11. Introdicing Sociology

INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI 2019-20

ISBN 81-7450-533-4 First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED March 2006 Phalguna 1927 Reprinted No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval December 2007 Agrahayana 1929 system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, December 2008 Pausa 1930 mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior January 2010 Magha 1931 permission of the publisher. January 2011 Magha 1932 March 2012 Phalguna 1933 This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of April 2013 Chaitra 1935 trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without March 2014 Phalguna 1935 the publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than January 2015 Magha 1936 that in which it is published. December 2015 Agrahayana 1937 December 2016 Kartika 1938 The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this December 2017 Pausa 1939 page, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker January 2019 Pausa 1940 or by any other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable. PD 60T BS OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION Phone : 011-26562708 DIVISION, NCERT Phone : 080-26725740 © National Council of Educational Phone : 079-27541446 Research and Training, 2006 NCERT Campus Phone : 033-25530454 Sri Aurobindo Marg Phone : 0361-2674869 ` ?.00 New Delhi 110 016 Printed on 80 GSM paper with 108, 100 Feet Road NCERT watermark Hosdakere Halli Extension Published at the Publication Division Banashankari III Stage by the Secretary, National Council of Bengaluru 560 085 Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 Navjivan Trust Building and printed at Nikhil Offset, 223, 127, P.O.Navjivan DSIDC Complex, Okhla Industrial Area, Ahmedabad 380 014 Phase-I, New Delhi-110 020 CWC Campus Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop Panihati Kolkata 700 114 CWC Complex Maligaon Guwahati 781 021 Publication Team : M. Siraj Anwar Head, Publication : Shveta Uppal Division : Gautam Ganguly Chief Editor : Arun Chitkara Chief Business : R. N. Bhardwaj Manager : Abdul Naim Chief Production Officer Assistant Editor Production Officer Cover Shweta Rao 2019-20

FOREWORD The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986). The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience. 2019-20

iv The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this book, Professor Yogendra Singh for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement. New Delhi Director 20 December 2005 National Council of Educational Research and Training 2019-20

TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS AT THE HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Kolkata, Kolkata CHIEF ADVISOR Yogendra Singh, Emeritus Porfessor, Centre for the Study of Social Systems, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi MEMBERS Anjan Ghosh, Fellow, Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Kolkata Arshad Alam, Lecturer, Centre for Jawaharlal Nehru Studies, Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi Arvind Chouhan, Professor, Department of Sociology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal Debal Singh Roy, Professor, Department of Sociology, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi Dinesh Kumar Sharma, Professor (Retd.), NCERT, New Delhi Jitendra Prasad, Professor (Retd.), Department of Sociology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak M.N. Karna, Professor (Retd.), Department of Sociology, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong Maitrayee Chaudhuri, Professor, Centre for the Study of Social Systems, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Manju Bhatt, Professor, Department of Education in Social Sciences, NCERT, New Delhi Pushpesh Kumar, Doctoral Fellow, Institute of Economic Growth, University of Delhi, Delhi 2019-20

vi Rajesh Mishra, Professor, Department of Sociology, Lucknow University, Lucknow Rajiv Gupta, Professor (Retd.), Department of Sociology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur S. Srinivasa Rao, Assistant Professor, Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Satish Deshpande, Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Delhi, Delhi Soumendra Mohan Patnayak, Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi Subhangi Vaidya, Assistant Director, Regional Service Division, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi MEMBER-COORDINATOR Sarika Chandrawanshi Saju, Assistant Professor, Regional Institute of Education (RIE), Bhopal. 2019-20

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges Karuna Chanana, Professor (Retd.), Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi; Abha Awasthi, Professor (Retd.), Department of Sociology, Lucknow University, Lucknow; Madhu Nagla, Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Mahrishi Dayanand University, Rohtak; Disha Nawani, Lecturer, Gargi College, New Delhi; Vishvaraksha, Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Jammu, Jammu; Sudershan Gupta, Principal, Govertment Higher Secondary School, Paloura, Jammu; Mandeep Chaudhary, PGT (Retd.) Sociology, Guru Harkishan Public School, New Delhi; Rita Khanna, PGT Sociology, Delhi Public School, New Delhi; Seema Banerjee, PGT Sociology, Laxman Public School, New Delhi; Madhu Sharan, Project Director, Hand-in-Hand, Chennai; Balaka Dey, Programme Associate, United Nations Development Programme, New Delhi; Niharika Gupta, Freelance Editor, New Delhi; Jesna Jayachandaran, Research Scholar, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi for providing their feedback and inputs. Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, former Professor and Head, Department of Education in Social Sciences for her support. The Council expresses gratitude to Jan Breman and Parthiv Shah for using photographs from their book, Working in the mill no more, published by Oxford University Press, Delhi. Some photographs were taken from the Department of Tourism, Government of India, New Delhi; National Museum, New Delhi; The Times of India, The Hindu, Outlook and Frontline. The Council thanks the authors, copyright holders and publishers of these reference materials. The Council also acknowledges the Press Information Bureau, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi for allowing to use photographs available in their photo library. Some photographs were given by John Suresh Kumar, Synodical Board of Social Service; J. John of Labour File, New Delhi; V. Suresh Chennai and R.C. Das of Central Institute of Educational Technology, NCERT, New Delhi. The Council acknowledges their contribution. Special thanks are due to Vandana R. Singh, Consultant Editor, NCERT for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes. The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Mamta, DTP Operator; Shreshtha, Proof Reader and Dinesh Kumar, Incharge, Computer Station in shaping this book. We are also grateful to Publication Department, NCERT for all their support. 2019-20

A NOTE TO THE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS This book is an introductory invitation to sociology. It is not meant to be a comprehensive and exhaustive account of the discipline. Instead it seeks to give a sense of what sociology does and how it helps us understand both society and our own lives better. The book hopes to familiarise students with the sociological perspective, its concepts and tools of research. It seeks to show how sociology as a discipline engages with the fact that each of us, as members of society have commonsensical ideas and understandings about society. How is sociology as a body of knowledge distinguishable from the body of common sense knowledge that necessarily exists in society? Is it distinguishable by its method and approach? Is it different because it continuously asks critical questions, because it accepts nothing as taken for granted? We could keep adding many more such questions. For sociology is a subject that trains us to question and understand why and how society functions the way it does. And hence there is a need to be clear about the terms and concepts that sociology uses, for they are necessary tools in our sociological understanding. Apart from the critical perspective that sociology entails, it is also marked by diverse and contending approaches. This plurality is its strength. The different views within sociology about society can be fruitfully understood as debates. Debates often help us understand a phenomena better. In keeping with the questioning and plural spirit of sociology, the book continuously engages with the reader to think and reflect, to relate what is happening to society and to us as individuals. The activities built into the text are therefore an intrinsic part of the book. The text and activities constitute an integrative whole. One cannot be done without the other. For the objective here is not just to provide ready made information about society but to understand society. Society itself is plural, diverse and unequal. The book seeks to capture this complexity in each of the chapters. Both examples and activities seek to bring this in. The activities are therefore, essential part of the text. Yet like all books, this is just a beginning. And much of the most exciting learning process will take place in the classroom. Students and teachers will perhaps think of far better ways, activities and examples and suggest how textbooks can be bettered. 2019-20

CONTENTS iii viii FOREWORD A NOTE TO THE TEACHER AND STUDENTS 1 1. SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 24 2. TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 40 3. UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 63 4. CULTURE AND SOCIALISATION 82 5. DOING SOCIOLOGY: RESEARCH METHODS 2019-20

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CHAPTER 1 SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY I market that decides which subject choice may increase or decrease your INTRODUCTION chances in the job market. The third and fourth advice complicate the matter Let us begin with some suggestions even more. It is not just our personal that are often made to young students effort or just the job market that makes like you. One advice often made is, a difference — our gender and family or “Study hard and you will do well in social background also matter. life.” The second advice as often made is, “ If you do this subject or set of Individual efforts matter a great deal subjects you will have a better chance but do not necessarily define outcomes. of getting a good job in the future”. The As we saw there are other social factors third could be, “ As a boy this does not that play an important role in the final seem a correct choice of subject” or “As outcome. Here we have only mentioned a girl, do you think your choice of the ‘job market’, the ‘socioeconomic subjects is a practical one?” The fourth, background’ and ‘gender’. Can you “Your family needs you to get a job soon think of other factors? We could well so why choose a profession that will ask, “Who decides what is a ‘good job’?” take a very long time” or “You will join Do all societies have similar notions of your family business so why do you what is a “good job?” Is money the wish to do this subject?” criteria? Or is it respect or social recognition or individual satisfaction Let us examine the suggestions. Do that decides the worth of a job? Do you think the first advice contradicts culture and social norms have any role the other three? For the first advice to play? suggests that if you work very hard, you will do very well and get a good job. The individual student must study The onus rests upon the individual. The hard to do well. But how well h/she second advice suggests that apart from does is structured by a whole set of your individual effort, there is a job societal factors. The job market is defined by the needs of the economy. 2019-20

