Political-Science---Contemporary-World-Politics---Class-12

International Organisations 91 Most importantly, the non- JURISDICTION OF THE UN permanent members do not have the veto power. What is the veto The question of membership is a That’s very unfair! It’s power? In taking decisions, the serious one. In addition, though, actually the weaker Security Council proceeds by there are more substantial issues countries who need voting. All members have one vote. before the world. As the UN a veto, not those However, the permanent members completed 60 years of its who already have so can vote in a negative manner so existence, the heads of all the much power. that even if all other permanent member-states met in September and non-permanent members vote 2005 to celebrate the anniversary for a particular decision, any and review the situation. The permanent member’s negative vote leaders in this meeting decided can stall the decision. This negative that the following steps should be vote is the veto. taken to make the UN more relevant in the changing context. While there has been a move to abolish or modify the veto Creation of a Peacebuilding system, there is also a realisation Commission that the permanent members are unlikely to agree to such a reform. Acceptance of the responsibility Also, the world may not be ready of the international community for such a radical step even though in case of failures of national the Cold War is over. Without the governments to protect their veto, there is the danger as in 1945 own citizens from atrocities that the great powers would lose interest in the world body, that Establishment of a Human they would do what they pleased outside it, and that without their Rights Council (operational support and involvement the body would be ineffective. since 19 June 2006) Find out Source: www.un.org Agreements to achieve the about the Millennium Development Sustainable Development Goals (MDGs) Goals (SDGs). Condemnation of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations Creation of a Democracy Fund An agreement to wind up the Trusteeship Council It is not hard to see that these are equally contentious issues for the UN. What should a Peacebuilding Commission do? There are any number of conflicts all over the world. Which ones should it intervene in? Is it possible or even desirable for it to intervene 2018-19

© Pat Bagley, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 92 Contemporary World Politics The humanitarian crisis in Darfur, Sudan since 2003 has in each and every conflict? attracted empty promises by the International Community. Similarly, what is the responsibility How do you think the UN can intervene in situations like this? of the international community in Would that require a change in its jurisdiction? dealing with atrocities? What are human rights and who should determine the level of human rights violations and the course of action to be taken when they are violated? Given that so many countries are still part of the developing world, how realistic is it for the UN to achieve an ambitious set of goals such as those listed in the Millennium Development Goals? Can there be agreement on a definition of terrorism? How shall the UN use funds to promote democracy? And so on. Source: www.un.org 2018-19

International Organisations WTO 93 INDIA AND THE UN REFORMS WTO India has supported the The World Trade Organisation restructuring of the UN on several (WTO) is an international grounds. It believes that a organisation which sets the rules strengthened and revitalised UN is for global trade. This organisation desirable in a changing world. was set up in 1995 as the India also supports an enhanced successor to the General Agreement on Trade role for the UN in promoting and Tariffs (GATT) created after the Second development and cooperation World War. It has 164 members (as on 29 July among states. India believes that 2016). All decisions are taken unanimously but development should be central to the major economic powers such as the US, EU the UN’s agenda as it is a vital and Japan have managed to use the WTO to precondition for the maintenance frame rules of trade to advance their own of international peace and security. interests. The developing countries often complain of non-transparent procedures and One of India’s major concerns being pushed around by big powers. has been the composition of the Security Council, which has India supports an increase in Do we want to remained largely static while the the number of both permanent oppose the bossism UN General Assembly member- and non-permanent members. Its of the big five or do ship has expanded considerably. representatives have argued that we want to join them India considers that this has the activities of the Security and become harmed the representative Council have greatly expanded in another boss? character of the Security Council. the past few years. The success of It also argues that an expanded the Security Council’s actions Council, with more representation, depends upon the political will enjoy greater support in the support of the international world community. community. Any plan for restructuring of the Security We should keep in mind that Council should, therefore, be the membership of the UN broad-based. For example, the Security Council was expanded Security Council should have from 11 to 15 in 1965. But, there more developing countries in it. was no change in the number of permanent members. Since then, Not surprisingly, India itself the size of the Council has also wishes to be a permanent remained stationary. The fact member in a restructured UN. remains that the overwhelming India is the second most populous majority of the UN General country in the world comprising Assembly members now are almost one-fifth of the world developing countries. Therefore, population. Moreover, India is also India argues that they should also the world’s largest democracy. have a role in shaping the India has participated in virtually decisions in the Security Council all of the initiatives of the UN. Its which affect them. role in the UN’s peacekeeping 2018-19

IAEA94 Contemporary World Politics IAEA capabilities. Others think that its difficulties with Pakistan will make The International Atomic Energy India ineffective as a permanent Agency (IAEA) was established in member. Yet others feel that if India 1957. It came into being to is included, then other emerging implement US President Dwight powers will have to be Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” accommodated such as Brazil, proposal. It seeks to promote the peaceful use of Germany, Japan, perhaps even nuclear energy and to prevent its use for military South Africa, whom they oppose. purposes. IAEA teams regularly inspect nuclear There are those who feel that Africa facilities all over the world to ensure that civilian and South America must be reactors are not being used for military purposes. represented in any expansion of the permanent membership since What happens if the efforts is a long and substantial those are the only continents not UN invites someone one. The country’s economic to have representation in the to New York but the emergence on the world stage is present structure. Given these US does not issue another factor that perhaps concerns, it may not be very easy visa? justifies India’s claim to a for India or anyone else to become permanent seat in the Security a permanent member of the UN in Council. India has also made the near future. regular financial contributions to the UN and never faltered on its THE UN IN A UNIPOLAR payments. India is aware that WORLD permanent membership of the Security Council also has Among the concerns about the symbolic importance. It signifies reform and restructuring of the a country’s growing importance in UN has been the hope of some world affairs. This greater status countries that changes could help is an advantage to a country in the UN cope better with a unipolar the conduct of its foreign policy: word in which the US was the the reputation for being powerful most powerful country without makes you more influential. any serious rivals. Can the UN serve as a balance against US Despite India’s wish to be a dominance? Can it help maintain permanent veto-wielding member a dialogue between the rest of the of the UN, some countries world and the US and prevent question its inclusion. America from doing whatever it Neighbouring Pakistan, with wants? which India has troubled relations, is not the only country that is US power cannot be easily reluctant to see India become a checked. First of all, with the permanent veto member of the disappearance of the Soviet Security Council. Some countries, Union, the US stands as the only for instance, are concerned about superpower. Its military and India’s nuclear weapons economic power allow it to ignore 2018-19

International Organisations AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL 95 the UN or any other international © Mike Lane, Cagle Cartoons Inc. organisation. Amnesty Secondly, within the UN, the International influence of the US is considerable. As the single largest Amnesty International is an NGO contributor to the UN, the US has that campaigns for the unmatched financial power. The protection of human rights all fact that the UN is physically over the world. It promotes located within the US territory respect for all the human rights in the Universal gives Washington additional Declaration of Human Rights. It believes that sources of influence. The US also human rights are interdependent and indivisible. has many nationals in the UN It prepares and publishes reports on human rights. bureaucracy. In addition, with its Governments are not always happy with these veto power the US can stop any reports since a major focus of Amnesty is the moves that it finds annoying or misconduct of government authorities. damaging to its interests or the Nevertheless, these reports play an important role interests of its friends and allies. in research and advocacy on human rights. The power of the US and its veto within the organisation also ensure that Washington has a considerable degree of say in the choice of the Secretary General of the UN. The US can and does use this power to “split” the rest of the world and to reduce opposition to its policies. The UN is not therefore a great balance to the US. Nevertheless, in a unipolar world in which the US is dominant, the UN can and has served to bring the US and the rest of the world into discussions over various issues. US leaders, in spite of their frequent criticism of the UN, do see the organisation as serving a purpose in bringing together over 190 nations in dealing with conflict and social and economic development. As for the rest of the world, the UN provides an arena in which it is possible to modify US attitudes and policies. While the rest of the world is rarely 2018-19

