphibian, the african bullfrog can grow to k Least Concern a weight of 1.4 kg (3 lb). Males are larger than females; a result of natural selection, as larger individuals are more successful at attracting mates. Breeding takes place after heavy rains, with the males forming breeding arenas, or leks. The female approaches the largest individual in the group, and the mating pair swim to shallow water. as the female lays her eggs, she arches her back so that they are expelled above the surface and fertilized by the male before they enter the water. a dominant male may mate with several females and fertilize a large number of eggs, which he guards. he may remain in the water after they have hatched to protect the tadpoles. if they become isolated in a drying pool, he digs a channel opening to a larger body of water so that they can escape. The newly metamorphosed froglets have a varied diet, and may even eat one another. adults are voracious and eat a wide variety of prey, including venomous snakes.

frogs and toads | DicroglossiDae 325 spots and ridges profile Unknown This large frog has yellowish or Mainly nocturnal olive skin with dark spots. it has e S. Asia; introduced conspicuous eardrums, a pointed elsewhere k Least Concern snout, and long hind limbs. Folds of skin form short ridges running f Wetland of all types down its back. b 12–17 cm (4¾–6½ in) ridges Eggs laid in water often has a pale stripe along the back eardrum long hind limbs similar species Hoplobatrachus tigerinus John’s groove-toed frog IndIan bullfrog (Rana johnsi) Forest species; breeds in nearby rice paddy this semi-aquatic frog is highly adaptable, and is fields and streams found in most places where there is water nearby. it is extremely voracious and eats anything it can find, including other frogs, small mammals, snakes, and lizards, even those with spiny scales. Vegetable material has also been found in its stomach. indian bullfrogs live on land for much of the year, burrowing down into mud during dry weather. However, breeding activity takes place during the monsoon season, and they return to ponds, swamps, lakes, and reservoirs. Breeding males turn bright yellow and their blue vocal sacs become more prominent. Their loud choruses attract females and the males fight over them, each one trying to grab a female and hold it in amplexus while other males try to dislodge their rival. The eggs are large and laid in batches, attached to submerged grass. The tadpoles are as voracious as the adults, and eat one another as well as carrion.

326 Frogs and toads | DicroglossiDae Body coloration bulbous eyes The spotted puddle frog has greenish point upwards brown coloration speckled with small dark spots, and a whitish belly. it moves front feet are from one puddle to another by making not webbed short, rapid hops. slightly pebbled skin ProFile Occidozyga lima e S and S.E. Asia Spotted f Semi-aquatic puddle frog b 4 cm (11⁄2 in) this small, stocky frog is well adapted to an Egg-laying aquatic life with fully webbed hind feet and eyes and Unknown nostrils situated on top of its head. it is sometimes Diurnal and nocturnal known as the floating frog, and both common names are appropriate as it is often seen floating on the surface of k Least Concern paddy fields and slow-moving creeks, as well as ponds and ditches. if disturbed, the frog quickly dives to the bottom, stirring up the mud to provide somewhere to hide. The spotted puddle frog appears in great numbers after rain and can even be seen in puddles that form in pot-holes and roadside gullies. Mating pairs often arrive at the breeding site already in amplexus, with the male tightly grasping the slightly larger female. They spawn in shallow water, but not much is known about the eggs. The tadpoles are long and thin, and prey on small aquatic invertebrates; they often hunt in water that barely covers their back.

Frogs and toads | Mantellidae 327 ProFile 200–300 distinctive eyes Nocturnal the central bright-eyed frog has e Madagascar bright blue rims to its irises, which f Rainforest and k Least Concern helps distinguish it from all but a few closely related species. near streams red markings over eyes are b 2–3.5 cm (3⁄4–11⁄2 in) more extensive in females Eggs laid in streams horizontal pupils blood vessels visible through translucent skin yellow feet expanded toe pads for climbing similar sPecies Boophis rappiodes red bright-eyed frog Central bright-eyed (Boophis luteus) Slightly frog larger and bright green; has red-rimmed irises the central bright-eyed frog is a dainty, translucent green frog with red and yellow markings. these markings green bright-eyed frog vary in extent, according to the population they come (Boophis viridis) from and depending on whether they are male or female; translucent green with red females are more colourful than males. they have flecks; has bright blue rims expanded toe pads for climbing, and live in vegetation around its irises along slow-moving forest streams. the males are territorial and call from perches 1–4m (3¼–13ft) above the water. the eggs are laid on the sides of streams, in small backwaters where they will not get washed away. the tadpoles are black with distinctive green spots, and live in areas that are shaded by overhanging vegetation. the red bright-eyed frog, Boophis luteus, and the green bright- eyed frog, Boophis viridis, have habits similar to the central bright-eyed frog, and all three may be found together.

328 Frogs and toads | Mantellidae Evading predators the bright warning coloration of this small species keeps it safe from predators, allowing it to be active by day. skin has the colour and texture of an orange slender limbs black eyes ProFilE Mantella aurantiaca e E.C. Madagascar Golden mantella f Swamps b 2–2.5 cm (3⁄4–1 in) the small golden mantella is a uniform orange in colour. Some of its internal organs can be seen through Eggs laid on land the translucent ventral skin. it secretes toxic substances, 10 – 60 hence the bright warning coloration, and there is an Diurnal obvious parallel between the mantellas and the poison dart frogs from South america which, however, are in a k Critically Endangered different family. Mantellas mate during the rainy season. the eggs are laid in damp places on the ground, and take about two weeks to hatch. the tadpoles rely on rain to wash them into small pools, emerging from the water after about 70 days. the young froglets are brown at first, attaining their orange coloration some weeks later. Golden mantellas prefer patches of open ground exposed to the sun. their only known localities are swamps in which Pandanus trees grow. However, these sites are dwindling in size, and together with the fact that they have been collected in large numbers for the pet trade has led to a drastic decline in the population.

striking colours Frogs and toads | Mantellidae 329 the small green-backed mantella has striking coloration. its yellowish horizontal pupil green head and upper back is difficult to see contrast with its dark flanks and limbs that have coppery and metallic blue patches. greenish yellow dorsal surface limbs are brown or black ProFiLe Mantella laevigata e Madagascar Green-backed f Rainforest mantella b 2.2–2.9 cm (3⁄4–1 in) Like other mantellas, this species is very active, Eggs laid in tree holes constantly making short hops within a well-defined Unknown territory, with several individuals forming small colonies. Diurnal as an adaptation to its semi-arboreal lifestyle, however, it has larger toe pads than other mantellas. k Near Threatened the green-backed mantella’s reproductive mode is remarkably similar to that of the poison dart frogs of South america. the female lays a single large egg on the inside wall of a water-filled tree hole or in a broken bamboo, just above the water level. the tadpole drops into the water when it hatches, and may feed on the eggs of the other frogs that also breed in tree holes or on the unfertilized eggs laid specifically by the female for this purpose. if there are no other eggs in the tree hole, the tadpole feeds on algae and detritus.

330 frogs and toads | RhacophoRidae profile 100–400 Widespread and variable Nocturnal The asian foam-nest frog has e S. and S.E. Asia variable brown coloration and f Swamps, forests, k Least Concern pattern, depending on locality. it also has a characteristic large buildings, and gardens head and flattish body. b 4–7.5 cm (11⁄2–3 in) dark bars on hind legs Eggs laid out of water in a foam nest pointed snout whitish grey underside similar species Polypedates leucomystax file-eared tree frog AsiAn foAm-nest (Polypedates otilophus) frog Larger species with a serrated ridge over its eardrum; restricted this species is very common over much of its range to Borneo and Sumatra and may be a composite of several, as yet undescribed, species. it is brown or tan in colour, and individuals from Borneo have four dark lines down their back. This species breeds in small pools of water, and the eggs are laid in a foam nest on a muddy bank or in vegetation above the water level. Spawning can take all night, and the pair are often still together the following morning. during mating, the female secretes a jelly-like substance, which the male whips up into a foamy mass with his hind feet. The eggs are distributed through the foam, which protects the developing tadpoles from predators and keeps them from drying out. Upon hatching, the tadpoles fall into the water. They feed on almost anything, including invertebrates that fall into the water and drown, and take about seven weeks to completely develop.