2 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY The needs of the economy are again Third, this chapter introduces determined by the economic and sociology as a systematic study of political policies pursued by the society, distinct from philosophical and government. The chances of the religious reflections, as well as our individual student are affected both by everyday common sense observation these broader political and economic about society. Fourth, this distinct way measures as well as by the social of studying society can be better background of her/his family. This understood if we look back historically gives us a preliminary sense of how at the intellectual ideas and material sociology studies human society as an contexts within which sociology was interconnected whole. And how society born and later grew. These ideas and and the individual interact with each material developments were mainly other. The problem of choosing subjects western but with global consequences. in the senior secondary school is a Fifth, we look at this global aspect and source of personal worry for the the manner in which sociology emerged individual student. That this is a in India. It is important to remember broader public issue, affecting students that just as each of us have a as a collective entity is self evident. One biography, so does a discipline. of the tasks of sociology is to unravel Understanding the history of a the connection between a personal discipline helps understand the problem and a public issue. This is the discipline. Finally the scope of sociology first theme of this chapter. and its relationship to other disciplines is discussed. We have already seen that a ‘good job’ means different things to different II societies. The social esteem that a particular kind of job has or does not THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION: have for an individual depends on the THE PERSONAL PROBLEM AND THE culture of his/her ‘relevant society’. PUBLIC ISSUE What do we mean by ‘relevant society’? Does it mean the ‘society’ the individual We began with a set of suggestions that belongs to? Which society does the drew our attention to how the individual individual belong to? Is it the and society are dialectically linked. This neighbourhood? Is it the community? is a point that sociologists over several Is it the caste or tribe? Is it the generations have been concerned with. professional circle of the parents? Is it C. Wright Mills rests his vision of the the nation? Second, this chapter sociological imagination precisely in therefore looks at how the individual in the unravelling of how the personal and modern times belongs to more than one public are related. society. And how societies are unequal. 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 3 Activity 1 Read the text from Mills carefully. Then examine the visual and report below. Do you notice how the visual is of a poor and homeless couple? The sociological imagination helps to understand and explain homelessness as a public issue. Can you identify what could be the causes for homelessness? Different groups in your class can collect information on possible causes for example, employment possibilities, rural to urban migration, etc. Discuss these. Do you notice how the state considers homelessness as a public issue that requires concrete measures to be taken, for instance, the Indira Awas Yojana? The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. That is its task and promise… Perhaps the most fruitful distinction with which the sociological imagination works is between ‘the personal troubles of the milieu’ and ‘the public issues of social structure’... Troubles occur within the character of the individual and within the range of his immediate relations with others; they have to do with hisself and with those limited areas of social life of which he is directly and personally aware... Issues have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life. The facts of contemporary history are also facts about the success and the failure of individual men and women. When a society is industrialised, a peasant becomes a worker; a feudal lord is liquidated or becomes a businessman. When classes rise or fall, a man is employed or unemployed; when the rate of investment goes up or down, a man takes new heart or goes broke. When wars happen, an insurance salesman becomes a rocket launcher; a store clerk, a radar man; a wife lives alone; a child grows up without a father. Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both... (Mills 1959). The Indira Awas Yojana, operationalised from 1999- 2000 is a major scheme by the government’s Ministry of Rural Development (MORD) and Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) to construct houses free of cost for the poor and the homeless. Can you think of other issues that show the connection between personal problems and public issues? A homeless couple 2019-20

4 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY III This question of what to focus in society is indeed central to sociology. PLURALITIES AND INEQUALITIES We can take Satyajit Ray’s comments further and wonder whether his AMONG SOCIETIES depiction of the village is romantic. It would be interesting to contrast this In the contemporary world we belong, with a sociologist’s account of the Dalit in a sense, to more than one ‘society’. in the village below. When amidst foreigners reference to ‘our society’ may mean ‘Indian society’, The first time I saw him, he was but when amongst fellow Indians we sitting on the dusty road in may use the term ‘our society’ to denote front of one of the small thatch- a linguistic or ethnic community, a roofed tea shops in the village religious or caste or tribal society. with his glass and saucer placed conspicuously beside him— This diversity makes deciding a silent signal to the shopkeeper which ‘society’ we are talking about that an Untouchable wanted to buy difficult. But perhaps this difficulty some tea. Muli was a gaunt forty- of mapping society is not confined to year-old with betel-blackened teeth sociologists alone as the comment below who wore his long hair swept back will show. (Freeman 1978). While reflecting on what to focus A quote from Amartya Sen perhaps on in his films, the great Indian film illustrates well how inequality is central maker Satyajit Ray wondered: to differences among societies. What should you put in your films? Some Indians are rich; most are What can you leave out? Would you not. Some are very well educated; leave the city behind and go to the others are illiterate. Some lead village where cows graze in the easy lives of luxury; others toil hard endless fields and the shepherd for little reward. Some are politically plays the flute? You can make a powerful; others cannot influence film here that would be pure and anything. Some have great fresh and have the delicate rhythm opportunities for advancement in of a boatman’s song. life: others lack them altogether. Or would you rather go back in Some are treated with respect by time-way back to the Epics, the police; others are treated like where the gods and demons took dirt. These are different kinds of sides in the great battle where inequality, and each of them brothers killed brothers… requires serious attention (Sen Or would you rather stay where 2005:210-11). you are, right in the present, in the heart of this monstrous, teeming, bewildering city, and try to orchestrate its dizzying contrasts of sight and sound and milieu? 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 5 Discuss the visuals What kind of pluralities and inequalities do they show? 2019-20

6 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Activity 2 The Economic Survey of the Government of India suggests that access to sanitation facilities is just 31 per cent. Find out about other indicators of social inequality, for instance education, health, employment etc. IV everyday life and also about others’ lives, about our own ‘society’ and also INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY about others’ ‘society’. These are our everyday notions, our common sense You have already been acquainted with in terms of which we live our lives. the sociological imagination and the However the observations and ideas central concern of sociology to study that sociology as a discipline makes society as an interconnected whole. about ‘society’ is different from both that Our discussion on the individual’s of philosophical reflections and choices and the job market showed common sense. how the economic, political, familial, cultural, educational institutions are Observations of philosophical and interconnected. And how the individual religious thinkers are often about is both constrained by it and yet can what is moral or immoral in human change it to an extent. The next few behaviour, about the desirable way of chapters will elaborate on different living and about a good society. institutions as well as on culture. It will Sociology too concerns itself with norms also focus on some key terms and and values. But its focus is not on concepts in sociology that will enable norms and values as they ought to be, you to understand society. For as goals that people should pursue. Its sociology is the study of human social concern is with the way they function life, groups and societies. Its subject in actual societies. (In Chapter 3, you matter is our own behaviour as social will see how sociology of religion is beings. different from a theological study). Empirical study of societies is an Sociology is not the first subject to important part of what sociologists do. do so. People have always observed and This however does not mean that reflected upon societies and groups in sociology is not concerned with values. which they live. This is evident in the It only means that when a sociologist writings of philosophers, religious studies a society, the sociologist is teachers, and legislators of all willing to observe and collect findings, civilisations and epochs. This human even if they are not to her/his personal trait to think about our lives and about liking. society is by no means confined to philosophers and social thinkers. All of Peter Berger makes an unusual but us do have ideas about our own effective comparison to make the point. 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 7 In any political or military conflict evidence that allow others to check on it is of advantage to capture the or to repeat to develop his/her findings information used by the intelligence further. There has been considerable organs of the opposing side. But this debate within sociology about the is so only because good intelligence differences between natural science and consists of information free of bias. human science, between quantitative If a spy does his/her reporting in and qualitative research. We need not terms of the ideology and ambitions enter this here. But what is relevant of his/her superiors, his/her here is that sociology in its observation reports are useless not only to the and analysis has to follow certain rules enemy, if the latter should capture that can be checked upon by others. them, but also to the spy’s own In the next section, we compare side... The sociologist is a spy in very sociological knowledge to common much the same way. His/her job is sense knowledge which will once again to report as accurately as he/she emphasise the role of methods, can about a certain terrain (Berger procedures and rules in the manner in 1963:16-17). which sociology conducts its observation of society. Chapter 5 of this Does this mean that the sociologist book will provide you with a sense of has no social responsibility to ask what sociologists do and how they go about the goals of his/her study or the about studying society. An elaboration work to which the sociological findings of the differences between sociology will be applied. He/she has such a and common sense knowledge will responsibility, just like any other help towards a clearer idea of the citizen of society. But this asking is not sociological approach and method. sociological asking. This is like the biologist whose biological knowledge V can be employed to heal or kill. This does not mean the biologist is free of SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON responsibility as to which use s/he SENSE KNOWLEDGE serves. But this is not a biological question. We have seen how sociological knowledge is different from theological Sociology has from its beginnings and philosophical observations. understood itself as a science. Unlike Likewise sociology is different from commonsensical observations or common sense observations. The philosophical reflections or theological common sense explanations are commentaries, sociology is bound by generally based on what may be called scientific canons of procedure. It means ‘naturalistic’ and/or individualistic that the statements that the sociologist explanation. A naturalistic explanation arrives at must be arrived at through for behaviour rests on the assumption the observations of certain rules of that one can really identify ‘natural’ reasons for behaviour. 2019-20