96 Contemporary World Politics HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH Human Rights Watch The UN is an imperfect body, but without it the world would be Human Rights Watch is another worse off. Given the growing international NGO involved in connections and links between research and advocacy on societies and issues—what we human rights. It is the largest often call ‘interdependence’—it is international human rights hard to imagine how more than organisation in the US. It draws the global media’s seven billion people would live attention to human rights abuses. It helped in together without an organisation building international coalitions like the such as the UN. Technology campaigns to ban landmines, to stop the use of promises to increase planetary child soldiers and to establish the International interdependence, and therefore Criminal Court. the importance of the UN will only increase. Peoples and govern- united against Washington, and ments will have to find ways of while it is virtually impossible to supporting and using the UN and “balance” US power, the UN does other international organisations provide a space within which in ways that are consistent with arguments against specific their own interests and the US attitudes and policies are interests of the international heard and compromises and community more broadly. concessions can be shaped. Exercises 1. Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements about the veto power. a. Only the permanent members of the Security Council possess the veto power. b. It’s a kind of negative power. c. The Secretary-General uses this power when not satisfied with any decision. d. One veto can stall a Security Council resolution. 2. Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements about the way the UN functions. a. All security and peace related issues are dealt with in the Security Council. b. Humanitarian policies are implemented by the main organs and specialised agencies spread across the globe. c. Having consensus among the five permanent members on security issues is vital for its implementation. d. The members of the General Assembly are automatically the members of all other principal organs and specialised agencies of the UN. 2018-19

International Organisations 97 3. Which among the following would give more weightage to India’s Exercises proposal for permanent membership in the Security Council? a. Nuclear capability b. It has been a member of the UN since its inception c. It is located in Asia d. India’s growing economic power and stable political system 4. The UN agency concerned with the safety and peaceful use of nuclear technology is: a. The UN Committee on Disarmament b. International Atomic Energy Agency c. UN International Safeguard Committee d. None of the above 5. WTO is serving as the successor to which of the following organisations a. General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs b. General Arrangement on Trade and Tariffs c. World Health Organisation d. UN Development Programme 6. Fill in the blanks. a. The prime objective of the UN is ___________________________ b. The highest functionary of the UN is called_________________ c. The UN Security Council has _____ permanent and _____non- permanent members. d. ______________________ is the present UN Secretary-General. 7. Match the principal organs and agencies of the UN with their functions: 1. Economic and Social Council 2. International Court of Justice 3. International Atomic Energy Agency 4. Security Council 5. UN High Commission for Refugees 6. World Trade Organisation 7. International Monetary Fund 8. General Assembly 9. World Health Organisation 10. Secretariat 2018-19

98 Contemporary World Politics Exercises a. Oversees the global financial system b. Preservation of international peace and security c. Looks into the economic and social welfare of the member countries d. Safety and peaceful use of nuclear technology e. Resolves disputes between and among member countries f. Provides shelter and medical help during emergencies g. Debates and discusses global issues h. Administration and coordination of UN affairs i. Providing good health for all j. Facilitates free trade among member countries 8. What are the functions of the Security Council? 9. As a citizen of India, how would you support India’s candidature for the permanent membership of the Security Council? Justify your proposal. 10. Critically evaluate the difficulties involved in implementing the suggested reforms to reconstruct the UN. 11. Though the UN has failed in preventing wars and related miseries, nations prefer its continuation. What makes the UN an indispensable organisation? 12. ‘Reforming the UN means restructuring of the Security Council’. Do you agree with this statement? Give arguments for or against this position. 2018-19

Chapter 7 Security in the Contemporary World OVERVIEW The concern about human security was reflected in the 1994 UNDP’s Human Development Report, which contends, “the In reading about world politics, we concept of security has for too long been interpreted frequently encounter the terms narrowly… It has been more related to nation states than ‘security’ or ‘national security’. Do people… Forgotten were the legitimate concerns of ordinary we know what these terms mean? people who sought security in their daily lives.” The images Often, they are used to stop debate above show various forms of security threats. and discussion. We hear that an issue is a security issue and that it is vital for the well-being of the country. The implication is that it is too important or secret to be debated and discussed openly. We see movies in which everything surrounding ‘national security’ is shadowy and dangerous. Security seems to be something that is not the business of the ordinary citizen. In a democracy, surely this cannot be the case. As citizens of a democracy, we need to know more about the term security. What exactly is it? And what are India’s security concerns? This chapter debates these questions. It introduces two different ways of looking at security and highlights the importance of keeping in mind different contexts or situations which determine our view of security. 2018-19

100 WHAT IS SECURITY? Contemporary World Politics Who decides about At its most basic, security implies those things that threaten ‘core my security? Some freedom from threats. Human values’ should be regarded as being leaders and experts? existence and the life of a country of interest in discussions of Can’t I decide what are full of threats. Does that mean security. Whose core values is my security? that every single threat counts as though? The core values of the a security threat? Every time a country as a whole? The core person steps out of his or her values of ordinary women and men house, there is some degree of in the street? Do governments, on threat to their existence and way behalf of citizens, always have the of life. Our world would be same notion of core values as the saturated with security issues if ordinary citizen? we took such a broad view of what is threatening. Furthermore, when we speak of threats to core values, how Those who study security, intense should the threats be? therefore, generally say that only Surely there are big and small threats to virtually every value we © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. hold dear. Can all those threats be brought into the understanding Taming Peace of security? Every time another country does something or fails to Have you heard of ‘peacekeeping force’? Do you think this is do something, this may damage paradoxical term? the core values of one’s country. Every time a person is robbed in the streets, the security of ordinary people as they live their daily lives is harmed. Yet, we would be paralysed if we took such an extensive view of security: everywhere we looked, the world would be full of dangers. So we are brought to a conclusion: security relates only to extremely dangerous threats— threats that could so endanger core values that those values would be damaged beyond repair if we did not do something to deal with the situation. Having said that, we must admit that security remains a slippery idea. For instance, have societies always had the same conception of security? It would be surprising if they did because 2018-19