Frogs and toads | RhacophoRidae 331 proFile Unknown Flying colours Nocturnal Wallace’s flying frog has distinctive e Indonesia, Malaysia, bright green dorsal coloration with and Thailand k Least Concern yellow and black webbed feet. it has a blunt snout and protruding eyes. f Rainforest b 8–10 cm (31⁄4–4 in) green webbed toes coloration are folded Eggs laid in foam nests when at rest provides blunt snout camouflage large eyes black webbing Rhacophorus nigropalmatus between the toes Wallace’s similar species flying frog reinwardt’s flying frog Wallace’s flying frog is named after its discoverer, alfred (Rhacophorus reinwardtii) Russell Wallace, the naturalist who, with charles darwin, Smaller, with black patches shares the credit for the theory of evolution by natural on its flanks; juveniles are selection. This large frog has heavily webbed hands and pale blue at first feet with black and yellow skin. The limbs have additional narrow ridges that increase their surface area. The frog “flies” by spreading all four limbs as it launches itself from trees, parachuting to the ground. it controls where it lands by tilting its feet and spilling air, in much the same way as a human parachutist or a bird of prey. Quite common, but rarely seen, this species spends most of its life in the forest canopy, coming down to ground level only to breed. it lays its eggs in foam nests on the muddy banks of pools or in shrubs overhanging water. The male, which is smaller than the female, uses his hind feet to whip up the foam, and the eggs are evenly distributed within the foam nest.

332 frogs and toads | RhacophoRidae profilE Unknown Easily identifiable Nocturnal The harlequin tree frog is easy e Indonesia (Borneo and to identify. it has a reddish brown Sumatra) and Philippines k Least Concern body, bright orange or red webbed feet, yellow flanks with black f Rainforest spots, and narrow dark bands b 5.5–7 cm (2¼–2¾ in) along its limbs. Eggs laid in foam nest reddish brown body large eyes orange or red webbing between the toes similar spEciEs dark bands on the limbs Jade tree frog Rhacophorus pardalis (Rhacophorus dulitensis) Translucent green with some Harlequin Tree frog internal organs visible through its skin; limb bones are bright this is the most common “flying frog” in the areas turquoise green where it occurs. although a canopy dweller, it appears to be more inclined to forage at lower levels than many other flying frogs and may therefore be more easily found outside the breeding season. it also has a wider range of breeding sites, including small temporary puddles, pools formed from blockages in slow-moving streams, and the margins of large lakes. Like many members of its family, the harlequin tree frog’s eggs are protected in a foam nest, which is created by the male from the jelly mass secreted by the female. The nest is normally attached to vegetation overhanging water. although common at present, its numbers are decreasing due to logging; the harlequin tree frog often remains in the disturbed forests for a while, but does not adapt to them in the long term.

frogs and toad | RhacophoRidae 333 Profile 5–30 superb camouflage Nocturnal With its amazing mottled green e Vietnam moss-like coloration and uneven f Rainforest k Not assessed texture, the mossy frog blends b 7–8 cm (23⁄4–31⁄4 in) in perfectly with its habitat. Eggs laid out of water on a vertical surface body is covered in numerous small bumps webbed hind feet large toe pads for for swimming clinging to vertical surfaces similar sPecies Theloderma corticale Pied mossy frog Mossy Frog (Theloderma asperum) Smaller than the mossy frog; the most remarkable characteristic of this unusual markings suggest that it often frog is the colour and texture of its body, head, and rests on lichen limbs; they are predominantly green and covered with prominent ridges and raised tubercles. even its eyes are green and mottled. When it is resting on a bed of moss, the frog is almost impossible to see. Juveniles and young adults are often bright green with reddish tips to some of their protuberances, but they become dark green as they get older. if threatened, these frogs curl up with their feet and head tucked into their belly and pretend to be dead. Mossy frogs breed in small bodies of water that collect in rocky cavities in cliffs or in tree holes. a single tree hole may contain a pair of adults, some juveniles, and tadpoles in the water. Males are very vociferous and have a range of different calls. The eggs are sticky and laid just above the water’s surface. once the tadpoles hatch, they slide down into the water to continue their development. The juveniles are thought to disperse through the forest when they become sexually mature.

334 frogs and toads | Ranidae profile Up to 20,000 horizontal Nocturnal and diurnal pupils e North America; widely introduced elsewhere k Least Concern green upper lip f Marshes and edges of lakes b 12–18 cm (4¾–7 in) Eggs laid in water long, powerful males have hind limbs large eardrums short, sturdy forelegs similar species appearance The coloration of the american bullfrog green frog (Lithobates is variable, ranging from brown to olive clamitans) Found in or bright green, often with a mottled shallow waters, especially pattern. it has a distinctive green upper streams and brooks lip. Males can be easily identified by their large eardrums. Lithobates catesbeianus AmericAn bullfrog the largest frog in north america, this species gets its name from its low, moaning call, which resembles the roar of a bull, and choruses can be heard over great distances. Males have paired vocal sacs, opening at each corner of their mouth. They are very aggressive towards each other in the spawning season and fight over the most favourable places for spawning. Females lay as many as 20,000 eggs. in some northern areas, the large tadpoles take up to four years to develop. Bullfrogs were first introduced in western parts of north america as part of a scheme to farm them for food. They have also been introduced in other parts of the world, usually in an attempt to provide food for people and also for the pet trade (as tadpoles). They became established in the wild and have had an adverse effect on local species; not only do they eat native frogs and other small vertebrates but they are carriers of the chytrid fungus that affects other frogs. importing bullfrogs has now been banned in most parts of the world.

frogs and toads | Ranidae 335 spotted frog pale-coloured white stripe along pointed snout The leopard frog’s coloration ridges the upper jaw can be greenish or brown with roundish spots, and a prominent spots have a ridge is always present on each light-coloured side of its back. it feeds mainly border on terrestrial invertebrates. Profile Lithobates pipiens e N. and C. North America NortherN f Grassland, woodland, leopard frog swamps, ponds, canals, this heavily spotted frog is very familiar over much and ditches of north america, although it is replaced in the south by closely related species. it lives in a variety of habitats, b 5–11 cm (2–4¼ in) often far from water. Eggs laid in water northern leopard frogs breed in still, shallow water in Up to 6,500 open areas. The males’ loud “snoring” calls can often be Nocturnal and diurnal heard in spring and summer, even when they cannot be seen. The tadpoles feed mainly on algae. They sometimes k Least Concern overwinter if their growth has been slow. adults hibernate underground or at the bottom of ponds; they can survive cold temperatures but not freezing. For many years, thousands of these frogs were collected for dissection in schools and universities. in recent years, their numbers have declined in some areas as a result of the presence of agricultural pesticides in water, from traffic deaths, and increased ultraviolet radiation.