8 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Activity 3 knowledge have been made, generally incrementally and only rarely by a An example of poverty has been dramatic breakthrough. given below and we also touched upon it in our discussion on the Sociology has a body of concepts, homeless. Think of other issues and methods and data, no matter how how they could be explained in a loosely coordinated. This cannot be naturalistic and sociological way. substituted by common sense. Common sense is unreflective since it Sociology thus breaks away from does not question its own origins. Or both common sense observations and in other words it does not ask itself: ideas as well as from philosophical “Why do I hold this view?” The thought. It does not always or even sociologist must be ready to ask of any generally lead to spectacular results. of our beliefs, about ourselves — no But meaningful and unsuspected matter how cherished — “is this really connections can be reached only by so?” Both the systematic and question- sifting through masses of connections. ing approach of sociology is derived Great advances in sociological from a broader tradition of scientific investigation. This emphasis on Explanation of Naturalistic Sociological Poverty People are poor because they are Contemporary poverty is caused afraid of work, come from by the structure of inequality in ‘problem families’, are unable to class society and is experienced budget properly, suffer from low by those who suffer from chronic intelligence and shiftlessness. irregularity of work and low wages (Jayaram 1987:3). Unsuspected Connections? In many societies, including in many parts of India, the line of descent and inheritance passes from father to son. This is understood as a patrilineal system. Keeping in mind that women tend not to get property rights, the Government of India in the aftermath of the Kargil War decided that financial compensation for the death of Indian soldiers should go to their widows so that they were provided for. The government had certainly not anticipated the unintended consequence of this decision. It led to many forced marriages of the widows with their brother- in-law (husband’s brother or dewar). In some cases the brother-in-law (then husband) was a young child and the sister-in-law (then wife) a young woman. This was to ensure that the compensation remained with the deceased man’s patrilineal family. Can you think of other such unintended consequences of a social action or a state measure? 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 9 scientific procedures can be understood developed. The Indian colonial only if we go back in time. And experience has to be seen in this light. understand the context or social Indian sociology reflects this tension situation within which the sociological which “go far back to the history of perspective emerged as sociology was British colonialism and the greatly influenced by the great intellectual and ideological response developments in modern science. Let us to it…” (Singh 2004:19). Perhaps have a very brief look at what because of this backdrop, Indian intellectual ideas went into the making sociology has been particularly of sociology. thoughtful and reflexive of its practice (Chaudhuri 2003). You will be VI engaging with Indian sociological thought, its concerns and practice in THE INTELLECTUAL IDEAS THAT WENT greater detail in the book, INTO THE MAKING OF SOCIOLOGY Understanding Society (NCERT, 2006). Influenced by scientific theories of natural evolution and findings about Darwin’s ideas about organic pre-modern societies made by early evolution were a dominant influence on travellers, colonial administrators, early sociological thought. Society was sociologists and social anthropologists often compared with living organisms sought to categorise societies into and efforts were made to trace its types and to distinguish stages in growth through stages comparable to social development. These features those of organic life. This way of looking reappear in the 19th century in works at society as a system of parts, each of early sociologists, Auguste Comte, part playing a given function influenced Karl Marx and Herbert Spencer. the study of social institutions like the Efforts were therefore made to classify family or the school and structures different types of societies on that such as stratification. We mention this basis, for instance: here because the intellectual ideas that went into the making of sociology have • Types of pre-modern societies such a direct bearing on how sociology as hunters and gatherers, pastoral studies empirical reality. and agrarian, agrarian and non- industrial civilisations. The Enlightenment, an European intellectual movement of the late 17th • Types of modern societies such as and 18th centuries, emphasised reason the industrialised societies. and individualism. There was also great advancement of scientific knowledge Such an evolutionary vision and a growing conviction that the assumed that the west was methods of the natural sciences should necessarily the most advanced and and could be extended to the study of civilised. Non- western societies were human affairs. For example poverty, so often seen as barbaric and less 2019-20

10 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY far seen as a ‘natural phenomenon’, how far–reaching the change began to be seen as a ‘social problem’ industrialisation brought about was, caused by human ignorance or we take a quick look at what life in pre- exploitation. Poverty therefore could be industrial England was like. Before studied and redressed. One way of industrialisation, agriculture and studying this was through the social textiles were the chief occupations of the survey that was based on the belief that British. Most people lived in villages. human phenomena can be classified Like in our own Indian villages, there and measured. You will be discussing were peasants and landlords, the social survey in chapter 5. blacksmith and leather worker, the weaver and the potter, the shepherd Thinkers of the early modern era and the brewer. Society was small. It were convinced that progress in was hierarchical, i.e. the status and knowledge promised the solution to all class positions of different people were social ills. For example, Auguste Comte, clearly defined. Like all traditional the French scholar (1789–1857), societies it was also characterised by considered to be the founder of close interaction. With industrialisation sociology, believed that sociology would each of these features changed. contribute to the welfare of humanity. One of the most fundamental VII aspects of the new order was the degradation of labour, the wrenching THE MATERIAL ISSUES THAT WENT of work from the protective contexts of INTO THE MAKING OF SOCIOLOGY guild, village, and family. Both the radical and conservative thinkers were The Industrial Revolution was based appalled at the decline of the status of upon a new, dynamic form of economic the common labourer, not to mention activity — capitalism. This system of the skilled craftsman. capitalism became the driving force behind the growth of industrial Urban centres expanded and grew. manufacturing. Capitalism involved It was not that there were no cities new attitudes and institutions. earlier. But their character prior to Entrepreneurs now engaged in the industrialisation was different. The sustained, systematic pursuit of profit. industrial cities gave birth to a The markets acted as the key completely new kind of urban world. It instrument of productive life. And was marked by the soot and grime of goods, services and labour became factories, by overcrowded slums of the commodities whose use was new industrial working class, bad determined by rational calculation. sanitation and general squalor. It was also marked by new kinds of social The new economy was completely interactions. different from what it replaced. England was the centre of the Industrial The Hindi film song on the next Revolution. In order to understand page captures both the material as well 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 11 From working class neighbourhoods to slum localitites 2019-20

12 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY as the experiential aspects of city life. Activity 4 From the film C.I.D. 1956 Note how quickly Britain, the seat Aye dil hai mushkil jeena yahan of the Industrial Revolution became Zara hat ke, zara bach ke, yeh an urban from a predominantly hai Bombay meri jaan rural society. Was this process Kahin building kahin traame, identical in India? kahin motor kahin mill 1810: 20 per cent of the population Milta hai yahan sab kuchh ik milta lived in towns and cities. nahin dil 1910: 80 per cent of the population Insaan ka nahin kahin naam-o- lived in towns and cities. nishaan Kahin satta, kahin patta kahin chori Significantly the impact of the kahin res same process was different in India, Kahin daaka, kahin phaaka kahin Urban centres did grow. But with thokar kahin thes the entry of British manufactured Bekaaro ke hain kai kaam yahan goods, more people moved into Beghar ko aawara yahan kehte has agriculture. has Khud kaate gale sabke kahe isko The mass of Indian handicraftsmen business ruined as a result of the influx Ik cheez ke hain kai naam yahan of manufactured machine-made Geeta Bura duniya woh hai kehta goods of British industries were aisa bhola tu na ban not absorbed in any extensively Jo hai karta woh hai bharta hai developed indigenous industries. yahan ka yeh chalan The ruined mass of these handicraftsmen, in the main, took PARAPHRASE: Dear heart, life is hard to agriculture for subsistence here, you must watch where you’re (Desai 1975:70). going if you want to save yourself, this is Bombay my dear! You’ll find The factory and its mechanical buildings, you’ll find trams, you’ll find division of labour were often seen as motors, you’ll find mills, you’ll find a deliberate attempt to destroy the everything here except a human heart, peasant, the artisan, as well as family there’s no trace of humanity here. So and local community. The factory was much of what is done here is perceived as an archetype of an meaningless, it’s either power, or it’s economic regimentation hitherto money, or it’s theft, or it’s cheating. The known only in barracks and prisons. rich mock the homeless as vagabonds, According to Karl Marx the factory was but when they cut each other’s throats oppressive. Yet potentially liberating. themselves, it’s called business! The Here workers learnt both collective same action is given various names in this place. 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 13 functioning as well as concerted VIII efforts for better conditions. WHY SHOULD WE STUDY THE Another indicator of the emergence BEGINNING AND GROWTH OF SOCIOLOGY of modern societies was the new IN EUROPE? significance of clock-time as a basis of social organisation. A crucial aspect of Most of the issues and concerns of this was the way in which, in the 18th sociology also date back to a time when and 19th centuries, the tempo of European society was undergoing agricultural and manufacturing tumultuous changes in the 18th and labour increasingly came to be set by 19th centuries with the advent of the clock and calendar in a way very capitalism and industrialisation. Many different from pre-modern forms of of the issues that were raised then, for work. Prior to the development of example, urbanisation or factory industrial capitalism, work-rhythms production, are pertinent to all modern were set by factors such as the period societies, even though their specific of daylight, the break between tasks features may vary. Indeed, Indian and the constraints of deadlines or society with its colonial past and other social duties. Factory production incredible diversity is distinct. The implied the synchronisation of sociology of India reflects this. labour — it began punctually, had a steady pace and took place for set If this is so, why focus on Europe of hours and on particular days of the that time? Why is it relevant to start week. In addition, the clock injected a there? The answer is relatively simple. new urgency to work. For both For our past, as Indians are closely employer and employee ‘time is now linked to the history of British money: it is not passed but spent.’ capitalism and colonialism. Capitalism in the west entailed a world-wide Activity 5 expansion. The passages in the box on next page represent but two strands in Find out how work is organised in a the manner that western capitalism traditional village, a factory and a impacted the world. call centre. R.K. Laxman’s travelogue of Mauritius Activity 6 brings home the presence of this colonial and global past. Find out how industrial capitalism changed Indian lives in villages and Here Africans and Chinese, Biharis cities. and Dutch, Persians and Tamils, Arabs, French and English all rub merrily with one another... A Tamil, for instance, bears a deceptively south Indian face and a name to go with it to boot; Radha Krishna 2019-20