Security in the Contemporary World 101 so many things change in the War is all about world around us. And, at any insecurity, destruction given time in world history, do all and deaths. How societies have the same conception can a war make of security? Again, it would be anyone secure? amazing if six hundred and fifty crore people, organised in nearly 200 countries, had the same conception of security! Let us begin by putting the various notions of security under two groups: traditional and non-traditional conceptions of security. TRADITIONAL NOTIONS: Economy of war EXTERNAL © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. Most of the time, when we read breaks out so as to deny the and hear about security we are attacking country its objectives talking about traditional, national and to turn back or defeat the security conceptions of security. attacking forces altogether. In the traditional conception of Governments may choose to security, the greatest danger to a surrender when actually confronted country is from military threats. by war, but they will not advertise The source of this danger is this as the policy of the country. another country which by Therefore, security policy is threatening military action concerned with preventing war, endangers the core values of which is called deterrence, and sovereignty, independence and with limiting or ending war, which territorial integrity. Military action is called defence. also endangers the lives of ordinary citizens. It is unlikely that Traditional security policy has in a war only soldiers will be hurt a third component called balance or killed. Quite often, ordinary of power. When countries look men and women are made targets around them, they see that some of war, to break their support of countries are bigger and stronger. the war. This is a clue to who might be a threat in the future. For instance, In responding to the threat of a neighbouring country may not war, a government has three basic say it is preparing for attack. choices: to surrender; to prevent There may be no obvious reason the other side from attacking by for attack. But the fact that this promising to raise the costs of war country is very powerful is a sign to an unacceptable level; and to defend itself when war actually 2018-19

© Christo Komarnitski, Cagle Cartoons Inc.102 Contemporary World Politics How do the big powers react when new countries claim nuclear formalised in written treaties and status? On what basis can we say that some countries can be are based on a fairly clear trusted with nuclear weapons while others can’t be? identification of who constitutes the threat. Countries form that at some point in the future it alliances to increase their may choose to be aggressive. effective power relative to another Governments are, therefore, very country or alliance. Alliances are sensitive to the balance of power based on national interests and between their country and other can change when national countries. They do work hard to interests change. For example, maintain a favourable balance of the US backed the Islamic power with other countries, militants in Afghanistan against especially those close by, those the Soviet Union in the 1980s, with whom they have differences, but later attacked them when Al or with those they have had Qaeda—a group of Islamic conflicts in the past. A good part militants led by Osama bin of maintaining a balance of power Laden—launched terrorist is to build up one’s military power, strikes against America on 11 although economic and techno- September 2001. logical power are also important since they are the basis for In the traditional view of military power. security, then, most threats to a country’s security come from A fourth and related outside its borders. That is component of traditional security because the international system policy is alliance building. An is a rather brutal arena in which alliance is a coalition of states there is no central authority that coordinate their actions to capable of controlling behaviour. deter or defend against military Within a country, the threat of attack. Most alliances are violence is regulated by an acknowledged central authority — the government. In world politics, there is no acknowledged central authority that stands above everyone else. It is tempting to think that the United Nations is such an authority or could become such an institution. However, as presently constituted, the UN is a creature of its members and has authority only to the extent that the membership allows it to have authority and obeys it. So, in world politics, each country has to be responsible for its own security. 2018-19

Security in the Contemporary World 103 TRADITIONAL NOTIONS: Again, we draw attention to Browse through a week’s newspaper INTERNAL contexts and situations. We know and list all the that the period after the Second external and By now you will have asked World War was the Cold War in yourself: doesn’t security depend on internal peace and order? How which the US-led Western alliance internal conflicts can a society be secure if there is faced the Soviet-led Communist that are taking violence or the threat of violence alliance. Above all, the two place around the inside its borders? And how can it prepare to face violence from alliances feared a military attack globe. outside its borders if it is not secure inside its borders? from each other. Some European Traditional security must also, powers, in addition, continued to therefore, concern itself with internal security. The reason it is worry about violence in their not given so much importance is that after the Second World War colonies, from colonised people it seemed that, for the most powerful countries on earth, who wanted independence. We internal security was more or less assured. We said earlier that it is have only to remember the French important to pay attention to contexts and situations. While fighting in Vietnam in the 1950s internal security was certainly a part of the concerns of or the British fighting in Kenya in governments historically, after the Second World War there was a the 1950s and the early 1960s. context and situation in which internal security did not seem to As the colonies became free matter as much as it had in the from the late 1940s onwards, their past. After 1945, the US and the security concerns were often Soviet Union appeared to be similar to that of the European united and could expect peace powers. Some of the newly- within their borders. Most of the independent countries, like the European countries, particularly European powers, became the powerful Western European members of the Cold War alliances. countries, faced no serious threats They, therefore, had to worry about from groups or communities living the Cold War becoming a hot war within those borders. Therefore, and dragging them into hostilities these countries focused primarily — against neighbours who might on threats from outside their have joined the other side in the borders. Cold War, against the leaders of the alliances (the United States or What were the external threats Soviet Union), or against any of the facing these powerful countries? other partners of the US and Soviet Union. The Cold War between the two superpowers was responsible for approximately one-third of all wars in the post-Second World War period. Most of these wars were fought in the Third World. Just as the European colonial powers feared violence in the colonies, some colonial people feared, after independence, that they might be attacked by their 2018-19

104 © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. Contemporary World Politics Third World Arms former colonial rulers in Europe. Internally, the new states They had to prepare, therefore, to worried about threats from Those who fight defend themselves against an separatist movements which against their own imperial war. wanted to form independent country must be countries. Sometimes, the unhappy about The security challenges facing external and internal threats something. Perhaps it the newly-independent countries merged. A neighbour might help is their insecurity that of Asia and Africa were different or instigate an internal separatist creates insecurity for from the challenges in Europe in movement leading to tensions the country. two ways. For one thing, the new between the two neighbouring countries faced the prospect of countries. Internal wars now military conflict with neighbouring make up more than 95 per cent of countries. For another, they had all armed conflicts fought to worry about internal military anywhere in the world. Between conflict. These countries faced 1946 and 1991, there was a threats not only from outside their twelve-fold rise in the number of borders, mostly from neighbours, civil wars—the greatest jump in but also from within. Many newly- 200 years. So, for the new states, independent countries came to external wars with neighbours and fear their neighbours even more internal wars posed a serious than they feared the US or Soviet challenge to their security. Union or the former colonial powers. They quarrelled over TRADITIONAL SECURITY AND borders and territories or control of people and populations or all of COOPERATION these simultaneously. In traditional security, there is a recognition that cooperation in limiting violence is possible. These limits relate both to the ends and the means of war. It is now an almost universally-accepted view that countries should only go to war for the right reasons, primarily self-defence or to protect other people from genocide. War must also be limited in terms of the means that are used. Armies must avoid killing or hurting non- combatants as well as unarmed and surrendering combatants. They should not be excessively violent. Force must in any case be used only after all the alternatives have failed. 2018-19

Security in the Contemporary World 105 Traditional views of security The text says: “Whether Elevated or Under Attack, the Department do not rule out other forms of of Homeland Security Terror Meter takes the uncertainty out of cooperation as well. The most staying informed of the level of terror in our nation. Move the Terror important of these are dis- Indicator to the current threat level, which corresponds to how armament, arms control, and terrified the Americal people are of the threat of terror attacks. confidence building. Disarmament Terror is all around us, and can strike at anytime. Thanks to the requires all states to give up Terror Meter, you will never have to wonder how terrified you should certain kinds of weapons. For be. Proceed with caution”. example, the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and to deploy a very limited number of the 1992 Chemical Weapons defensive systems, it stopped them Convention (CWC) banned the from large-scale production of production and possession of those systems. these weapons. More than 155 states acceded to the BWC and As we noted in Chapter 1, the 181 states acceded to the CWC. US and Soviet Union signed a Both conventions included all number of other arms control the great powers. But the treaties including the Strategic superpowers — the US and Soviet Arms Limitations Treaty II or Union — did not want to give up SALT II and the Strategic Arms the third type of weapons of mass Reduction Treaty (START). The destruction, namely, nuclear Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty weapons, so they pursued arms (NPT) of 1968 was an arms control control. treaty in the sense that it regulated the acquisition of Arms control regulates the nuclear weapons: those countries acquisition or development of that had tested and manufactured weapons. The Anti-ballistic nuclear weapons before 1967 were Missile (ABM) Treaty in 1972 tried allowed to keep their weapons; to stop the United States and and those that had not done so Soviet Union from using ballistic were to give up the right to acquire missiles as a defensive shield them. The NPT did not abolish to launch a nuclear attack. nuclear weapons; rather, it limited While it did allow both countries the number of countries that could have them. How funny! First they make deadly and expensive weapons. Then they make complicated treaties to save themselves from these weapons. They call it security! 2018-19