336 frogs and toads | Ranidae profilE 600–3,000 rare amphibian Mainly diurnal, but The relatively large pool frog e C. Europe; was extinct also active at night is one of the rarest amphibians in Britain, but has recently in Britain. However, it is still been reintroduced there k Least Concern common in other parts of its range. f Very aquatic irregular dark patches b Up to 8 cm (3¼ in) powerful hind limbs Eggs laid in clumps attached to aquatic plants pointed eardrums are about the snout same size as the eyes similar spEciEs Pelophylax lessonae Edible water frog Pool Frog (Pelophylax esculenta) a hybrid offspring of the the pool frog is a heavily built species with a pointed pool frog and the marsh frog snout and pear-shaped body. it is usually green, bronze, or brown in colour; some specimens have a light stripe along the centre of the back and other pale areas on the flanks. Some males develop an overall yellow coloration during the breeding season. This species is well adapted to an aquatic lifestyle with powerful hind limbs and eyes located relatively high on top of the head. it typically stays near the edges of large bodies of water with just its head showing. in the breeding season, large congregations of males call during the day; the choruses sound very similar to quacking ducks. There are up to 10 additional species of water frog in parts of europe, some of which are distinguishable only by their proteins and dna; the genetics of this group of species is very complicated and has only recently been fully understood.

frogs and toads | Ranidae 337 profile b Up to 11 cm (41⁄4 in) spring migration also called the grass frog, this e N. and C. Europe, Eggs laid in clusters species lives most of its life and into C. Asia 700–4,500 on land, but migrates to ponds Nocturnal and diurnal in early spring to breed. it is a f Moist, shady places, relatively large frog with a robust including woods, k Least Concern body and powerful hind limbs. gardens, and fields; outside the breeding eyes are brown season, often close to water irregular dark patches across the back whitish underside hind legs are covered with dark bands males have thicker forearms than females siMilar species Rana temporaria pointed snout european common frog Moor frog (Rana arvalis) Similar to european common common frogs may be almost any shade of brown frog but more pointed snout; or yellowish brown, usually with darker blotches, and males turn blue during the invariably a black “mask” across the eyes, covering the breeding season eardrums. They are the most familiar frogs over much of europe and are often found in gardens and other disturbed agile frog (Rana dalmatina) habitats. Some remain near the ponds in which they breed Similar, but more slender and throughout the year, but others disperse widely after the with longer legs spring breeding season, which can last from a few days to a few weeks, depending on the weather. Over much of their range they are explosive breeders, and clumps of spawn are often laid adjacent to each other, forming large rafts containing thousands of eggs. Spawn is usually found in temporary pools, ditches, flooded fields, or in the shallow areas of larger ponds and lakes. Tadpoles usually develop and metamorphose at the end of their first summer, but a proportion may overwinter and emerge the following year.

338 glossAry Glossary AdAptAtion bArbel cArnivore Behavioural or physical A long, fleshy projection, Any animal that specializes characteristic that has evolved usually under the chin of a in eating meat. to improve an organism’s tortoise or turtle. chances of survival in a cArrion particular environment. bAsk The remains of a dead animal. To acquire heat, usually from AestivAtion the sun. Some reptiles bask by cAsque Period of inactivity brought positioning themselves under A bony crest on a lizard or about by long, hot, and dry a flat rock. frog's head; many chameleons conditions. Some desert have casques. reptiles and amphibians binoculAr vision aestivate, becoming active The ability to focus both eyes cAudAl Autotomy again only after rain. on an object. This kind of Discarding a part of the tail vision allows an animal to usually in self-defence. Ambush predAtor judge distance. A predator that waits in a cheloniAn concealed position until its bromeliAd Collective name for turtles prey comes within range. Many A plant of the family and tortoises. ambush predators are well Bromeliaceae, many of which camouflaged and may enhance have central water-holding chemicAl their chances by using a lure. urn-like structures. These urns communicAtion may be used by certain frogs, Communicating by smell, Amphibious including poison dart frogs, as as in the case of reptiles Able to live both on land and nurseries for their tadpoles. and amphibians. in water. cAlcAreous chytrid fungus Amplexus Containing calcium carbonate. A fungal disease, A position in which male The hard shell of the eggs of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis frogs and salamanders grasp some reptiles, such as turtles (Bd), affecting amphibians. It females during mating. and some geckos, is was identified in recent years Amplexus in frogs may be calcareous. as a major cause of species inguinal or axillary. decline and extinction on a cAmouflAge global scale. AposemAtic colorAtion A general term describing The use of bright colours, the colour and patterns of clAss often in conjunction with some species that help them A taxonomic unit containing black, by an animal to warn to blend in with their one or more orders, but predators that it is dangerous, environment. below the hierarchical toxic, or distasteful. unit phylum. cAnnibAl ArboreAl Eating members of one’s cloAcA Adapted for living in trees. own species (but not eating A common opening of the a different species in the excretory and reproductive Arid same order, so snakes that systems. Descriptive of a dry area, eat other types of snakes such as a desert. are not cannibalistic). constrictor A snake that kills its prey by AxillAry cAptive breeding coiling around it tightly until In zoology, the area of the A way of helping endangered it suffocates. body that corresponds to animals by breeding them the armpit. For instance, in in captivity. Sometimes their crepusculAr axillary amplexus, the male young are released back Active at dusk and/or dawn. frog grasps the female into the wild. beneath her armpits. crest cArApAce A ridge of skin or scales AquAtic In turtles and tortoises the running along the top of the Living or growing in or near carapace is the upper part head and/or the body and tail water. of the shell. of some lizards and newts.

glossary 339 CroCodilian external fertilization habitat destruCtion Generic term for all alligators, A method of reproduction A change to the environment caimans, crocodiles, and in which the eggs and that has an impact on the gharials. sperm are fused after the natural habitat, usually female has laid her eggs, with negative results for CryptiC Coloration as in most frogs and some the inhabitants. Colour or pattern that salamanders. breaks up the outline of an heat-sensitive pit animal, helping it to blend in extinCt (or heat pit) with its surroundings and There are no known living An organ found in the face making it difficult to see. members remaining in the of some snakes that are wild or in captivity. A species used for detecting small CryptiC speCies is said to be locally extinct temperature changes, such Two or more species that when a particular population as the radiant heat given off look identical but which differ has become extinct even by warm-blooded animals. genetically. They are often though it may survive In boas and pythons, these prevented from interbreeding elsewhere. are situated within or between by distinct patterns of the labial (lip) scales, and in courtship behaviour. extinCt in the wild pit vipers a pair of pits are An IUCN category that located between the eyes desert indicates a species that exists and the nostrils. A region that experiences little only in captivity. rainfall. herbivore family An animal that specializes in dewlap A taxonomic unit that forms part eating plants. A flap of skin under a lizard’s of an order and is subdivided throat, sometimes retractable, into one or more genera. hibernation and may be used in displays. An extended period of It is often larger and more fang inactivity during which an colourful in males. A long tooth; in the case of animal’s metabolism slows venomous snakes fangs are down. Reptiles and amphibians dimorphism often grooved or hollow to from cool regions often Existing in two different inject the venom. hibernate for several forms. Males and females months in the winter. of a species are said to be flash Coloration sexually dimorphic if they A patch of brightly coloured inguinal amplexus differ in shape, size, or colour. skin or scales that is only A form of amplexus in visible when an animal moves. which the male frog grasps display The purpose of this coloration the female just in front of her Pattern of behaviour in which is to confuse predators. hind limbs. Also known as a reptile or amphibian attracts pelvic amplexus. attention while it is courting forage or defending its territory. The activity of looking for food. internal fertilization A method of reproduction diurnal genus in which the fusion of the Animals that are active during A taxonomic unit that egg and sperm takes place the day and sleep at night. contains one or more closely inside the female’s body. related species. The level This method is common dorsal genera comes between to all reptiles, caecilians, Referring to the back. Dorsal species and families in the most salamanders, and scales, for instance, are the taxonomic hierarchy. Species a small number of frogs. tile-like scales that cover belonging to the same genus the back and flanks of a have the same first name – introduCed speCies snake's body. the generic name – which A species that has been must be unique; for instance, introduced, either deliberately eCosystem Rana and Agama. or by accident, to a region where A collection of living things it does not occur naturally. and their environment. An grub ecosystem can be as small A legless larva of an insect, invertebrate as a pond or as big as a forest. such as a beetle. An animal that does not have a backbone or bony skeleton. environment habitat Invertebrates are often The physical setting inhabited The natural home of any small and include insects, by an animal. particular species. crustaceans, and molluscs.