14 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Capitalism and its global but uneven transformation of societies Between the 17th and 19th centuries an estimated 24 million Africans were enslaved. 11 million of them survived the journey to the Americas in one of a number of great movements of population that feature in modern history. They were plucked from their existing homes and cultures, transported around the world in appalling conditions, and put to work in the service of capitalism. Enslavement is a graphic example of how people were caught up in the development of modernity against their will. The institution of slavery declined in the 1800s. But for us in India it was in the 1800s that indentured labour was taken in ships by the British for running their cotton and sugar plantations in distant lands such as Surinam in South America or in the West Indies or the Fiji Islands. V.S. Naipaul the great English writer who won the Nobel prize is a descendant of one of these thousands who were taken to lands they had never seen and who died without being able to return. Govindan is indeed from Madras. I India, the great workshop of cotton speak to him in Tamil. He surprises manufacture for the world, since me by responding in a frightfully immemorial times, now became mangled English with a heavy French inundated with English twists and accent. Mr Govindan has no cotton stuffs. After its own produce knowledge of Tamil and his tongue had been excluded from England, has ceased curling to produce Tamil or only admitted on the most cruel sounds centuries ago (Laxman 2003) ! terms, British manufactures were poured into it at a small and merely IX nominal duty, to the ruin of the native cotton fabrics once so THE GROWTH OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA celebrated (Marx 1853 cited in Desai 1975). Colonialism was an essential part of modern capitalism and industrialisation. Sociology in India also had to deal with The writings of Western sociologists on western writings and ideas about capitalism and other aspects of modern Indian society that were not always society are therefore relevant for correct. These ideas were expressed understanding social change in India. both in the accounts of colonial officials Yet as we saw with reference to as well western scholars. For many of urbanisation, colonialism implied that them Indian society was a contrast to the impact of industrialisation in India western society. We take just one was not necessarily the same as in the example here, the way the Indian west. Karl Marx’s comments on the village was understood and portrayed impact of the East India Company bring as unchanging. out the contrast. 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 15 In keeping with contemporary- characteristic feature of the two Victorian-evolutionary ideas, western subjects in many western countries. writers saw in the Indian village a Perhaps the very diversity of the remnant or survival from what was modern and traditional, of the village called “the infancy of society”. They saw and the metropolitan in India accounts in nineteenth-century India the past of for this. the European society. X Yet another evidence of the colonial heritage of countries like India is the THE SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY AND ITS distinction often made between RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER SOCIAL sociology and social anthropology. A SCIENCE DISCIPLINES standard western textbook definition of sociology is “the study of human The scope of sociological study is groups and societies, giving particular extremely wide. It can focus its analysis emphasis to the analysis of the of meaningful interactions between industrialised world” (Giddens 2001: individuals such as that of a shopkeeper 699). A standard western definition of with a customer, between teachers and social anthropology would be the study students, between two friends or family of simple societies of non-western and members. It can likewise focus on therefore “other” cultures. In India the national issues such as unemployment story is quite different. M.N. Srinivas or caste conflict or the effect of state maps the trajectory: policies on forest rights of the tribal population or rural indebtedness. Or In a country such as India, with its examine global social processes such as: size and diversity, regional, linguistic, the impact of new flexible labour religious, sectarian, ethnic (including regulations on the working class; or that caste), and between rural and urban of the electronic media on the young; or areas, there are a myriad ‘others’... the entry of foreign universities on the In a culture and society such as education system of the country. What India’s, ‘the other’ can be defines the discipline of sociology is encountered literally next door... therefore not just what it studies (i.e. (Srinivas 1966:205). family or trade unions or villages) but how it studies a chosen field. Furthermore social anthropology in India moved gradually from a pre- Sociology is one of a group of occupation with the study of ‘primitive social sciences, which also includes people’ to the study of peasants, ethnic anthropology, economics, political groups, social classes, aspects and science and history. The divisions features of ancient civilisations, and among the various social sciences are modern industrial societies. No rigid not clearcut, and all share a certain divide exists between sociology and range of common interests, concepts social anthropology in India, a 2019-20

16 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Discuss how you think history, sociology, political science, economics will study fashion/clothes, market places and city streets 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 17 and methods. It is therefore very Activity 7 important to understand that the distinctions of the disciplines are to • Do you think advertisements some extent arbitrary and should not actually influence people’s be seen in a straitjacket fashion. To consumption patterns? differentiate the social sciences would be to exaggerate the differences and • Do you think the idea of what gloss over the similarities. Furthermore defines ‘good life’ is only feminist theories have also shown the economically defined? greater need of interdisciplinary approach. For instance how would a • Do you think ‘spending’ and political scientist or economist study ‘saving’ habits are culturally gender roles and their implications for formed? politics or the economy without a sociology of the family or gender context of social norms, values, practices division of labour. and interests. The corporate sector managers are aware of this. The large Sociology and Economics investment in the advertisement industry is directly linked to the need to reshape Economics is the study of production lifestyles and consumption patterns. and distribution of goods and services. Trends within economics such as feminist The classical economic approach dealt economics seek to broaden the focus, almost exclusively with the inter- drawing in gender as a central relations of pure economic variables: organising principle of society. For the relations of price, demand and instance they would look at how work in supply; money flows; output and input the home is linked to productivity outside. ratios, and the like. The focus of traditional economics has been on a The defined scope of economics has narrow understanding of ‘economic helped in facilitating its development as activity’, namely the allocation of scarce a highly focused, coherent discipline. goods and services within a society. Sociologists often envy the economists Economists who are influenced by a for the precision of their terminology political economy approach seek to and the exactness of their measures. understand economic activity in a And the ability to translate the results broader framework of ownership of and of their theoretical work into practical relationship to means of production. suggestions having major implications The objective of the dominant trend in for public policy. Yet economists’ economic analysis was however to predictive abilities often suffer formulate precise laws of economic precisely because of their neglect of behaviour. individual behaviour, cultural norms and institutional resistance which The sociological approach looks sociologists study. at economic behaviour in a broader 2019-20

18 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Pierre Bourdieu wrote in 1998. Sociology and Political Science A true economic science would look As in the case of economics, there is an at all the costs of the economy-not increased interaction of methods and only at the costs that corporations approaches between sociology and are concerned with, but also at political science. Conventional political crimes, suicides, and so on. science was focused primarily on two elements: political theory and We need to put forward an government administration. Neither economics of happiness, which branch involves extensive contact with would take note of all the profits, political behaviour. The theory part individual and collective, material usually focuses on the ideas about and symbolic, associated with government from Plato to Marx while activity (such as security), and also courses on administration generally the material and symbolic costs deal with the formal structure of associated with inactivity or government rather than its actual precarious employment (for example operation. consumption of medicines: France holds the world record for the use Sociology is devoted to the study of tranquilisers), (cited in Swedberg of all aspects of society, whereas 2003). conventional political science restricted itself mainly to the study of Sociology unlike economics usually power as embodied in formal does not provide technical solutions. organisation. Sociology stresses the But it encourages a questioning and interrelationships between sets of critical perspective. This helps institutions including government, questioning of basic assumptions. And whereas political science tends to turn thereby facilitates a discussion of not attention towards the processes within just the technical means towards a the government. given goal, but also about the social desirability of a goal itself. Recent However, sociology long shared trends have seen a resurgence of similar interests of research with economic sociology perhaps because of both this wider and critical perspective Activity 8 of sociology. Find out the kind of studies that Sociology provides clearer or more were conducted during the last adequate understanding of a social general elections. You will probably situation than existed before. This can find both features of political science be either on the level of factual and sociology in them. Discuss how knowledge, or through gaining an disciplines interact and mutually improved grasp of why something is influence each other. happening (in other words, by means of theoretical understanding). 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 19 political science. Sociologists like history of less glamorous or exciting Max Weber worked in what can be events as changes in land relations or termed as political sociology. The focus gender relations within the family have of political sociology has been traditionally been less studied by increasingly on the actual study of historians but formed the core area of political behaviour. Even in the recent the sociologist’s interest. Today, Indian elections one has seen the however history is far more sociological extensive study of political patterns of and social history is the stuff of history. voting. Studies have also been It looks at social patterns, gender conducted in membership of political relations, mores, customs and organisations, process of decision- important institutions other than the making in organisations, sociological acts of rulers, wars and monarchy. reasons for support of political parties, the role of gender in politics, etc. Sociology and Psychology Sociology and History Psychology is often defined as the science of behaviour. It involves itself Historians almost as a rule study the primarily with the individual. It is past, sociologists are more interested in interested in her/his intelligence and the contemporary or recent past. learning, motivations and memory, Historians earlier were content to nervous system and reaction time, delineate the actual events, to establish hopes and fears. Social psychology, how things actually happened, while in which serves as a bridge between sociology the focus was to seek to psychology and sociology, maintains a establish causal relationships. primary interest in the individual but concerns itself with the way in which History studies concrete details the individual behaves in social groups, while the sociologist is more likely to collectively with other individuals. abstract from concrete reality, categorise and generalise. Historians Sociology attempts to understand today are equally involved in doing behaviour as it is organised in society, sociological methods and concepts in that is the way in which personality is their analysis. shaped by different aspects of society. For instance, economic and political Conventional history has been system, their family and kinship about the history of kings and war. The structure, their culture, norms and values. It is interesting to recall that Activity 9 Durkheim who sought to establish a clear scope and method for sociology Find out how historians have in his well-known study of suicide left written about the history of art, of out individual intentions of those who cricket, of clothes and fashion, of commit or try to commit suicide in architecture and housing styles. favour of statistics concerning various 2019-20