106 Traditional security also Contemporary World Politics © Andy Singer, Cagle Cartoons Inc. accepts confidence building as a Now we are talking! means of avoiding violence. conception, the referent is the state That is what I call real Confidence building is a process with its territory and governing security for real in which countries share ideas institutions. In the non-traditional human beings. and information with their rivals. conceptions, the referent is They tell each other about their expanded. When we ask ‘Security military intentions and, up to a for who?’ proponents of non- point, their military plans. This traditional security reply ‘Not just is a way of demonstrating that the state but also individuals or they are not planning a surprise communities or indeed all of attack. They also tell each other humankind’. Non-traditional views about the kind of forces they of security have been called possess, and they may share ‘human security’ or ‘global information on where those forces security’. are deployed. In short, confidence building is a process designed to Human security is about the ensure that rivals do not go to war protection of people more than the through misunderstanding or protection of states. Human misperception. security and state security should be — and often are — the same Overall, traditional conceptions thing. But secure states do not of security are principally automatically mean secure concerned with the use, or threat peoples. Protecting citizens from of use, of military force. In foreign attack may be a necessary traditional security, force is both condition for the security of the principal threat to security individuals, but it is certainly not and the principal means of achieving security. The cartoon comments on the massive expenditure on defence and lack of NON-TRADITIONAL NOTIONS money for peace-related initiatives in the US. Is it any different in our country? Non-traditional notions of security go beyond military threats to include a wide range of threats and dangers affecting the conditions of human existence. They begin by questioning the traditional referent of security. In doing so, they also question the other three elements of security — what is being secured, from what kind of threats and the approach to security. When we say referent we mean ‘Security for who?’ In the traditional security 2018-19

Security in the Contemporary World 107 a sufficient one. Indeed, during bird flu and so on. No country can the last 100 years, more people resolve these problems alone. And, have been killed by their own in some situations, one country governments than by foreign may have to disproportionately armies. bear the brunt of a global problem such as environmental All proponents of human degradation. For example, due to security agree that its primary global warming, a sea level rise of goal is the protection of 1.5–2.0 meters would flood 20 individuals. However, there are percent of Bangladesh, inundate differences about precisely what most of the Maldives, and threaten threats individuals should be nearly half the population of protected from. Proponents of Thailand. Since these problems are the ‘narrow’ concept of human global in nature, international security focus on violent cooperation is vital, even though threats to individuals or, as former it is difficult to achieve. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan puts it, “the protection of NEW SOURCES OF THREATS communities and individuals from internal violence”. Proponents of The non-traditional conceptions— the ‘broad’ concept of human both human security and global security argue that the threat security—focus on the changing agenda should include nature of threats to security. We hunger, disease and natural will discuss some of these threats disasters because these kill far in the section below. more people than war, genocide and terrorism combined. Human Terrorism refers to political security policy, they argue, violence that targets civilians should protect people from these deliberately and indiscriminately. threats as well as from violence. In International terrorism involves its broadest formulation, the the citizens or territory of more human security agenda also than one country. Terrorist encompasses economic security groups seek to change a political and ‘threats to human dignity’. context or condition that they do Put differently, the broadest not like by force or threat of formulation stresses what has force. Civilian targets are been called ‘freedom from want’ usually chosen to terrorise the and ‘freedom from fear’, public and to use the respectively. unhappiness of the public as a weapon against national The idea of global security governments or other parties in emerged in the 1990s in response conflict. to the global nature of threats such as global warming, The classic cases of terrorism international terrorism, and health involve hijacking planes or planting epidemics like AIDS and bombs in trains, cafes, markets 2018-19

108 © Tab, Cagle Cartoons Inc. Contemporary World Politics Taking the train and other crowded places. Since 11 September 2001 when terrorists attacked the World Trade Centre in America, other governments and public have paid more attention to terrorism, though terrorism itself is not new. In the past, most of the terror attacks have occurred in the Middle East, Europe, Latin America and South Asia. Human rights have come to be classified into three types. The first type is political rights such as freedom of speech and assembly. The second type is economic and social rights. The third type is the rights of colonised people or ethnic and indigenous minorities. While there is broad agreement on this classification, there is no agreement on which set of rights should be considered as universal Why do we always He doesn’t exist! look outside when talking about human rights violations? Don’t we have examples from our own country? 2018-19

Security in the Contemporary World 109 human rights, nor what the population growth occurs in just international community should six countries—India, China, do when rights are being violated. Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh and Indonesia. Among the world’s Since the 1990s, developments poorest countries, population is such as Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, expected to triple in the next 50 the genocide in Rwanda, and the years, whereas many rich Indonesian military’s killing of countries will see population people in East Timor have led to shrinkage in that period. High per a debate on whether or not the UN capita income and low population should intervene to stop human growth make rich states or rich rights abuses. There are those social groups get richer, whereas who argue that the UN Charter low incomes and high population empowers the international growth reinforce each other to community to take up arms in make poor states and poor defence of human rights. Others groups get poorer. argue that the national interests of the powerful states will Globally, this disparity determine which instances of contributes to the gap between human rights violations the UN the Northern and Southern will act upon. countries of the world. Within the South, disparities have also Global poverty is another sharpened, as a few countries source of insecurity. World have managed to slow down population—now at 760 crore— population growth and raise will grow to nearly 1000 crore by incomes while others have failed the middle of the 21st century. to do so. For example, most of the Currently, half the world’s 2018-19

110 Contemporary World Politics Take a map world’s armed conflicts now take have to accept migrants. While of Africa and place in sub-Saharan Africa, refugees leave their country of plot various which is also the poorest region origin, people who have fled their threats to the of the world. At the turn of the homes but remain within national people’s 21st century, more people were borders are called ‘internally security on being killed in wars in this region displaced people’. Kashmiri that map. than in the rest of the world Pandits that fled the violence in the combined. Kashmir Valley in the early 1990s are an example of an internally Poverty in the South has also displaced community. led to large-scale migration to seek a better life, especially better The world refugee map tallies economic opportunities, in the almost perfectly with the world North. This has created conflicts map because wars and international political frictions. armed conflicts in the South have International law and norms make generated millions of refugees a distinction between migrants seeking safe haven. From 1990 to (those who voluntarily leave their 1995, 70 states were involved in 93 home countries) and refugees wars which killed about 55 lakh (those who flee from war, natural people. As a result, individuals, disaster or political persecution). and families and, at times, whole States are generally supposed to communities have been forced to accept refugees, but they do not migrate because of generalised fear of violence or due to the Refugees in the world (2017) destruction of livelihoods, identities and living environments. Where the world’s displaced people are being hosted A look at the correlation between wars and refugee migration shows 16% that in the 1990s, all but three of the 60 refugee flows coincided with Americas an internal armed conflict. 17% 11% Health epidemics such as HIV-AIDS, bird flu, and severe Europe Asia and Pacific acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) have rapidly spread across 26% 30% countries through migration, business, tourism and military Middle East and North Africa Africa operations. One country’s success or failure in limiting the spread of Source: http://www.unhcr.org these diseases affects infections in other countries. 2018-19