340 gLossary IrIdescent LUre oceLLUs (pL. oceLLI) Colours that appear to Some ambush predators use The eye-like spot found in change and flicker according certain parts of their body as the body patterns of some to the direction of the light. lures to entice their prey to reptiles and amphibians. Some snakes and lizards have move within range. Examples particularly iridescent scales. include several snakes that oLd worLd have brightly coloured tails Europe, Asia, Africa, and IUcn that they move to simulate Australasia and its associated The initials used to designate a grub or caterpillar, and the islands. See also New World. the International Union alligator snapping turtle with for Conservation of Nature. its worm-like appendage on oMnIvore This organization assesses the floor of its mouth. An animal that eats both the threats to wildlife on a plants and other animals species by species basis. MetaMorphosIs as its primary food source. The transformation of a larva, IUcn red LIst such as a tadpole, into the order A list prepared by the IUCN adult form. A taxonomic unit containing that identifies the conservation one or more families, but lower status of species. The status MIgratIon in the hierarchy than class. can be Least Concern, Near The movement of animals from Threatened, Vulnerable, one place to another to find osteoderM Endangered, Critically food or to breed. A bony plate below the Endangered, and Extinct. scales of most crocodilians Many species are not MoULt and some lizards. yet assessed. To shed the outer layer of skin (epidermis). ovIparoUs Jacobson’s organ Reproducing by laying eggs. In reptiles, a pair of organs neoteny that open on to the roof of Retaining juvenile characteristics ovo-vIvIparoUs the mouth and connect to the throughout life. Reproducing by means of olfactory part of the brain. eggs that hatch as they are The forked tongue of snakes new worLd laid or soon afterwards. In an and some lizards picks up A shorthand way to describe ovo-viviparous animal, the scent particles from the the Americas and its associated eggs are retained inside the environment and passes islands. See also Old World. mother's body until they hatch, them to the Jacobson’s organ, but they do not receive any which then transfers the noctUrnaL nourishment from the mother. information to the brain. Active at night. Most live-bearing reptiles are ovo-viviparous. KeeLed scaLe noMInate sUbspecIes A scale that has one or more If there are more than one parotId gLand longitudinal ridges, usually subspecies, the nominate In amphibians, the large down the centre, giving a rough subspecies is the one that swollen accumulation of appearance and texture. represents a species when poison-secreting pores, it was first described. The usually found behind the LabIaL scaLe subspecific name of the eyes, but sometimes found A scale bordering the mouth. nominate subspecies in other positions, such as repeats the specific name. the thighs. Larva For instance, Vipera aspis aspis The young form of all is the nominate subspecies parthenogenIc (or amphibians, before undergoing of Vipera aspis (the asp viper). parthenogenetIc) metamorphosis into the adult Other subspecies described Referring to a species in form (the larvae of frogs and later must have different which the females can toads are more commonly subspecific names, such as produce viable offspring called tadpoles). Vipera aspis montecristi. without the need to mate with a male. Some species LateraL nUptIaL pad are fully parthenogenic Referring to the side. Laterally A dark and rough swelling whereas others may have compressed, for instance, that forms on the hands, both parthenogenic and means flattened from side forearms, and occasionally normal populations. to side, as in the tails of the chest of male frogs crocodilians and other aquatic during the breeding season. peLagIc reptiles, and in the cross-section This helps the frog to grasp Inhabiting the upper and of some arboreal snakes. the female in amplexus. middle layers of the ocean.

glossary 341 phase saddle territorial One of several genetically Markings, usually on snakes, Defending an area from controlled variants, such in which a wide blotch passes other members of the same as colour. over the animal’s back. species. pheromone scute thermoregulation A substance released by A large scale, especially the Regulation of the body an organism that produces sections covering a turtle’s shell. temperature by physiological a response in another or behavioural means to individual of the same species. species ensure that it remains within a Pheromones are a form of A group of similar organisms preferred temperature range. chemical communication. that are capable of interbreeding in the wild, producing fertile toad pigment offspring that resemble A member of the family A substance that gives an themselves. The species is the Bufonidae, although the term animal its colour. In reptiles fundamental unit used in is also applied to numerous and amphibians, pigments biological classification. other dry-skinned, warty frogs. are usually embedded in cells in the skin or scales. spectacle tortoise A transparent scale covering A terrestrial turtle. plastron the eyes of snakes and some The lower part of a turtle or lizards, such as geckos. tropical tortoise shell. Climate in the region of the spur world north and south of prehensile tail A pointed scale either the equator that undergoes A tail that can be used to attached to a limb or, in very little seasonal change curl around objects and grip pythons and boas, positioned in either day length or them; a characteristic of on each side of the cloaca and temperature. arboreal animals. forming vestigial limbs. It is sometimes used in courtship. tubercle proboscis A small fleshy pimple Extended snout, as in a few subadult or protuberance on frogs, lizards, and snakes. Stage of life between a juvenile an animal’s body. and an adult. rainforest Venom Forest, usually in the tropics, subspecies Fluid containing toxins that are which has high rainfall and high A taxonomic unit that is injected into prey, by snakes, humidity. Tropical rainforests subordinate to species. for example. are especially rich in reptiles Different subspecies within and amphibians. a species are capable of Ventral breeding with each other, but Referring to the underside, as rattle do not do so under natural in ventral scales, for instance. A structure on the tail of conditions because subspecies rattlesnakes, consisting of are geographically separated. Vertebrate loosely interlocking segments An animal with a backbone. of dead skin, which makes a tadpole sound when vibrated. A term for a frog or toad larva. Vestigial A part of an animal that is rattlesnakes taxonomy in the process of being lost Vipers of the genera Crotalus An arrangement of plants and through the evolutionary and Sistrurus that have a animals into groups based on process. This part is small warning rattle at the tip of their natural relationships. and often serves no function. their tail. See also spur. temperate rear-fanged snake A region that has a climate ViViparous Snakes that have enlarged that never gets very hot or Reproducing by giving birth fangs positioned towards the very cold. to live young, which develop rear of the upper jaw. They in, and are nourished by, may be used to introduce terrapin the mother. venom. A term for certain species of freshwater turtles. Vocal sac rostral scale A structure in the throat of A scale at the tip of a reptile’s terrestrial frogs and toads that can be snout. Living on the ground. inflated to amplify sound.