20 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY social characteristics of these between those who studied and those individuals. who were studied as not remarked upon too often earlier. But times have Sociology and Social Anthropology changed and we have the erstwhile ‘natives’ be they Indians or Sudanese, Anthropology in most countries Nagas or Santhals, who now speak incorporates archaeology, physical and write about their own societies. anthropology, cultural history, many The anthropologists of the past branches of linguistics and the study documented the details of simple of all aspects of life in “simple societies apparently in a neutral societies”. Our concern here is with scientific fashion. In practice they were social anthropology and cultural constantly comparing those societies anthropology for it is that which is with the model of the western modern close to the study of sociology. societies as a benchmark. Sociology is deemed to be the study of modern, complex societies while social Other changes have also redefined anthropology was deemed to be the the nature of sociology and social study of simple societies. anthropology. Modernity as we saw led to a process whereby the smallest As we saw earlier, each discipline village was impacted by global has its own history or biography. processes. The most obvious example Social anthropology developed in the is colonialism. The most remote village west at a time when it meant that of India under British colonialism saw western-trained social anthropologists its land laws and administration studied non-European societies often change, its revenue extraction alter, its thought of as exotic, barbaric and manufacturing industries collapse. uncivilised. This unequal relationship Tea pickers in Assam 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 21 Activity 10 Today the distinction between a simple society and a complex one itself • Find out where in India did needs major rethinking. India itself is a ancestors of the community of complex mix of tradition and Santhal workers who have been modernity, of the village and the city, working in the tea plantations in of caste and tribe, of class and Assam come from. community. Villages nestle right in the heart of the capital city of Delhi. Call • When was tea cultivation centres serve European and American started in Assam? clients from different towns of the country. • Did the British drink tea before colonialism? Indian sociology has been far more eclectic in borrowing from both Contemporary global processes have traditions. Indian sociologists often further accentuated this ‘shrinking of studied Indian societies that were both the globe’. The assumption of studying part of and not of one’s own culture. It a simple society was that it was could also be dealing with both bounded. We know this is not so today. complex differentiated societies of urban modern India as well as the The traditional study of simple, study of tribes in a holistic fashion. non-literate societies by social anthropology had a pervasive influence It had been feared that with the on the content and the subject matter decline of simple societies, social of the discipline. Social anthropology anthropology would lose its specificity tended to study society (simple and merge with sociology. However societies) in all their aspects, as wholes. there have been fruitful interchanges In so far as they specialised, it was on between the two disciplines and today the basis of area as for example the often methods and techniques are Andaman Islands, the Nuers or drawn from both. There have been Melanesia. Sociologists study complex anthropological studies of the state and societies and would therefore often globalisation, which are very different focus on parts of society like the from the traditional subject matter bureaucracy or religion or caste or a of social anthropology. On the process such as social mobility. other hand, sociology too has been using quantitative and qualitative Social anthropology was charac- techniques, macro and micro approaches terised by long field work tradition, for studying the complexities of modern living in the community studied and societies. As mentioned before we will using ethnographic research methods. in a sense carry on this discussion in Sociologists have often relied on survey Chapter 5 . For in India, sociology and method and quantitative data using social anthropology have had a very statistics and the questionnaire mode. close relationship. Chapter 5 will give you a more comprehensive account of these two traditions. 2019-20

22 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY GLOSSARY Capitalism : A system of economic enterprise based on market exchange. “Capital” refers to any asset, including money, property and machines, which can be used to produce commodities for sale or invested in a market with the hope of achieving a profit. This system rests on the private ownership of assets and the means of production. Dialectic : The existence or action of opposing social forces, for instance, social constraint and individual will. Empirical Investigation : A factual enquiry carried out in any given area of sociological study. Feminist Theories : A sociological perspective which emphasises the centrality of gender in analysing the social world. There are many strands of feminist theory, but they all share in common the desire to explain gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them. Macrosociology : The study of large-scale groups, organisations or social systems. Microsociology : The study of human behaviour in contexts of face-to-face interaction. Social Constraint : A term referring to the fact that the groups and societies of which we are a part exert a conditioning influence on our behaviour. Values : Ideas held by human individual or groups about what is desirable, proper, good or bad. Differing values represent key aspects of variations in human culture. EXERCISES 1. Why is the study of the origin and growth of sociology important? 2. Discuss the different aspects of the term ‘society’. How is it different from your common sense understanding? 3. Discuss how there is greater give and take among disciplines today. 4. Identify any personal problem that you or your friends or relatives are facing. Attempt a sociological understanding. 2019-20

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 23 READINGS BERGER , PETER L. 1963. Invitation to Sociology : A Humanistic Perspective. Penguin, Harmondsworth. BIERSTEDT, ROBERT. 1970. Social Order. Tata Mc. Graw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd, Mumbai. BOTTOMORE, TOM. 1962. Sociology : A Guide to Problems and Literature. George, Allen and Unwin, London. CHAUDHURI, MAITRAYEE. 2003. The Practice of Sociology. Orient Longman, New Delhi. DESAI, A.R. 1975. Social Background of Indian Nationalism. Popular Prakashan, Mumbai. DUBE, S.C. 1977. Understanding Society : Sociology : The Discipline and its Significance : Part I. NCERT, New Delhi. FREEMAN, JAMES M. 1978. ‘Collecting the Life History of an Indian Untouchable’, from VATUK, SYLVIA. ed., American Studies in the Anthropology of India. Manohar Publishers, Delhi. GIDDENS, ANTHONY. 2001. Sociology. Fourth Edition, Polity Press, Cambridge. INKELES, ALEX. 1964. What is Sociology? An Introduction to the Discipline and Profession. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. JAYARAM, N. 1987. Introductory Sociology. Macmillan India Ltd, Delhi. LAXMAN, R.K. 2003. The Distorted Mirror. Penguin, Delhi. MILLS, C. WRIGHT. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. Penguin, Harmondsworth. SINGH, YOGENDRA. 2004. Ideology and Theory in Indian Sociology. Rawat Publications, New Delhi. SRINIVAS, M.N. 2002. Village, Caste. Gender and Method : Essays in Indian Social Anthropology. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. SWEDBERG, RICHARD. 2003. Principles of Economic Sociology. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford. 2019-20

24 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER 2 TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY I terms and concepts to understand this. INTRODUCTION Why does sociology need to have a special set of terms when we use terms The previous chapter introduced us to like status and roles or social control an idea both about society as well as anyway in our everyday life? sociology. We saw that a central task of sociology is to explore the interplay of For a discipline such as, say, society and the individual. We also saw nuclear physics that deals with matters that individuals do not float freely in unknown to most people and for which society but are part of collective bodies no word exists in common speech, it like the family, tribe, caste, class, clan, seems obvious that a discipline must nation. In this chapter, we move further develop a terminology. However, to understand the kinds of groups terminology is possibly even more individuals form, the kinds of unequal important for sociology, just because orders, stratification systems within its subject matter is familiar and just which, individuals and groups are because words do exist to denote it. We placed, the way social control operates, are so well acquainted with the social the roles that individuals have and play, institutions that surround us that we and the status they occupy. cannot see them clearly and precisely (Berger 1976:25). In other words we start exploring how society itself functions. Is it For example we may feel that since harmonious or conflict ridden? Are we live in families we know all about status and roles fixed? How is social families. This would be conflating or control exercised? What kinds of equating sociological knowledge inequalities exist? The question however with common sense knowledge or remains as to why do we need specific naturalistic explanation, which we have discussed in Chapter 1. We also found in the previous chapter how sociology as a discipline 2019-20

TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 25 has a biography or history. We saw how essentially harmonious. They found it certain material and intellectual useful to compare society to an developments shaped the sociological organism where different parts have a perspective as well as its concerns. function to play for the maintenance of Likewise sociological concepts too have the whole. Others, in particular the a story to tell. Many of the concepts conflict theorists influenced by Marxism reflect the concern of social thinkers to saw society as essentially conflict understand and map the social ridden. changes that the shift from pre-modern to modern entailed. For instance Within sociology some tried to sociologists observed that simple, small understand human behaviour by scale and traditional societies were starting with the individual, i.e. micro more marked by close, often face-to- interaction. Others began with macro face interaction. And modern, large structures such as class, caste, market, scale societies by formal interaction. state or even community. Concepts They therefore distinguished primary such as status and role begin with the from secondary groups, community individual. Concepts such as social from society or association. Other control or stratification begin from a concepts like stratification reflect the larger context within which individuals concern that sociologists had in are already placed. understanding the structured inequalities between groups in society. The important point is that these classifications and types that we Concepts arise in society. However discuss in sociology help us and are the just as there are different kinds of tools through which we can individuals and groups in society so understand reality. They are keys to there are different kinds of concepts and open locks to understand society. They ideas. And sociology itself is marked by are entry points in our understanding, different ways of understanding society not the final answer. But what if the key and looking at dramatic social changes becomes rusted or bent or does not fit that the modern period brought about. the lock, or fits in with effort? In such situations we need to change or modify We have seen how even in the early the key. In sociology we both use and stage of sociology’s emergence there also constantly interrogate or question were contrary and contesting the concepts and categories. understandings of society. If for Karl Marx class and conflict were key Very often there is considerable concepts to understand society, social unease about the coexistence of solidarity and collective conscience different kinds of definitions or concepts were key terms for Emile Durkheim. In or even just different views about the the Post-World War II period sociology same social entity. For example conflict was greatly influenced by the structural theory versus the functionalist theory. functionalists who found society This multiplicity of approaches is particularly acute in sociology. And it 2019-20

26 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY cannot but be otherwise. For society II itself is diverse. SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIETY Activity 1 Sociology is the study of human social Choose any one of the following life. A defining feature of human life is topics for class discussion : that humans interact, communicate • democracy is a help or hind- and construct social collectivities. The comparative and historical perspective rance to development of sociology brings home two appa- rently innocuous facts. The first that in • gender equality makes for a every society whether ancient or feudal more harmonious or more or modern, Asian or European or divisive society African human groups and collectivities exist. The second that the types of • punishments or greater dis- groups and collectivities are different in cussion are the best way to different societies. resolve conflicts. Any gathering of people does not Think of other topics. necessarily constitute a social group. Aggregates are simply collections of What kind of differences emerged? people who are in the same place at the Do they reflect different visions of same time, but share no definite what a good society ought to be like? connection with one another. Do they reflect different notions of Passengers waiting at a railway station the human being? or airport or bus stop or a cinema audience are examples of aggregates. In our discussion on the various Such aggregates are often termed as terms you will notice how there is quasi groups. divergence of views. And how this very debate and discussion of differences helps us understand society. What kind of groups are these? 2019-20

TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 27 A quasi group is an aggregate or attention to how social groups emerge, combination, which lacks structure or change and get modified. organisation, and whose members may be unaware, or less aware, of the A social group can be said to have existence of groupings. Social classes, at least the following characteristics : status groups, age and gender groups, crowds can be seen as examples of (i) persistent interaction to provide quasi groups. As these examples continuity; suggest quasi groups may well become social groups in time and in (ii) a stable pattern of these inter- specific circumstances. For example, actions; individuals belonging to a particular social class or caste or community may (iii) a sense of belonging to identify not be organised as a collective body. with other members, i.e. each They may be yet to be infused with a individual is conscious of the sense of “we” feeling. But class and group itself and its own set of caste have over a period of time given rules, rituals and symbols; rise to political parties. Likewise people of different communities in (iv) shared interest; India have over the long anti-colonial (v) acceptance of common norms and struggle developed an identity as a collectivity and group — a nation with values; a shared past and a common future. (vi) a definable structure. The women’s movement brought about the idea of women’s groups and Social structure here refers to organisation. All these examples draw patterns of regular and repetitive interaction between individuals or groups. A social group thus refers to a collection of continuously interacting persons who share common interest, culture, values and norms within a given society. Activity 2 Find out a name that is relevant under each heading. Caste An anti caste movement A caste based political party Class A class based movement A class based political party Women A women’s movement A women’s organisation Tribe A tribal movement A tribe/tribes based political party Villagers An environmental movement An environmental organisation Discuss whether they were all social groups to start with and if some were not, then at what point can one apply the term social group to them, using the term as sociologically understood. 2019-20

28 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY Activity 3 Discuss the age group of teenagers. Is it a quasi group or social group? Were ideas about ‘teenage’ and ‘teenagers’ as a special phase in life always there? In traditional societies how was the entry of children into adulthood marked? In contemporary times do marketing strategies and advertisement have anything to do with the strengthening or weakening of this group/quasi group? Identify an advertisement that targets teenagers or pre-teens. Read the section on stratification and discuss how teenage may mean very different life experiences for the poor and rich, for the upper and lower class, for the discriminated and privileged caste. TYPES OF GROUPS However a complete contrast is probably not an accurate description As you read through this section on of reality. groups you will find that different sociologists and social anthropologists Primary and Secondary have categorised groups into different Social Groups types. What you will be struck with however is that there is a pattern in the The groups to which we belong are not typology. In most cases they contrast all of equal importance to us. Some the manner in which people form groups tend to influence many aspects groups in traditional and small scale of our lives and bring us into personal societies to that of modern and large association with others. The term scale societies. As mentioned earlier, primary group is used to refer to a they were struck by the difference small group of people connected by between close, intimate, face-to-face intimate and face-to-face association interaction in traditional societies and and co-operation. The members of impersonal, detached, distant primary groups have a sense of interaction in modern societies. belonging. Family, village and groups Contrast the two types of groups. 2019-20

TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 29 of friends are examples of primary Activity 4 groups. Collect a copy of a memorandum of Secondary groups are relatively any association that you know of or large in size, maintain formal and can find out about for example a impersonal relationships. The primary Resident Welfare Association, a groups are person-oriented, whereas women’s association (Mahila the secondary groups are goal oriented. Samiti), a Sports Club. You will find Schools, government offices, hospitals, clear information about its goals, students’ associations etc. are examples objectives, membership and other of secondary groups. rules that govern it. Contrast this with a large family gathering. Community and Society or Association You may find that many a time that interaction among members of The idea of comparing and contrasting a formal group over time becomes the old traditional and agrarian way of closes and ‘just like family and life with the new modern and urban one friends.’ This brings home the point in terms of their different and that concepts are not fixed and contrasting social relationships and frozen entities. They are indeed lifestyles, dates back to the writings of keys or tools for understanding so- classical sociologists. ciety and its changes. The term ‘community’ refers to In-Groups and Out-Groups human relationships that are highly personal, intimate and enduring, those A sense of belonging marks an in- where a person’s involvement is group. This feeling separates ‘us’ or ‘we’ considerable if not total, as in the from ‘them’ or ‘they’. Children family, with real friends or a close-knit belonging to a particular school may group. form an ‘in-group’ as against those who do not belong to the school. Can you ‘Society’ or ‘association’ refers to think of other such groups? everything opposite of ‘community’, in particular the apparently impersonal, An out-group on the other hand is superficial and transitory relationships one to which the members of an in- of modern urban life. Commerce and group do not belong. The members of industry require a more calculating, an out-group can face hostile reactions rational and self-interesting approach from the members of the in-group. to one’s dealings with others. We make Migrants are often considered as an contracts or agreements rather than out-group. However, even here the getting to know one another. You may draw a parallel between the community with the primary group and the association with the secondary group. 2019-20

30 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY actual definition of who belongs and but we do identify ourselves with who does not, changes with time and that group. Reference groups are social contexts. important sources of information about culture, lifestyle, aspiration The well known sociologist and goal attainments. M.N. Srinivas observed while he was carrying out a census in Rampura in In the colonial period many middle 1948 how distinctions were made class Indians aspired to behave like between recent and later migrants. proper Englishman. In that sense they He writes: could be seen as a reference group for the aspiring section. But this process I heard villagers use two expressions was gendered, i.e. it had different which I came to realise were significant: implications for men and women. Often the recent immigrants were almost Indian men wanted to dress and dine contemptuously described as nenne like the British men but wanted the monne bandavartu (‘came yesterday or Indian women to remain ‘Indian’ in the day before’) while old immigrants their ways. Or aspire to be a bit like the were described as arsheyinda proper English woman but also not bandavaru (‘came long ago’) or quite like her. Do you still find this valid khadeem kulagalu (‘old lineages’), today? (Srinivas 1996:33). Peer Groups Activity 5 This is a kind of primary group, Find out about the experience of usually formed between individuals immigrants in other countries. Or who are either of similar age or who are may be even from different parts of in a common professional group. Peer our own country. pressure refers to the social pressure exerted by one’s peers on what one You will find that relationships ought to do or not. between groups change and modify. People once considered members of Activity 6 an out-group become in-group members. Can you find out about Do your friends or others of your such processes in history? age group influence you? Are you concerned with their approval or Reference Group disapproval about the way you dress, behave, the kind of music For any group of people there are you like to listen to or the kind of always other groups whom they look films you prefer? Do you consider up to and aspire to be like. The it to be social pressure? Discuss. groups whose lifestyles are emulated are known as reference groups. We do not belong to our reference groups 2019-20

TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 31 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION enter into details about estates here but very briefly touch upon caste and class Social stratification refers to the as systems of social stratification. We existence of structured inequalities shall be dealing in greater detail with between groups in society, in terms of class, caste, gender as bases of social their access to material or symbolic stratification in the book, Under- rewards. Thus stratification can most standing Society (NCERT, 2006). simply be defined as structural inequalities between different Caste groupings of people. Often social stratification is compared to the In a caste stratification system an geological layering of rock in the earth’s individual’s position totally depends on surface. Society can be seen as the status attributes ascribed by birth consisting of ‘strata’ in a hierarchy, with rather than on any which are achieved the more favoured at the top and the during the course of one’s life. This is less privileged near the bottom. not to say that in a class society there is no systematic constraint on Inequality of power and advantage achievement imposed by status is central for sociology, because of the attributes such as race and gender. crucial place of stratification in the However, status attributes ascribed by organisation of society. Every aspect of birth in a caste society define an the life of every individual and individual’s position more completely household is affected by stratification. than they do in class society. Opportunities for health, longevity, security, educational success, fulfillment In traditional India different castes in work and political influence are all formed a hierarchy of social precedence. unequally distributed in systematic ways. Each position in the caste structure was defined in terms of its purity or Historically four basic systems of pollution relative to others. The stratification have existed in human underlying belief was that those who societies: slavery, caste, estate and are most pure, the Brahmin priestly class. Slavery is an extreme form of castes, are superior to all others and inequality in which some individuals the Panchamas, sometimes called the are literally owned by others. It has ‘outcastes’ are inferior to all other existed sporadically at many times and castes. The traditional system is places, but there are two major generally conceptualised in terms of the examples of a system of slavery; ancient four fold varna of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Greece and Rome and the Southern Vaishyas and Shudras. In reality there are States of the USA in the 18th and 19th innumerable occupation-based caste centuries. As a formal institution, groups, called jatis. slavery has gradually been eradicated. But we do continue to have bonded The caste system in India has labour, often even of children. Estates undergone considerable changes over characterised feudal Europe. We do not the years. Endogamy and ritual 2019-20

32 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY avoidance of contact with members of with us. This is because they feel so-called lower castes were considered and believe they are superior. It has critical for maintaining purity by the so- been like that for years. No matter called upper castes. Changes brought how well we dress they are not in by urbanisation inevitably prepared to accept certain things challenged this. Read well known (Franco et. al. 2004:150). sociologist A.R. Desai’s observations below. Even today acute caste discrimination exists. At the same time Other social consequences of the working of democracy has affected urbanisation in India are commented the caste system. Castes as interest upon by sociologist A.R. Desai as: groups have gained strength. We have also seen discriminated castes asserting Modern industries brought into their democratic rights in society. being modern cities honey- combed with cosmopolitan hotels, Class restaurants, theatres, trams, buses, railways. The modest hotels There have been many attempts to and restaurants catered for the explain class. We mention here, very workers and middle classes became briefly just the central ideas of Marx, crowded in cities with persons Weber and that of, functionalism. In belonging to all castes and even the Marxist theory social classes are creeds... In trains and buses one defined by what relation they have to occasionally rubbed shoulders with the means of production. Questions members of the depressed classes... could be asked as to whether groups should not, however be supposed are owners of means of production such that caste had vanished (Desai as land or factories? Or whether they 1975:248). are owners of nothing but their own labour? Weber used the term life- While change did take place, chances, which refers to the rewards discrimination was not so easy to do and advantages afforded by market away with, as a first person narrative capacity. Inequality, Weber argued suggests. might be based on economic relations. But it could also be based on prestige In the mill there may be no open or on political power. discrimination of the kind that exists in the villages, but experience of private The functionalist theory of social interactions tells another story. Parmar stratification begins from the general observed… presupposition or belief of function- alism that no society is “classless” or They will not even drink water from unstratified. The main functional our hands and they sometimes use necessity explains the universal abusive language when dealing presence of social stratification in 2019-20

TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 33 requirements faced by a society the lower levels of the system, are not of placing and motivating individuals just disadvantaged socially but also in the social structure. Social economically. inequality or stratification is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which Status and Role societies ensure that the most important positions are deliberately The two concepts ‘status’ and ‘role’ are filled by the most qualified persons. Is often seen as twin concepts. A status is this true? simply a position in society or in a group. Every society and every group In a traditional caste system social has many such positions and every hierarchy is fixed, rigid and transmitted individual occupies many such across generations. Modern class positions. system in contrast is open and achievement-based. In democratic Status thus refers to the social societies there is nothing to legally stop position with defined rights and duties a person from the most deprived class assigned to these positions. To and caste from reaching the highest illustrate, mother occupies a status, position. which has many norms of conduct as well as certain responsibilities and Activity 7 prerogatives. Find out more about the life of A role is the dynamic or the the late President K. R. Narayanan. behavioural aspect of status. Status is Discuss the concept of ascription occupied, but roles are played. We may and achieved status, caste and say that a status is an institutionalised class in this context. role. It is a role that has become regularised, standardised and forma- Such stories of achievement do lised in the society at large or in any of exist and are sources of immense the specific associations of society. inspiration. Yet for the most part the structure of the class system persists. It must be apparent that each Sociological studies of social mobility, individual in a modern complex society even in western societies are far such as ours occupies many different removed from the ideal model of perfect kinds of status during the course of mobility. Sociology has to be sensitive his/her life. You as a school student to both the challenges to the caste may be a student to your teacher, a system as well as the persistence of customer to your grocer, a passenger discrimination. Significantly those, at to the bus driver, a brother or sister to your sibling and a patient to the doctor. Needless to say, we could keep adding to the list. The smaller and simpler the 2019-20

34 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY society, the fewer the kinds of status occupies it or to his/her performance that an individual can have. or to his/her actions. The kind of value attached to the status or to the In a modern society an individual office is called prestige. People can as we saw occupies multiple status rank status in terms of their high or which is sociologically termed as status low prestige. The prestige of a doctor set. Individuals acquire different status may be high in comparison to a at various stages of life. A son becomes shopkeeper, even if the doctor may a father, a grandfather, and then great earn less. It is important to keep in grandfather and so on. This is called a mind that ideas of what occupation is status sequence for it refers to the considered prestigious varies across status, which is attained in succession societies and across periods. or sequence at various stages of life. Activity 8 An ascribed status is a social position, which a person occupies What kinds of jobs are considered because of birth, or assumes prestigious in your society? involuntarily. The most common bases Compare these with your friends. for ascribed status are age, caste, race Discuss the similarities and and kinship. Simple and traditional differences. Try and understand the societies are marked by ascribed status. causes for the same. An achieved status on the other hand refers to a social position that a person People perform their roles according occupies voluntarily by personal to social expectations, i.e. role taking ability, achievements, virtues and and role playing. A child learns to choices. The most common bases for behave in accordance with how her achieved status are educational behaviour will be seen and judged by qualifications, income, and professional others. expertise. Modern societies are characterised by achievements. Its Role conflict is the incompatibility members are accorded prestige on the among roles corresponding to one or basis of their achievements. How often more status. It occurs when contrary you would have heard the phrase “you expectations arise from two or more have to prove yourself”. In traditional roles. A common example is that of the societies your status was defined and ascribed at birth. However, as Activity 9 discussed above, even in modern achievement-based societies, ascribed Find out how a domestic worker or status matters. a construction labourer faces role conflict. Status and prestige are interconnected terms. Every status is accorded certain rights and values. Values are attached to the social position, rather than to the person who 2019-20

TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 35 middle class working woman who has is mistaken. It suggests that to juggle her role as mother and wife individuals simply take on roles, rather at home and that of a professional at than creating or negotiating them. In work. fact, socialisation is a process in which humans can exercise agency; they are It is a common place assumption not simply passive subjects waiting to that men do not face role conflict. be instructed or programmed. Sociology being both an empirical and Individuals come to understand and comparative discipline suggests assume social roles through an ongoing otherwise. process of social interaction. This discussion perhaps will make you Khasi matriliny generates intense reflect upon the relationship between role conflict for men. They are torn the individual and society, which we between their responsibilities to had studied in Chapter 1. their natal house on the one hand and to their wife and children on Roles and status are not given and the other. They feel deprived of fixed. People make efforts to fight sufficient authority to command against discrimination roles and status their children’s loyalty and lack the for example those based on caste or freedom to pass on after death, even race or gender. At the same time there their self-acquired property to their are sections in society who oppose such children… changes. Likewise individual violation The strain affects Khasi women, in of roles are often punished. Society thus a way more intensely. A woman can functions not just with roles and status never be fully assured that her but also with social control. husband does not find his sister’s house more congenial place than Activity 10 her own house (Nongbri 2003:190). Collect newspaper reports where Role stereotyping is a process of dominant sections of society seek to reinforcing some specific role for some impose control and punish those member of the society. For example whom they consider to have men and women are often socialised in transgressed or violated socially stereotypical roles, as breadwinner and prescribed roles. homemaker respectively. Social roles and status are often wrongly seen as SOCIETY AND SOCIAL CONTROL fixed and unchanging. It is felt that individuals learn the expectations that Social control is one of the most surround social positions in their generally used concepts in sociology. particular culture and perform these It refers to the various means used by roles largely as they have been defined. a society to bring its recalcitrant or Through socialisation, individuals unruly members back into line. internalise social roles and learn how to carry them out. This view, however, 2019-20