Security in the Contemporary World 111 By 2003, an estimated 4 crore Keshav, The Hindu people were infected with HIV- AIDS worldwide, two-thirds of How should the world address issues shown here? them in Africa and half of the rest in South Asia. In North America security problem, therefore, an and other industrialised countries, issue must share a minimum new drug therapies dramatically common criterion, say, of lowered the death rate from HIV- threatening the very existence of the AIDS in the late 1990s. But these referent (a state or group of people) treatments were too expensive to though the precise nature of this help poor regions like Africa where threat may be different. For it has proved to be a major factor example, the Maldives may feel in driving the region backward into threatened by global warming deeper poverty. because a big part of its territory may be submerged with the rising Other new and poorly sea level, whereas for countries in understood diseases such as ebola Southern Africa, HIV-AIDS poses virus, hantavirus, and hepatitis C a serious threat as one in six have emerged, while old diseases adults has the disease (one in three like tuberculosis, malaria, dengue for Botswana, the worst case). In fever and cholera have mutated 1994, the Tutsi tribe in Rwanda into drug resistant forms that are faced a threat to its existence as difficult to treat. Epidemics among nearly five lakh of its people were animals have major economic killed by the rival Hutu tribe in a effects. Since the late 1990s, matter of weeks. This shows that Britain has lost billions of dollars non-traditional conceptions of of income during an outbreak of security, like traditional the mad-cow disease, and bird flu conceptions of security, vary shut down supplies of poultry according to local contexts. exports from several Asian countries. Such epidemics demonstrate the growing inter- dependence of states making their borders less meaningful than in the past and emphasise the need for international cooperation. Expansion of the concept of security does not mean that we can include any kind of disease or distress in the ambit of security. If we do that, the concept of security stands to lose its coherence. Everything could become a security issue. To qualify as a 2018-19

112 Contemporary World Politics World Blindness COOPERATIVE development organisations), © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc.I feel happy when I SECURITY businesses and corporations, and hear that my country has nuclear We can see that great personalities weapons. But I don’t dealing with many know how exactly it of these non- (e.g. Mother Teresa, Nelson makes me and my traditional threats family more secure. to security require Mandela). cooperation rather than military Cooperative security may confrontation. Military force may involve the use of force as a last have a role to play in combating resort. The international terrorism or in enforcing human community may have to sanction rights (and even here there is a the use of force to deal with limit to what force can achieve), but governments that kill their own it is difficult to see what force people or ignore the misery of would do to help alleviate poverty, their populations who are manage migration and refugee devastated by poverty, disease movements, and control and catastrophe. It may have to epidemics. Indeed, in most cases, agree to the use of violence the use of military force would against international terrorists only make matters worse! and those who harbour them. Non-traditional security is much Far more effective is to devise better when the use of force strategies that involve is sanctioned and applied international cooperation. collectively by the international Cooperation may be bilateral (i.e. community rather than when an between any two countries), individual country decides to use regional, continental, or global. It force on its own. would all depend on the nature of the threat and the willingness INDIA’S SECURITY STRATEGY and ability of countries to respond. Cooperative security India has faced traditional may also involve a variety of other (military) and non-traditional players, both international threats to its security that have and national—international emerged from within as well as organisations (the UN, the World outside its borders. Its security Health Organisation, the World strategy has four broad Bank, the IMF etc.), non- components, which have been governmental organisations used in a varying combination (Amnesty International, the Red from time to time. Cross, private foundations and charities, churches and religious The first component was streng- organisations, trade unions, thening its military capabilities associations, social and because India has been involved in conflicts with its neighbours — Pakistan in 1947–48, 1965, 1971 and 1999; and China in 1962. Since it is surrounded by nuclear- 2018-19

Security in the Contemporary World 113 armed countries in the South challenges within the country. Compare the Asian region, India’s decision to Several militant groups from areas expenditure by conduct nuclear tests in 1998 was such as the Nagaland, Mizoram, the Indian justified by the Indian government the Punjab, and Kashmir among government on in terms of safeguarding national others have, from time to time, traditional security. India first tested a sought to break away from India. security with its nuclear device in 1974. India has tried to preserve national expenditure on unity by adopting a democratic non-traditional The second component of political system, which allows security. India’s security strategy has been different communities and groups to strengthen international norms of people to freely articulate their and international institutions to grievances and share political protect its security interests. power. India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, supported the Finally, there has been an cause of Asian solidarity, attempt in India to develop its decolonisation, disarmament, economy in a way that the vast and the UN as a forum in which mass of citizens are lifted out of international conflicts could be poverty and misery and huge settled. India also took initiatives economic inequalities are not to bring about a universal and allowed to exist. The attempt has non-discriminatory non-proliferation not quite succeeded; we are still regime in which all countries a very poor and unequal country. would have the same rights and Yet democratic politics allows obligations with respect to weapons spaces for articulating the voice of mass destruction (nuclear, of the poor and the deprived biological, chemical). It argued for citizens. There is a pressure on an equitable New International the democratically elected Economic Order (NIEO). Most governments to combine importantly, it used non-alignment economic growth with human to help carve out an area of peace development. Thus democracy is outside the bloc politics of the two not just a political ideal; a superpowers. India joined 160 democratic government is also a countries that have signed and way to provide greater security. ratified the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, You will read more about the which provides a roadmap for successes and failures of Indian reducing the emissions of democracy in this respect in the greenhouse gases to check global textbook on politics in India since warming. Indian troops have been independence. sent abroad on UN peacekeeping missions in support of cooperative security initiatives. The third component of Indian security strategy is geared towards meeting security 2018-19

114 Contemporary World Politics STEPS Narrate the following imaginary situation of four villages settled on the banks of a river. Kotabagh, Gewali, Kandali and Goppa are villages adjoining each other beside a river. People in Kotabagh were the first settlers on the riverbank. They had an uninterrupted access to abundant natural resources available in the region. Gradually, people from different regions started coming to this region because of the abundant natural resources and water. Now there are four villages. With time the population of these villages expanded. But resources did not expand. Each village started making claims over natural resources including the boundary of their respective settlement. Inhabitants of Kotabagh argued for a greater share in natural resources, as they were the first settlers. Settlers of Kandali and Gewali said that as they have bigger populations than the others they both need a greater share. The people of Goppa said as they are used to an extravagant life they need a bigger share, though their population is smaller in size. All four villages disagreed with each other’s demands and continued to use the resources as they wished. This led to frequent clashes among the villagers. Gradually, everybody felt disgusted with the state of affairs and lost their peace of mind. Now they all wish to live the way they had lived earlier. But they do not know how to go back to that golden age. Make a brief note describing the characteristics of each village — the description should reflect the actual nature of present-day nations. Divide the classroom into four groups. Each group is to represent a village. Hand over the village notes to the respective groups. The teacher is to allot a time (15 minutes) for group discussions on how to go back to the golden age. Each should develop its own strategy. All groups are to negotiate freely among themselves as village representatives, to arrive at a solution (within 20 minutes). Each would put forth its arguments and counter arguments. The result could be: an amicable agreement accommodating the demands of all, which seldom happens; or, the entire negotiation/discussion ends without achieving the purpose. Ideas for the Teacher Link the villages to nations and connect to the problems of security (threat to geographical territory/ access to natural resources/insurgency, and so on). Talk about the observations made during the negotiation and explain how similarly the nations behave while negotiating on related issues. The activity could be concluded by making reference to some of the current security issues between and among nations. 2018-19