342 index index Page numbers in bold indicate American crocodile 228 Australian barking gecko 164 main entries. American horned lizard 132 Australian green treefrog 276 American pit viper 103 Australian water dragon 8 A amethystine python 31 axolotl 234, 237 Amietophrynus rangeri 293 Acanthophis praelongus 98 Amietophrynus regularis 293 B Acanthosaura crucigera 126 Amphibia 9 Acontias lineatus 180 amphibian Baird’s ratsnake 69 Acrantophis dumerili 40 Balkan whipsnake 62 Acrochordidae 49 aestivation 8 ball python 36 Acrochordus granulatus 49 characteristics 9 banana frog 316 adder 123 class 9 banded sea krait 100 conservation 18, 19 banded water snake 83 Northern death 98 defence 14, 15 barking treefrog 273 Peringuey’s 116 feeding 12 barred leaf frog 285 puff 116 habitat 10 barred tiger salamander 238 Aesculapian snake 76 hibernation 8 Basiliscus plumifrons 145 aestivation 8 order 9 Basiliscus vittatus 145 African bullfrog 324 reproduction 16 basilisk African clawed frog 257 thermoregulation 8 African egg-eating snake 12 Amphisbaena fuliginosa 197 brown 145 African helmeted turtle 203 Amphisbaenia 9, 125 green 145 African rock python 37 amphisbaenian 125, 198 Batesian mimicry 66 African saw-scaled viper 120 Amphisbaenidae 197 Batrachoseps attenuatus 247 African spurred tortoise 221 anaconda 29, 44 beaded lizard 191 Afrixalus fornasini 316 yellow 44 bearded pygmy chameleon 141 Agalychnis callidryas 282 Anaxyrus debilis 294 bell toad 259 Agalychnis lemur 283 Anaxyrus punctatus 294 big-headed gecko 159 Agalychnis saltator 282 Anguidae 187–89 Bipedidae 199 agama Anguis fragilis 187 Bipes biporus 199 desert 127 Anilius scytale 250 Bitis arietans 116 Mwanza flat-headed 127 annuli 125 Bitis gabonica 117 Agama agama 127 anole Bitis peringueyi 116, 158 Agama mwanzae 127 brown 147 black-headed python 28 Agamidae 124, 126–35 green 147 black-headed snake 101 agile frog 337 Anolis carolinensis 147 black mamba 91 Agkistrodon contortrix 102 Anolis sagrei 147 black-spined toad 297 Agkistrodon piscivorus 102 Antaresia childreni 27 black spiny-tailed iguana 148 Ahaetulla nasuta 50 Antaresia maculosa 27 Blanding’s turtle 210 ajolote 199 Anura 9, 252–53 Blanidae 198 Aldabrachelys gigantea 216–17 Argentine black and white tegu 175 Blanus cinereus 198 Aldabra giant tortoise 216–17 Argentine horned frog 289 blood python 35 Alligatoridae 223, 225–27 argus reed frog 318 bloodsucker lizard 128 alligator lizard armadillo girdled lizard 172 blue-crested lizard 128 Northern 189 armadillo lizard 15 blue poison dart frog 303 Southern 189 Arthroleptidae 315 blunt-headed tree snake 89 Alligator mississippiensis 226–27 Aruba Island rattlesnake 110 boa alligator snapping turtle 207 Ascaphidae 254 common 38–39, 40 Alpine newt 239 Ascaphus truei 254 Cook’s tree 42 Alytes muletensis 259 Asian foam-nest frog 330 Cuban dwarf 25 Alytes obstetricans 259 Asian grass lizard 177 Dumeril’s ground 40 Alytidae 259–60 Asian horned frog 14, 264, 322 East African sand 47 Amazonian horned frog 289 Asian sunbeam snake 26 emerald tree 33, 41 Amblyrhynchus cristatus 148 Asian water dragon 133 garden tree 42 Ambystoma maculatum 236 Asian water monitor 193 rainbow 43 Ambystoma mexicanum 237 Aspidelaps lubricus 90 rosy 48 Ambystoma opacum 236 Aspidites melanocephalus 28 rough-scaled sand 47 Ambystomatidae 234, 236–48 Aspidites ramsayi 28 rubber 46 Ambystoma tigrinum 238 Aspidoscelis uniparens 174 Boa constrictor 13, 38–39 American alligator 226–27, 228 asp viper 122 Boaedon fuliginosus 79 American bullfrog 334 Astrochelys radiata 215 Boaedon lineatus 79 American chameleon 147 Atelopus spumarius 295 Bogertophis subocularis 51 Atelopus zeteki 295

index 343 Boidae 23, 25, 38–48 Caiman crocodilus 225 Chelonoidis nigra 218 Boiga cyanea 52 caiman lizard 8 Chelus fimbriatus 202 Boiga dendrophila 52 Calabar ground python 45 Chelydra serpentina 207 Boinae 23 Calabaria reinhardtii 45 Chelydridae 207 Bombina bombina 261 California kingsnake 64 chequered worm lizard 125 Bombina maxima 262 California mountain Children, John 27 Bombina orientalis 262 Children’s python 27 Bombinatoridae 252, 261–62 kingsnake 65 Chinese cobra 93 Bombina variegata 261 Californian slender Chinese crocodile lizard 196 boomslang 56 Chinese soft-shelled turtle 208 Boophis luteus 327 salamander 247 Chiuahuan green toad 294 Boophis rappiodes 327 Calloselasma rhodostoma 105 Chlamydosaurus kingii 129 Boophis viridis 327 Calotes mystaceus 128 Chrysemys picta 214 Borneo blood python 35 Calotes versicolor 128 Chrysopelea ornata 53 Borneo forest dragon 131 Calotriton asper 241 chuckwalla Bothriechis schlegelii 103 Calumma parsonii 138 Bothrops asper 104 Cameroon stumptail chameleon 141 common 150 Bothrops atrox 104 cane toad 300–01 piebald 150 Boulenger’s pricklenape 126 cape cobra 94 chytrid fungus 18, 275, 283, 291, box turtle 213 cape coral snake 90 295, 334 cape girdled lizard 172 CITES 40 common 213 carpet python 32 clacker 315 Florida 213 clawed frog 257 Boyd’s forest dragon 131 coastal 32 African 257 Brachylophus fasciatus 149 jungle 32 Fraser’s 257 Bradypodion thamnobates 136 Carphodactylidae 164 Clelia clelia 250 Breviceps namaquensis 313 carrot-tail viper gecko 153 coastal carpet python 32 Brevicipitidae 313 cat-eyed snake 52 coastal taipan 101 bright-eyed frog catsnake 52 cobra central 327 gold-ringed 52 cape 94 green 327 green 52 Chinese 93 red 327 Caudata 9, 234 Egyptian 93 Broghammerus reticulatus 29 caudal autotomy 14 king 96 Brookesia micra 137 central bearded dragon 134 monocled 93 Brookesia minima 137 central bright-eyed frog 327 Mozambique spitting 95 Brookesia superciliaris 137 Centrolenidae 286 Coelognathus helena 61 brown anole 147 Cerastes cerastes 118 Coleonyx variegatus 167 brown basilisk 145 Ceratobatrachidae 322 collared lizard 146 brown house snake 79 Ceratobatrachus guentheri 322 Collett’s snake 97 brown leaf chameleon 137 Ceratophryidae 288–90 Colombian horned frog 288 Budgett’s frog 290 Ceratophrys calcarata 288 Colorado desert fringe-toed Bufo bufo 296 Ceratophrys cornuta 289 lizard 152 Bufonidae 252–53, 293–99 Ceratophrys cranwelli 288 Colubridae 23, 50–89 Bufotes viridis 298 Ceratophrys ornata 289 common boa 38–39, 40 bullfrog 334 Chacoan horned frog 288 common box turtle 213 African 324 Chamaeleo calyptratus 139 common chuckwalla 150 American 334 Chamaeleo chamaeleon 139 common egg-eater 15, 55 Indian 325 Chamaeleo namaquensis 140 common flat-tail gecko 163 painted 310 Chamaeleonidae 124, 136–44 common flying dragon 130 bumble-bee frog 302 chameleon 13, 124 common garden lizard 128 Burmese python 34 American 147 common garter snake 84–85 burrowing toad 258 bearded pygmy 141 common house gecko 153 Burton’s snake lizard 171 brown leaf 137 common lancehead viper 104 bush frog 315 Cameroon stumptail 141 common leopard gecko 168 Jackson’s 144 common musk turtle 209 C Mediterranean 139 common snake-necked turtle 201 minute leaf 137 common snapping turtle 207 caecilian 234 Namaqua 140 common spadefoot toad 263 purple 234 Natal midlands dwarf 136 common trinket snake 61 ringed 250 Oustalet’s 138 Congo dwarf clawed frog 255 Rio Cauca 251 panther 142–43 Conolophus subcristatus 148 Varagua 234 Parson’s 138 Conraua goliath 323 veiled 139 Conrauidae 323 Caeciliidae 234 warty 138 conservation 18, 19 caiman 223 Charina bottae 46 CITES 19 Chelidae 201–02 IUCN 19 Cuvier’s dwarf 223, 225 Chelodina longicollis 201 IUCN red list 19 spectacled 225 Chelonia mydas 204–05 Cheloniidae 204–05