36 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY You will recall how sociology has groups on the one hand, and on the different perspectives and debates other, to mitigate tensions and conflicts about the meaning of concepts. You among individuals and groups to will also recall how functionalist maintain social order and social sociologists understood society as cohesion. In this way social control is essentially harmonious and conflict seen as necessary to stability in society. theorists saw society as essentially unequal, unjust and exploitative. We Conflict theorists usually would see also saw how some sociologists social control more as a mechanism to focussed more on the individual and impose the social control of dominant society, others on collectivities like social classes on the rest of society. classes, races and castes. Stability would be seen as the writ of one section over the other. Likewise, law For a functionalist perspective social would be seen as the formal writ of the control refers to: (i) the use of force to powerful and their interests on society. regulate the behaviour of the individual and groups and also refers to the Social control refers to the social (ii) enforcing of values and patterns for process, techniques and strategies by maintaining order in society. Social which behaviours of individual or a control here is directed to restrain group are regulated. It refers both to deviant behaviour of individuals or the use of force to regulate the behaviour of the individual and groups The ultimate and, no doubt, the oldest means of social control is physical violence... even in the politely operated societies of modern democracies the ultimate argument is violence. No state can exist without a police force or its equivalent in armed might... In any functioning society violence is used economically and as a last resort, with the mere threat of this ultimate violence sufficing for the day-to-day exercise of social control... Where human beings live or work in compact groups, in which they are personally known and to which they are tied by feelings of personal loyalty (the kind that sociologists call primary groups), very potent and simultaneously very subtle mechanisms of control are constantly brought to bear upon the actual or potent deviant... One aspect of social control that ought to be stressed is the fact that it is frequently based on fraudulent claims... A little boy can exercise considerable control over his peer group by having a big brother who, if need be, can be called upon to beat up any opponents. In the absence of such a brother, however it is possible to invent one. It will then be a question of the public-relations talents of the little boy as to whether he will succeed in translating his invention into actual control (Berger 84-90). Have you ever seen or heard a young child threaten another with “ I will tell my elder brother.” Can you think of other examples? 2019-20

TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 37 and also refers to the enforcing of values Activity 11 and patterns for maintaining order in society. Can you think of examples drawn from your life how this ‘unofficial’ Social control may be informal or social control operates? Have you in formal. When the codified, systematic, class or in your peer group noticed and other formal mechanism of control how a child who behaves a bit is used, it is known as formal social differently from the rest is treated? control. There are agencies and Have you witnessed incidents where mechanism of formal social control, for children are bullied by their peer example, law and the state. In a modern group to be more like the other society formal mechanisms and children? agencies of social control are emphasised. newspaper report which is given below and identify the different agencies of In every society there is another type social control involved. of social control that is known as informal social control. It is personal, A sanction is a mode of reward or unofficial and uncodified. They include punishment that reinforces socially smiles, making faces, body language, expected forms of behaviour. Social frowns, criticism, ridicule, laughter etc. control can be positive or negative. There can be great variations in their Members of societies can be rewarded use within the same society. In day- for good and expected behaviour. On to-day life they are quite effective. the other hand, negative sanctions are also used to enforce rules and to However, in some cases informal restrain deviance. methods of social control may not be adequate in enforcing conformity or Deviance refers to modes of action, obedience. There are various agencies which do not conform to the norms or of informal social control e.g. family, religion, kinship, etc. Have you heard about honour killing? Read the Man kills sister for marrying from outside the caste ... The elder brother of a 19-year-old girl here carried out an apparent ‘honour killing’ by allegedly beheading her while she was asleep at a hospital ... police said on Monday. The girl... was undergoing treatment at ... Hospital for stab wounds after her brother... attacked her on December 16 for marrying outside the caste, they said. She and her lover eloped on December 10 and returned to their houses here on December 16 after getting married, which was opposed by her parents, they said. The Panchayat also tried to pressurise the couple but they refused to be swayed. 2019-20

38 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY values held by most of the members of be considered deviant at one time, and a group or society. What is regarded as be applauded at another time even in ‘deviant’ is as widely variable as the the same society. You are already norms and values that distinguish familiar with how sociology is different different cultures and subcultures. from common sense. The specific Likewise ideas of deviance are terms and concepts discussed in this challenged and change from one period chapter will help you further to move to another. For example, a woman towards a sociological understanding choosing to become an astronaut may of society. GLOSSARY Conflict Theories : A sociological perspective that focuses on the tensions, divisions and competing interests present in human societies. Conflict theorists believe that the scarcity and value of resources in society produces conflict as groups struggle to gain access to and control those resources. Many conflict theorists have been strongly influenced by the writings of Marx. Functionalism : A theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the function they perform — that is the contribution they make to the continuity of a society. And on a view of society as a complex system whose various parts work in relationship to each other in a way that needs to be understood. Identity : The distinctive characteristic of a person’s character or the character of a group which relate to who they are and what is meaningful to them. Some of the main sources of identity include gender, nationality or ethnicity, social class. Means of Production : The means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but the social relations between producers. Microsociology and Macrosociology : The study of everyday behaviour in situations of face-to-face interaction is usually called microsociology. In microsociology, analysis occurs at the level of individuals or small groups. It differs from macrosociology, which concerns itself with large-scale social systems, like the political system or the economic order. Though they appear to be distinct, they are closely connected. Natal : It relates to the place or time of one’s birth. R Norms : Rules of behaviour which reflect or embody a culture’s values, either prescribing a given type of behaviour, or forbidding it. Norms are always 2019-20

TERMS, CONCEPTS AND THEIR USE IN SOCIOLOGY 39 backed by sanctions of one kind or another, varying from informal disapproval to physical punishment or execution. Sanctions : A mode of reward or punishment that reinforce socially expected forms of behaviour. EXERCISES 1. Why do we need to use special terms and concepts in sociology? 2. As a member of society you must be interacting with and in different groups. How do you see these groups from a sociological perspective? 3. What have you observed about the stratification system existing in your society? How are individual lives affected by stratification? 4. What is social control? Do you think the modes of social control in different spheres of society are different? Discuss. 5. Identify the different roles and status that you play and are located in. Do you think roles and status change? Discuss when and how they change. READINGS BERGER, L. PETER. 1976. Invitation to Sociology : A Humanistic Perspective. Penguin, Harmondsworth. BOTTOMORE, TOM. and ROBERT, NISBET. 1978. A History of Sociological Analysis. Basic Books, New York. BOTTOMORE, TOM. 1972. Sociology. Vintage Books, New York. DESHPANDE, SATISH. 2003. Contemporary India : A Sociological View. Viking, Delhi. FERNANDO, FRANCO. MACWAN, JYOTSNA. and RAMANATHAN, SUGUNA. 2004. Journeys to Freedom Dalit Narratives. Samya, Kolkata. GIDDENS, ANTHONY. 2001. Sociology. Fourth Edition, Polity Press, Cambridge. JAYARAM, N. 1987. Introductory Sociology. Macmillan India Ltd, Delhi. NONGBRI, TIPLUT. 2003. ‘Gender and the Khasi Family Structure : The Meghalaya Succession to Self-Acquired Property Act,1984’, in ed. REGE, SHARMILA. Sociology of Gender The Challenge of Feminist Sociological Knowledge. Sage Publications, New Delhi, pp.182-194. SRINIVAS, M.N. 1996. Village, Caste, Gender and Method. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 2019-20

40 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER 3 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS I least acknowledged by law or by custom. And whose regular and INTRODUCTION continuous operation cannot be understood without taking those rules This book began with a discussion into account. Institutions impose about the interaction of the individual constraints on individuals. They also and society. We saw that each of us as provide him/her with opportunities. individuals, occupies a place or location in society. Each one of us has An institution can also be viewed as a status and a role or roles, but these an end in itself. Indeed people have are not simply what we as individuals viewed family, religion, state or even choose. They are not like roles a film education as an end in itself. actor may or may not opt to do. There are social institutions that constrain and Activity 1 control, punish and reward. They could be ‘macro’ social institutions like the Think of examples of how people state or ‘micro’ ones like the family. sacrifice for family, for religion or for Here in this chapter we are introduced the state. to social institutions, and also to how sociology/social anthropology studies We have already seen that there them. This chapter puts forth a very are conflicting and different brief idea of some of the central areas understandings of concepts within where important social institutions are sociology. We have also been introduced located namely: (i) family, marriage and to the functionalist and conflict kinship; (ii) politics; (iii) economics; perspective, and seen how differently (iv) religion; and (v) education. they saw the same thing, for instance, stratification or social control. Not In the broadest sense, an surprisingly, therefore, there are institution is something that works different forms of understanding of according to rules established or at social institutions as well. 2019-20