Security in the Contemporary World 115 1. Match the terms with their meaning: Exercises i. Confidence Building Measures (CBMs) ii. Arms Control iii. Alliance iv. Disarmament a. Giving up certain types of weapons b. A process of exchanging information on defence matters between nations on a regular basis c. A coalition of nations meant to deter or defend against military attacks d. Regulates the acquisition or development of weapons 2. Which among the following would you consider as a traditional security concern / non-traditional security concern / not a threat? a. The spread of chikungunya / dengue fever b. Inflow of workers from a neighbouring nation c. Emergence of a group demanding nationhood for their region d. Emergence of a group demanding autonomy for their region e. A newspaper that is critical of the armed forces in the country 3. What is the difference between traditional and non-traditional security? Which category would the creation and sustenance of alliances belong to? 4. What are the differences in the threats that people in the Third World face and those living in the First World face? 5. Is terrorism a traditional or non-traditional threat to security? 6. What are the choices available to a state when its security is threatened, according to the traditional security perspective? 7. What is ‘Balance of Power’? How could a state achieve this? 8. What are the objectives of military alliances? Give an example of a functioning military alliance with its specific objectives. 9. Rapid environmental degradation is causing a serious threat to security. Do you agree with the statement? Substantiate your arguments. 2018-19

116 Contemporary World Politics Exercises 10. Nuclear weapons as deterrence or defence have limited usage against contemporary security threats to states. Explain the statement. 11. Looking at the Indian scenario, what type of security has been given priority in India, traditional or non-traditional? What examples could you cite to substantiate the argument? 12. Read the cartoon below and write a short note in favour or against the connection between war and terrorism depicted in this cartoon. © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 2018-19

Chapter 8 Environment and Natural Resources OVERVIEW The 1992 Earth Summit has brought environmental issues to the centre-stage of global politics. The pictures above show This chapter examines the growing rainforest and mangroves. significance of environmental as well as resource issues in world politics. It analyses in a comparative perspective some of the important environmental movements against the backdrop of the rising profile of environmentalism from the 1960s onwards. Notions of common property resources and the global commons too are assessed. We also discuss, in brief, the stand taken by India in more recent environmental debates. Next follows a brief account of the geopolitics of resource competition. We conclude by taking note of the indigenous peoples’ voices and concerns from the margins of contemporary world politics. 2018-19

118 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS Contemporary World Politics Politics in forests, IN GLOBAL POLITICS Throughout the world, politics in water, cultivable area is barely politics in In this book we have discussed expanding any more, and a atmosphere! What is ‘world politics’ in a fairly limited substantial portion of existing not political then? sense: wars and treaties, rise and agricultural land is losing decline of state power, the fertility. Grasslands have been relationship between the overgrazed and fisheries over- governments that represent their harvested. Water bodies have countries in the international suffered extensive depletion arena and the role of inter- and pollution, severely governmental organisations. In restricting food production. Chapter 7, we expanded the scope of world politics to include issues According to the Human like poverty and epidemics. That Development Report 2016 of the may not have been a very difficult United Nations Development step to take, for we all think that Programme, 663 million people governments are responsible for in developing countries have no controlling these. In that sense access to safe water and they fall within the scope of world 2.4 billion have no access to politics. Now consider some other sanitation, resulting in the issues. Do you think they fall death of more than three within the scope of contemporary million children every year. world politics? Natural forests — which help Around the Aral Sea, thousands of people have had to leave their stabilise the climate, moderate homes as the toxic waters have totally destroyed the fishing industry. water supplies, and harbour The shipping industry and all related activities have collapsed. a majority of the planet’s Rising concentrations of salt in the soil have caused low crop yields. biodiversity on land—are Numerous studies have been conducted. In fact locals joke that if being cut down and people are everyone who’d come to study the Aral had brought a bucket of being displaced. The loss of water, the sea would be full by now. Source: www.gobartimes.org biodiversity continues due to the destruction of habitat in areas which are rich in species. A steady decline in the total amount of ozone in the Earth’s stratosphere (commonly referred to as the ozone hole) poses a real danger to ecosystems and human health. Coastal pollution too is increasing globally. Although the open sea is relatively clean, the coastal waters are 2018-19

Environment and Natural Resources 119 becoming increasingly polluted Global Warming © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. largely due to land-based activities. If unchecked, Why do you think the fingers are designed like chimneys and the intensive human settlement of world made into a lighter? coastal zones across the globe will lead to further of the Earth’s resources against the Collect news deterioration in the quality of backdrop of rapidly growing world clippings on marine environment. population. International agencies, reports including the United Nations linking You might ask are we not Environment Programme (UNEP), environment talking here about ‘natural began holding international and politics phenomena’ that should be studied conferences and promoting in your own in geography rather than in political detailed studies to get a more locality. science. But think about it again. coordinated and effective response If the various governments take to environmental problems. Since steps to check environmental then, the environment has degradation of the kind mentioned emerged as a significant issue of above, these issues will have global politics. political consequences in that sense. Most of them are such that The growing focus on no single government can address environmental issues within the them fully. Therefore they have to arena of global politics was firmly become part of ‘world politics’. Issues consolidated at the United Nations of environment and natural Conference on Environment and resources are political in another Development held in Rio de deeper sense. Who causes Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. environmental degradation? Who This was also called the Earth pays the price? And who is Summit. The summit was responsible for taking corrective action? Who gets to use how much of the natural resources of the Earth? All these raise the issue of who wields how much power. They are, therefore, deeply political questions. Although environmental concerns have a long history, awareness of the environmental consequences of economic growth acquired an increasingly political character from the 1960s onwards. The Club of Rome, a global think tank, published a book in 1972 entitled Limits to Growth, dramatising the potential depletion 2018-19

© Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc.120 Contemporary World Politics Are there different perspectives from which the rich and the poor countries of the First World, countries agree to protect the Earth? generally referred to as the ‘global North’ were pursuing a different attended by 170 states, thousands environmental agenda than the of NGOs and many multinational poor and developing countries of corporations. Five years earlier, the Third World, called the ‘global the 1987 Brundtland Report, Our South’. Whereas the Northern Common Future, had warned that states were concerned with ozone traditional patterns of economic depletion and global warming, the growth were not sustainable in the Southern states were anxious to long term, especially in view of the address the relationship between demands of the South for further economic development and industrial development. What was environmental management. obvious at the Rio Summit was that the rich and developed The Rio Summit produced conventions dealing with climate change, biodiversity, forestry, and recommended a list of development practices called ‘Agenda 21’. But it left unresolved considerable differences and difficulties. There was a consensus on combining economic growth with ecological responsibility. This approach to development is commonly known as ‘sustainable development’. The problem however was how exactly this was to be achieved. Some critics have pointed out that Agenda 21 was biased in favour of economic growth rather than ensuring ecological conservation. Let us look at some of the contentious issues in the global politics of environment. THE PROTECTION OF GLOBAL COMMONS ‘Commons’ are those resources which are not owned by anyone but rather shared by a community. This could be a ‘common room’, a ‘community centre’, a park or a river. Similarly, there are some 2018-19