344 index D Elapidae 90–101 electric blue day gecko 157 convergent evolution 41 dab lizard 135 Eleutherodactylidae 270 Cook’s tree boa 42 Daboia russelii 119 Eleutherodactylus planirostris 270 Cope’s grey tree frog 274 Dactyloidae 147 Elgaria coerulea 189 copperhead 102 D’Albertis’ python 30 Elgaria multicarinata 189 Corallus caninus 41 Dalmatolacerta oxycephala 178 emerald tree boa 33, 41 Corallus cookii 42 Darwin, Charles 218, 331 emerald tree monitor 195 Corallus hortulanus 42 Darwin’s frog 292 emerald tree skink 14, 181 coral snake 14, 92, 197 Dasypeltis scabra 55 Emydidae 210–14 defence 14 Emydoidea blandingii 210 cape 90 Emys orbicularis 210 Sonoran 92 aposematic coloration 14 Epicrates cenchria 43 South American 92 unkenreflex 14 Epidalea calamita 298 Cordylidae 172 Dendroaspis viridis 91 Epipedobates tricolor 304 cordylus cordylus 172 Dendrobates auratus 302 Erpeton tentaculatum 77 corn snake 70 Dendrobates leucomelas 302 Erycinae 23 Coronella austriaca 54 Dendrobates tinctorius 303 Erythrolamprus epinephelus Correlophus ciliatus 165 Dendrobates tinctorius corroboree toadlet 269 azureus 303 305 Corytophanidae 145 Dendrobates tinctorius Eryx colubrinus 47 cottonmouth 57, 83, 102 tinctorius 303 escuerzo 289 Couch’s spadefoot toad 265 Dendrobatidae 253, 302–08 Eublepharidae 167–69 Cranwell’s horned frog 288 Dermochelyidae 206 Eublepharis macularius 168 crested gecko 165 Dermochelys coriacea 206 Eunectes murinus 44 crested newt 234, 242 desert agama 127 Eunectes notaeus 44 crocodile 223 desert grassland whiptail 174 Euprepiophis mandarinus 60 American 228 desert horned lizard 151 Eurasian blind snake 24 Cuban 223, 225, desert horned viper 15, 118 European common frog 337 desert tortoise 219 European common toad 296 228, 229 diadem snake 74 European fire-bellied toad 261, dwarf 229 Diadophis punctatus 87 Nile 229 diamond python 32 299 saltwater 223, 230 Dicroglossidae 325–26 European glass lizard 188 Siamese 230 Diplodactylidae 165–66 European green toad 298 West African dwarf 223 Discoglossus galganoi 260 European newt 239 crocodile newt 243 Discoglossus nigriventer 260 European pond turtle 210 crocodilian 223 Discoglossus pictus 260 European treefrog 272 Crocodilus niloticus 229 Dispholidus typus 56 European worm lizard 198 Crocodylia 9, 223 Dolichophis caspius 62 eyed lizard 176 Crocodylidae 223, 228–29, Draco volans 130 eyelash frog 322 230 Drymarchon couperi 57 eyelash pit viper 103 Crocodylus acutus 228 duck-billed treefrog 281 eyelid gecko 167, 169 Crocodylus porosus 230 Dumeril’s ground boa 40 Crocodylus rhombifer 225, Duttaphrynus melanostictus 297 F 228, 229 dwarf crocodile 229 Crocodylus siamensis 230 dyeing poison frog 303 false smooth snake 54 Crotalinae 23 Dyscophus antongilii 309 fat-tailed gecko 169 Crotalus adamanteus 108 Dyscophus guineti 309 feeding 12–13 Crotalus atrox 106–07 fertilization 16–17, 252 Crotalus cerastes 109 E fierce snake 101 Crotalus durissus 110 Fiji banded iguana 149 Crotalus durissus terrificus 110 East African sand boa 47 file-eared tree frog 330 Crotalus durissus unicolor 110 Eastern blue-tongued skink 183 fire-bellied toad 261, 262 Crotalus oreganus helleri 111 Eastern brown snake 97 Crotalus viridis 111 Eastern diamondback rattlesnake European 261, 299 Crotaphytidae 146 Oriental 262 Crotaphytus collaris 146 108, 23 fire salamander 244–45 crowned dwarf snake 58 Eastern indigo snake 57 Portuguese 244 Cruziohyla calcarifer 284 Eastern water dragon 131 fire skink 181 Cryptobranchidae 235 Echis carinatus 120 five-toed worm lizard 199 Cryptobranchus alleganiensis Echis ocellatus 120 floating frog 326 235 edible water frog 336 Florida box turtle 213 Cryptodira 200 egg tooth 17 flying frog 284, 331, 332 Ctenosaura similis 148 Egyptian cobra 93 Fornasini’s spiny reed frog 316 Cuban crocodile 223, 225, Eirenis coronella 58 four-lined snake 59 228, 229 Elaphe quatuorlineata 59 Fraser’s clawed frog 257 Cuban dwarf boa 25 frilled lizard 129 Cuban treefrog 277 Cuvier’s dwarf caiman 223, 225

frog 252, 253 web-footed 158 index 345 anatomy 252 Western banded 167 families 253 wonder 170 green whipsnake 62 feet 253 Geckolepis typica 159 grey-banded kingsnake 63 fertilization 252 Gekko gecko 154–55 Gymnopis multiplicata 234 habitat 253 Gekkonidae 153–63 limbs 253 Gekko vittatus 155 H Geochelone elegans 215 frog-eyed gecko 170 Geochelone sulcata 221 habitat 10–11, 253 Furcifer pardalis 142–43 George, Lonesome 218 harlequin tree frog 332 Furcifer verrucosus 138 Gerrhosauridae 173 hawksbill turtle 13 Gerrhosaurus major 173 hellbender 235 G Geyr’s spiny-tailed lizard 135 Heloderma horridum 191 gharial 223, 224 Heloderma suspectum 191 gaboon viper 117 giant land tortoise 200, 216 Helodermatidae 191 Galapagos land iguana 148 Gila monster 191 Hemidactylus frenatus 153 Galapagos tortoise 13, 148, girdled lizard Hemidactylus imbricatus 153 armadillo 172 Hemidactylus turcicus 153 216, 218 cape 172 Hemiphractidae 271 Gambelia wislizenii 146 glass lizard Hemisotidae 314 garden tree boa 42 European 188 Hemisus marmoratus 314 garter snake slender 188 Hemitheconyx caudicinctus 169 Glyptemys insculpta 211 Hermann’s tortoise 222 common 84–85 goanna Heterixalus alboguttatus 317 Pacific coast aquatic 85 Gould’s 192 Heterixalus madagascariensis red-spotted 84 sand 192 San Francisco 84 gold-dust day gecko 161 317 Santa Cruz 85 golden flying snake 53 Heterodon nasicus 88 Western terrestrial 86 golden mantella 9, 328 Heterodon simus 88 Gastrotheca riobambae 271 golden poison dart frog 305 Hierophis gemonensis 62 gavial 224 golden-tailed gecko 166 Hierophis viridiflavus 62 Gavialidae 223–24 gold-ringed catsnake 52 hognose snake 15 Gavialis gangeticus 224 Goliath frog 323 gecko 124–25 Gonocephalus bornensis 131 Malagasy giant 81 Australian barking 164 Gonyosoma oxycephalum 61 plains 88 big-headed 159 gopher snake 72 Southern 88 carrot-tail viper 153 Gopherus agassizii 219 Hoplobatrachus tigerinus 325 common flat-tail 163 Gould’s goanna 192 horned frog 289 common house 153 Grandidier’s gecko 159 Amazonian 289 common leopard 168 Graptemys geographica 212 Argentine 289 crested 165 Graptemys pseudogeographica Asian 14, 264, 322 electric blue day 157 kohnii 212 Colombian 288 eyelid 167, 169 grass frog 337 Cranwell’s 288 fat-tailed 169 grass snake 15, 82, 252 Kobayashi’s 264 frog-eyed 170 green and black poison dart ornate 289 Gold-dust day 161 frog 302 Solomon Island 322 golden-tailed 166 green and golden bell frog 275 horny toad 151 Grandidier’s 159 green anole 147 Horsfield’s tortoise 222 Klemmer’s day 160 green-backed mantella 329 house snake Kuhl’s flying 162 green basilisk 145 brown 79 leopard 169 green bright-eyed frog 327 lined 79 lined 155 green catsnake 52 Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni Madagascar day 161 green frog 334 286 mossy 165 greenhouse frog 270 Hydromantes italicus 248 mourning 156 green iguana 149 Hydrophis platurus 99 neon day 160 green lizard 176 hygroscopic grooves 132 New Caledonian gargoyle 165 green snake Hyla arborea 272 palm 155 rough 68 Hyla chrysoscelis 274 Peacock day 161 smooth 68 Hyla cinerea 273 Satanic leaf-tailed 163 green spiny lizard 152 Hyla gratiosa 273 soft spiny-tailed 166 green-striped tree dragon 126 Hyla meridionalis 272 spiny-tailed 166 green treefrog 273 Hyla versicolor 274 Standing’s day 160 green tree monitor 195 Hylidae 253, 272–85 thick-tailed 164 green tree python 33, 41 Hymenochirus boettgeri tokay 154–55 green turtle 19, 204–05 255 Turkish 153 green vine snake 50 Hyperoliidae 316–20 turquoise dwarf 157 Hyperolius argus 318 variegated 170 Hyperolius marmoratus 319 Hypsilurus boydii 131

346 index Lampropeltis californiae 64 M Lampropeltis mexicana 63 I Lampropeltis pyromelana 65 Macrochelys temminckii 207 Lampropeltis triangulum 66 Macroprotodon cucullatus 54 Ichthyophiidae 234 Lampropeltis triangulum Madagascan leaf-nosed snake 80 Ichthyosaura alpestris 239 Madagascan rainbow frog 312 iguana 124 campbelli 66 Madagascar day gecko 161 Lampropeltis triangulum Madagascar reed frog 317 black spiny-tailed 148 Majorcan midwife toad 259 Fiji banded 149 sinaloae 66 malachite swift 152 Galapagos land 148 Lampropeltis zonata 65 Malacochersus tornieri 220 green 149 Langaha madagascariensis 80 Malagasy giant hognose snake marine 148 large psammodromus 177 Iguana iguana 149 large whipsnake 62 81 Iguanidae 148–49 Laticauda colubrina 100 Malayan tree toad 297 Imantodes cenchoa 89 leaf-folding frog 316 Malayasian treehole frog 311 Indian bullfrog 325 leaf frog Malaysian pit viper 105 Indian starred tortoise 215 Malpolon monspessulanus 67 inland taipan 101 barred 285 Mandarin newt 243 Intellagama lesueurii 131 lemur 283 Mandarin ratsnake 60 Italian cave salamander 248 misfit 282 Mandarin salamander 12, 243 Italian wall lizard 178 red-eyed 282, 284 mangrove snake 52 IUCN 19, 101, 253, 311 splendid 284 mantella waxy monkey 285 J white-lined 284 golden 9, 328 leatherback turtle 13, 206 green-backed 329 Jackson’s chameleon 144 Leioheterodon madagascariensis Mantella aurantiaca 328 Jacobson’s organ 8, 39 81 Mantella laevigata 329 Jade tree frog 332 Leiopython albertisii 30 Mantellidae 327–29 Japalura splendida 126 lemur leaf frog 283 map turtle Jesus Christ lizard 145 leopard gecko 169 Mississippi 212 John’s groove-toed frog 325 leopard snake 75 Northern 212 jungle carpet python 32 leopard tortoise 221 marbled rain frog 312 Lepidobatrachus laevis 290 marbled reed frog 319 K Lepidodactylus lugubris 156 marbled salamander 236 Lepidophyma flavimaculatum marbled shovel-nosed frog 314 Kalophrynus baluensis 310 186 marine iguana 148 Kalophrynus pleurostigma 310 Lepidothyris fernandi 181 marine lizard 148 Kaloula pulchra 310 Leptodactylidae 287 marine toad 300–01 Kassina maculata 320 Leptodactylus pentadactylus 287 marine turtle 200 Kinabalu sticky frog 310 Leptopelis nordequatorialis 315 marsh frog 336 king cobra 96 Lialis burtonis 171 Mascarene grass frog 321 kingsnake 63 Liangshantriton taliangensis 243 Massasauga 113 Lichanura trivirgata 48 mastigure 135 California 64 Limnodynastes dorsalis 267 matamata 202 California mountain 65 Limnodynastidae 267 Mediterranean chameleon 139 grey-banded 63 lined gecko 155 Mediterranean treefrog 272 Mexican 63 lined house snake 79 Megophryidae 264 Sonoran mountain 65 Liochlorophis vernalis 68 Megophrys kobayashii 264 Kinosternidae 209 Lissotriton vulgaris 240 Megophrys nasuta 264 Kinosternon subrubrum 209 Lithobates catesbeianus 334 melanistic 76, 84 Klemmer’s day gecko 160 Lithobates clamitans 334 Melanophryniscus stelzneri 299 knob-scaled lizard 190 Lithobates pipiens 335 Metaphrynella pollicaris 311 Kobayashi’s horned frog 264 Litoria adelaidensis 275 Metaphrynella sundana 311 Komodo dragon 193 Litoria aurea 275 Mexican kingsnake 63 Kweichow crocodile newt 243 Litoria caerulea 276 Mexican mole lizard 199 Litoria infrafrenata 276 Microhylidae 253, 309–12 L Litoria moorei 275 Micruroides euryxanthus 92 little file snake 49 Micrurus lemniscatus 92 Lacerta agilis 179 lizard 124–25 midwife toad 259 Lacerta schreiberi 176 anatomy 124 milk frog 280 Lacerta viridis 176 breeding 124–25 milksnake 14, 92 Lacertidae 176–79 reproduction 124–25 Pueblan 66 Lachesis muta 112 viviparous 125, 179 Sinaloan 66 Lake Titicaca frog 291 long-nosed leopard lizard 146 mimic poison dart frog 308 Lamprolepis smaragdina 181 long-nosed snake 73 minute leaf chameleon 137 Lampropeltis alterna 63 long-nosed whipsnake 50 misfit leaf frog 282 Loxocemidae 26 mission golden-eyed treefrog 280 Loxocemus bicolor 26