Environment and Natural Resources 121 ANTARCTICA The Antarctic continental region extends over 14 million square kilometres and comprises 26 per cent of the world’s wilderness area, representing 90 per cent of all terrestrial ice and 70 per cent of planetary fresh water. The Antarctic also extends to a further 36 million square kilometres of ocean. It has a limited terrestrial life and a highly productive marine ecosystem, comprising a few plants (e.g. microscopic algae, fungi and lichen), marine mammals, fish and hordes of birds adapted to harsh conditions, as well as the krill, which is central to marine food chain and upon which other animals are dependent. The Antarctic plays an important role in maintaining climatic equilibrium, and deep ice cores provide an important source of information about greenhouse gas concentrations and atmospheric temperatures of hundreds and thousands of years ago. Who owns this coldest, farthest, and windiest continent on globe? There are two claims about it. Some countries like the UK, Argentina, Chile, Norway, France, Australia and New Zealand have made legal claims to sovereign rights over Antarctic territory. Most other states have taken the opposite view that the Antarctic is a part of the global commons and not subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of any state. These differences, however, have not prevented the adoption of innovative and potentially far-reaching rules for the protection of the Antarctic environment and its ecosystem. The Antarctic and the Arctic polar regions are subjected to special regional rules of environmental protection. Since 1959, activities in the area have been limited to scientific research, fishing and tourism. Even these limited activities have not prevented parts of the region from being degraded by waste as a result of oil spills. areas or regions of the world which Cooperation over the global Very soon we will are located outside the sovereign commons is not easy. There have have ecological jurisdiction of any one state, and been many path-breaking degradation of the therefore require common agreements such as the 1959 moon! governance by the international Antarctic Treaty, the 1987 community. These are known as Montreal Protocol, and the 1991 res communis humanitatis or Antarctic Environmental Protocol. global commons. They include the A major problem underlying all earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica ecological issues relates to the (see Box), the ocean floor, and difficulty of achieving consensus outer space. on common environmental 2018-19

122 Contemporary World Politics One of the biggest catastrophes in Africa in the 1970s, a drought turned the best cropland in five countries into cracked and barren earth. In fact, the term environmental refugees came into popular vocabulary after this. Many had to flee their homelands as agriculture was no longer possible. Source: www.gobartimes.org Find out more agendas on the basis of vague ocean floor, the crucial issue here about the scientific evidence and time frames. is technology and industrial Kyoto Protocol. In that sense the discovery of the development. This is important Which major ozone hole over the Antarctic in because the benefits of countries did the mid-1980s revealed the exploitative activities in outer not sign it? And opportunity as well as dangers space are far from being equal why? inherent in tackling global either for the present or future environmental problems. generations. Similarly, the history of outer COMMON BUT DIFFERENTIATED space as a global commons shows that the management of these RESPONSIBILITIES areas is thoroughly influenced by North-South inequalities. As with We have noted above a difference the earth’s atmosphere and the in the approach to environment 2018-19

Environment and Natural Resources 123 between the countries of the North that they bear in the international That’s a cool and the South. The developed pursuit of sustainable development principle! A bit like countries of the North want to in view of the pressures their the reservation discuss the environmental issue societies place on the global policy in our country, as it stands now and want environment and of the technological isn’t it? everyone to be equally responsible and financial resources they for ecological conservation. The command.” developing countries of the South feel that much of the ecological The 1992 United Nations degradation in the world is the Framework Convention on product of industrial development Climate Change (UNFCCC) also undertaken by the developed provides that the parties should countries. If they have caused act to protect the climate system more degradation, they must also “on the basis of equity and in take more responsibility for accordance with their common but undoing the damage now. differentiated responsibilities and Moreover, the developing countries respective capabilities.” The are in the process of industrialisation parties to the Convention agreed and they must not be subjected that the largest share of to the same restrictions, which historical and current global apply to the developed countries. emissions of greenhouse gases Thus the special needs of the has originated in developed developing countries must be countries. It was also taken into account in the acknowledged that per capita development, application, and emissions in developing countries interpretation of rules of inter- are still relatively low. China, national environmental law. This India, and other developing argument was accepted in the Rio countries were, therefore, Declaration at the Earth Summit exempted from the requirements in 1992 and is called the principle of the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto of ‘common but differentiated Protocol is an international responsibilities’. agreement setting targets for industrialised countries to cut The relevant part of the Rio their greenhouse gas emissions. Declaration says that “States Certain gases like Carbon shall cooperate in the spirit of dioxide, Methane, Hydro-fluoro global partnership to conserve, carbons etc. are considered at protect and restore the health least partly responsible for global and integrity of the Earth’s warming - the rise in global ecosystem. In view of the different temperature which may have contributions of global environmental catastrophic consequences for degradation, states have common life on Earth. The protocol was but differentiated responsibilities. agreed to in 1997 in Kyoto in The developed countries Japan, based on principles set acknowledge the responsibility out in UNFCCC. 2018-19

124 Contemporary World Politics I heard about some COMMON PROPERTY availability to the poor in much of rivers being sold in the world. The institutional Latin America. How RESOURCES arrangement for the actual can common management of the sacred groves property be sold? Common property represents on state-owned forest land common property for the group. appropriately fits the description The underlying norm here is that of a common property regime. members of the group have both Along the forest belt of South rights and duties with respect to India, sacred groves have been the nature, levels of use, and the traditionally managed by village maintenance of a given resource. communities. Through mutual understanding and centuries of practice, many INDIA’S STAND ON village communities in India, for example, have defined members’ ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES rights and responsibilities. A combination of factors, including India signed and ratified the 1997 privatisation, agricultural intensi- Kyoto Protocol in August 2002. fication, population growth and India, China and other developing ecosystem degradation have countries were exempt from the caused common property to requirements of the Kyoto Protocol dwindle in size, quality, and because their contribution to the SACRED GROVES IN INDIA Protecting nature for religious reasons is an ancient practice in many traditional societies. Sacred groves in India (parcels of uncut forest vegetation in the name of certain deities or natural or ancestral spirits) exemplify such practice. As a model of community-based resource management, groves have lately gained attention in conservation literature. The sacred groves can be seen as a system that informally forces traditional communities to harvest natural resources in an ecologically sustained fashion. Some researchers believe that sacred groves hold the potential for preserving not only biodiversity and ecological functions, but also cultural diversity. Sacred groves embody a rich set of forest preservation practices and they share characteristics with common property resource systems. Their size ranges from clumps of a few trees to several hundred acres. Traditionally, sacred groves have been valued for their embodied spiritual and cultural attributes. Hindus commonly worshipped natural objects, including trees and groves. Many temples have originated from sacred groves. Deep religious reverence for nature, rather than resource scarcity, seems to be the basis for the long-standing commitment to preserving these forests. In recent years, however, expansion and human settlement have slowly encroached on sacred forests. In many places, the institutional identity of these traditional forests is fading with the advent of new national forest policies. A real problem in managing sacred groves arises when legal ownership and operational control are held by different entities. The two entities in question, the state and the community, vary in their policy norms and underlying motives for using the sacred grove. 2018-19