index 347 Mississippi map turtle 212 smooth 240 peacock day gecko 161 Mixophyes schevilli 266 Southern marbled 242 pebas stubfoot toad 295 Mniarogekko chahoua 165 taliang knobby 243 Pedostibes hosii 297 Moloch horridus 132 warty 242 pelagic sea snake 99 monitor Nile crocodile 229 Pelamis platurus 99 Nile monitor 194 Pelobates cultripes 263 Asian water 193 North African spiny-tailed lizard 135 Pelobates fuscus 263 emerald tree 195 Northern alligator lizard 189 Pelobatidae 252, 263 green tree 195 Northern barred frog 266 Pelomedusa subrufa 203 Nile 194 Northern crested newt 242 Pelomedusidae 203 ridgetail 192 Northern death adder 98 Pelophylax esculenta 336 white-throated 194 Northern glass frog 286 Pelophylax lessonae 336 monitor lizard 125 Northern grey tree frog 274 Peringuey’s adder 116 monocled cobra 93 Northern leopard frog 335 phantasmal poison frog 304 Montpellier snake 67 Northern map turtle 212 Phelsuma klemmeri 160 moor frog 337 Northern slimy salamander 248 Phelsuma laticauda 161 Morelia amethistina 31 nose-horned viper 121 Phelsuma madagascariensis 161 Morelia kinghorni 31 Phelsuma madagascariensis Morelia spilota 32 O Morelia spilota cheynei 32 grandis 161 Morelia spilota mcdowelli 32 Occidozyga lima 326 Phelsuma quadriocellata 161 Morelia spilota spilota 32 ocellated spiny-tailed lizard 135 Phelsuma standingi 160 Morelia viridis 33 Old World monitor lizard 175 Phrynocephalus mystaceus 125 mossy frog 15, 333 Oophaga pumilio 306–07 Phrynosoma cornutum 151 mossy gecko 165 Opheodrys aestivus 68 Phrynosoma platyrhinos 151 motorbike frog 275 Ophidia 9 Phrynosomatidae 151–52 mourning gecko 156 Ophiophagus hannah 96 Phyllobates terribilis 305 Mozambique spitting cobra 95 Ophisaurus attenuatus 188 Phyllomedusa sauvagii 285 mudpuppy 246 Oriental fire-bellied toad 262 Phyllomedusa tomopterna 285 Müllerian mimicry 249, 308 ornate horned frog 289 Phyllomedusa vaillantii 284 mussurana 250 oropel 103 piebald chuckwalla 150 Mwanza flat-headed agama 127 Orsini’s viper 23, 123 pied mossy frog 333 Myobatrachidae 266, 268–69 osteoderm 15, 206, 225 pinecone lizard 184 Myobatrachus gouldii 268 Osteolaemus tetraspis 229 pine snake 72 Osteopilus septentrionalis 277 Pipa pipa 256 N Ouroborus cataphractus 172 Pipidae 255–57 Oustalet’s chameleon 138 Pituophis catenifer 72 Naja atra 93 ovo-viviparous 125 Pituophis melanoleucus 72 Naja haje 93 Oxybelis fulgidus 50 pit viper 112, 119 Naja kaouthia 93 Oxyuranus microlepidotus 101 Naja mossambica 95 Oxyuranus scutellatus 101 American 103 Naja nivea 94 eyelash 103 Namaqua chameleon 140 P Malaysian 105 Namaqua rain frog 313 Pope’s bamboo 114 Natal midlands dwarf chameleon Pachydactylus rangei 158 Wagler’s 115 Pacific chorus frog 278 white-lipped 114 136 Pacific coast aquatic garter snake 85 plains hognose snake 88 Natrix maura 82 Pacman frog 288 plated lizard 15 Natrix natrix 82 painted bullfrog 310 Plethodon glutinosus 258 natterjack toad 298 painted turtle 214 Plethodontidae 244, 247–49 Necturus maculosus 246 Paleosuchus palpebrosus 225 Pleurodeles waltl 241 neon day gecko 160 palm gecko 155 Pleurodira 200 neoteny 237, 238 Panamanian golden toad 295 pobblebonk 267 neotropical rattlesnake 110 pancake tortoise 220 Podarcis siculus 178 neotropical sunbeam snake 26 panther chameleon 142–43 Pogona henrylawsoni 134 Nerodia fasciata 83 Pantherophis bairdi 69 Pogona vitticeps 134 New Caledonian gargoyle gecko 165 Pantherophis guttatus 70 poison dart frog 14, 253, 287, 302, New Guinea blue-tongued skink 183 Pantherophis obsoletus 71 304, 305, 308 newt Pantherophis obsoletus blue 303 golden 305 crested 244 quadrivittata 71 green and black 302 crocodile 243 paradoxical frog 279 mimic 308 European 249 Paroedura picta 159 red-headed 308 Kweichow crocodile 243 Parson’s chameleon 138 strawberry 306–07 Mandarin 243 parthenogenic 156, 174, 186 yellow and black 302 marbled 242 dyeing 303 Northern crested 242 phantasmal 304 sharp-ribbed 241 Polypedates leucomystax 330

348 index Rana johnsi 325 Rhinocheilus lecontei 73 Rana temporaria 337 Rhinoderma darwinii 292 Polypedates otilophus 330 Ranidae 253, 334–37 Rhinodermatidae 292 pool frog 336 Ranitomeya fantastica 308 Rhinophrynidae 258 Pope’s bamboo pit viper 114 Ranitomeya imitator 308 Rhinophrynus dorsalis 258 Pantherophis obsoletus Rankin’s dragon 134 Rhynchocephalia 9, 223 ratsnake ridged frog 321 quadrivittata 71 ridgetail monitor 192 Portuguese fire salamander 244 Western 71 Rieppeleon brevicaudatus 141 prairie rattlesnake 111 Baird’s 69 ringed caecilian 250 pricklenape lizard 126 Mandarin 60 ringed snake 82 Boulenger’s pricklenape 126 red-tailed green 61 ringneck snake 87 Proteidae 246 Trans-Pecos 51 Riobamba marsupial frog 271 Psammodromus algirus 177 yellow 71 Rio Cauca caecilian 251 Pseudacris regilla 278 rattlesnake 15, 57, 109 rosy boa 48 Pseudechis colletti 97 Aruba Island 110 rough green snake 68 Pseudis paradoxa 279 Eastern diamondback rough-scaled plated lizard 173 Pseudonaja textilis 97 rough-scaled sand boa 47 Pseudophryne corroboree 269 108, 23 royal python 36 Pseudopus apodus 188 neotropical 110 rubber boa 46 Pseudotriton ruber 259 prairie 111 rubber eel 244 Ptychadena 321 Southern Pacific 111 rufous-sided sticky frog 310 Ptychadena mascareniensis 321 swamp 113 Russell’s viper 119 Ptychadenidae 321 Western diamondback Ptychozoon kuhli 162 S Pueblan milksnake 66 106–07 puff adder 116 raucous toad 293 Sabava tomato frog 309 puff-faced water snake 78 redbelly toad 299 salamander purple caecilian 234 red bright-eyed frog 327 Pygopodidae 171 red-eared turtle 214 barred tiger 248 Pyrenean brook salamander 241 red-eyed crocodile skink 185 Californian slender 247 python red-eyed leaf frog 282, 284 fire 244–45 red-headed poison dart frog 308 Italian cave 258 African rock 37 red salamander 249 Mandarin 12, 243 amethystine 31 red-spotted garter snake 84 marbled 236 ball 36 red-spotted toad 294 mole 234 black-headed 28 red-tailed green ratsnake 61 Northern slimy 248 Burmese 34 red-tailed racer 61 Portuguese fire 244 Calabar ground 45 red tegu 175 Pyrenean brook 241 carpet 32 reed frog 317, 318 red 249 Children’s 27 slender 247 D’Albertis’ 30 argus 318 slimy 248 diamond 32 Madagascar 317 spotted 236 green tree 33, 41 marbled 319 tiger 234, 236, 238 jungle carpet 32 white-spotted 317 Salamandra salamandra 244–45 reticulated 29 Reinwardt’s flying frog 331 Salamandra salamandra royal 36 reptile gallaica 244 scrub 31 aestivation 8 Salamandridae 234, 239–45 short-tailed 35 characteristics 8 salties 230 spotted 27 class 9 saltwater crocodile 223, 230 white-lipped 30 conservation 18, 19 Salvator merianae 175 Python bivittatus 34 defence 14, 15 sandfish skink 182 Python curtus 35 feeding 12, 13 sand goanna 192 Pythonidae 27–37 habitat 10 sand lizard 179 Python regius 36 hibernation 8 San Francisco garter snake 84 Python reticulatus 29 Jacobson’s organ 8 Santa Cruz garter snake 85 Python sebae 37 order 9 Satanic leaf-tailed gecko 163 Pyxicephalidae 324 reproduction 16 Sauria 9 Pyxicephalus adspersus 324 scales 8 Sauromalus ater 150 thermoregulation 8 Sauromalus varius 150 R Reptilia 9 saw-scaled viper 15, 55, 118, 120 reticulated python 29 scales radiated tortoise 215 Rhacodactylus auriculatus 165 granular 8 rainbow boa 43 Rhacophoridae 330–33 keeled 8 rainbow lizard 127 Rhacophorus dulitensis 332 modified 8 rain frog Rhacophorus nigropalmatus 331 smooth 8 Rhacophorus pardalis 332 see also scutes marbled 312 Rhacophorus reinwardtii 331 Namaqua 313 Rhaebo haematiticus 253 Rana arvalis 337 Rhampholeon spectrum 141 Rana dalmatina 337 Rhinella marina 300–01