Environment and Natural Resources 125 emission of greenhouse gases that the major responsibility of I get it! First they during the industrialisation period curbing emission rests with the destroyed the earth, (that is believed to be causing developed countries, which have now it is our turn to today’s global warming and climate accumulated emissions over a long do the same! Is that change) was not significant. period of time. our stand? However, the critics of the Kyoto Protocol point out that sooner or India’s international negotiating later, both India and China, along position relies heavily on with other developing countries, principles of historical will be among the leading responsibility, as enshrined in countributors to greenhouse gas UNFCCC. This acknowledges that emissions. At the G-8 meeting in developed countries are responsible June 2005, India pointed out that for most historical and current the per capita emission rates of the greenhouse gas emissions, and developing countries are a tiny emphasizes that ‘economic and fraction of those in the developed social development are the first world. Following the principle of and overriding priorities of the common but differentiated developing country parties’. So responsibilities, India is of the view India is wary of recent discussions 2018-19

126 Contemporary World Politics within UNFCCC about introducing conclusions was that there had binding commitments on rapidly been no meaningful progress with industrialising countries (such as respect to transfer of new and Brazil, China and India) to reduce additional financial resources and their greenhouse gas emissions. environmentally-sound technology India feels this contravenes the on concessional terms to very spirit of UNFCCC. Neither developing nations. India finds it does it seem fair to impose necessary that developed restrictions on India when the countries take immediate country’s rise in per capita carbon measures to provide developing emissions by 2030 is likely to still countries with financial resources represent less than half the world and clean technologies to enable average of 3.8 tonnes in 2000. them to meet their existing Indian emissions are predicted commitments under UNFCCC. to rise from 0.9 tonnes per capita India is also of the view that the in 2000 to 1.6 tonnes per capita SAARC countries should adopt a in 2030. common position on major global environment issues, so that the The Indian government is region’s voice carries greater already participating in global weight. efforts through a number of programmes. For example, India’s ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS: National Auto-fuel Policy mandates cleaner fuels for ONE OR MANY? vehicles. The Energy Conservation Act, passed in 2001, outlines We have, so far, looked at the way initiatives to improve energy governments have reacted at the efficiency. Similarly, the Electricity international level to the challenge Act of 2003 encourages the use of of environmental degradation. But renewable energy. Recent trends in some of the most significant importing natural gas and responses to this challenge have encouraging the adoption of clean come not from the governments coal technologies show that India but rather from groups of environ- has been making real efforts. The mentally conscious volunteers government is also keen to launch working in different parts of the a National Mission on Biodiesel, world. Some of them work at the using about 11 million hectares of international level, but most of land to produce biodiesel by them work at the local level. These 2011–2012. And India has one of environmental movements are the largest renewable energy amongst the most vibrant, programmes in the world. diverse, and powerful social movements across the globe A review of the implementation today. It is within social movements of the agreements at the Earth that new forms of political action Summit in Rio was undertaken by are born or reinvented. These India in 1997. One of the key 2018-19

Environment and Natural Resources 127 movements raise new ideas and examples) are faced with enormous Let’s find long-term visions of what we pressures. Forest clearing in the out about should do and what we should not Third World continues at an ‘Chipko do in our individual and collective alarming rate, despite three Movement’. lives. Here are just a few decades of environmental activism. examples to show that diversity The destruction of the world’s last is an important trait of remaining grand forests has contemporary environmental actually increased in the last movements. decade. The forest movements of the The minerals industry is one South, in Mexico, Chile, Brazil, of the most powerful forms of Malaysia, Indonesia, continental industry on the planet. A large Africa and India (just to list a few number of economies of the South ARE FORESTS “WILDERNESS”? What distinguishes the forest movements of the South from © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. those of the North is that the forests of the former are still peopled, whilst the forests of the latter are more or less devoid of human habitat or, at least, are perceived as thus. This explains to some extent the prevailing notion of wilderness in the North as a ‘wild place’ where people do not live. In this perspective, humans are not seen as part of nature. In other words, ‘environment’ is perceived as ‘somewhere out there’, as something that should be protected from humans through the creation of parks and reserves. On the other hand, most environmental issues in the South are based on the assumption that people live in the forests. Wilderness-oriented perspectives have been predominant in Australia, Scandinavia, North America and New Zealand. In these regions, there are still large tracts of relatively ‘underdeveloped wilderness’, unlike in most European countries. This is not to say that wilderness campaigns are entirely missing in the South. In the Philippines, green organisations fight to protect eagles and other birds of prey Do you agree with the efforts from extinction. In India, a battle goes on to protect the made by ecologists? Do you alarmingly low number of Bengal tigers. In Africa, a long agree with the way ecologists are campaign has been waged against the ivory trade and portrayed here? the savage slaughter of elephants. Some of the most famous wilderness struggles have been fought in the forests of Brazil and Indonesia. All of these campaigns focus on individual species as well as the conservation of the wilderness habitats, which support them. Many of the wilderness issues have been renamed biodiversity issues in recent times, as the concept of wilderness has been proved difficult to sell in the South. Many of these campaigns have been initiated and funded by NGOs such as the Worldwide Wildlife Fund (WWF), in association with local people. 2018-19

128 are now being re-opened Contemporary World Politics to MNCs through the An entire liberalisation of the present, there has been a spurt in community erupted global economy. The mega-dam building in the South, in protests against a mineral industry’s from Turkey to Thailand to South proposed open- extraction of earth, its Africa, from Indonesia to China. cast coal mine use of chemicals, its India has had some of the leading project in Phulbari pollution of waterways anti-dam, pro-river movements. town, in the North- and land, its clearance Narmada Bachao Andolan is one West district of of native vegetation, its of the best known of these Dinajpur, displacement of communities, movements. It is significant to note Bangladesh. Here amongst other factors, continue that, in anti-dam and other several dozen to invite criticism and resistance environmental movements in women, one with in various parts of the globe. One India, the most important shared her infant child, are good example is that of the idea is non-violence. chanting slogans Philippines, where a vast network against the of groups and organisations RESOURCE GEOPOLITICS proposed coal mine campaigned against the Western project in 2006. Mining Corporation (WMC), an Resource geopolitics is all about Australia-based multinational who gets what, when, where and company. Much opposition to the how. Resources have provided company in its own country, some of the key means and motives Australia, is based on anti-nuclear of global European power sentiments and advocacy for the expansion. They have also been the basic rights of Australian focus of inter-state rivalry. Western indigenous peoples. geopolitical thinking about resources has been dominated by Another group of movements the relationship of trade, war and are those involved in struggles power, at the core of which were against mega-dams. In every overseas resources and maritime country where a mega-dam is navigation. Since sea power itself being built, one is likely to find rested on access to timber, naval an environmental movement timber supply became a key opposing it. Increasingly anti-dam priority for major European powers movements are pro-river from the 17th century onwards. movements for more sustainable The critical importance of ensuring and equitable management of river uninterrupted supply of strategic systems and valleys. The early resources, in particular oil, was 1980s saw the first anti-dam well established both during the movement launched in the North, First World War and the Second namely, the campaign to save the World War. Franklin River and its surrounding forests in Australia. This was a Throughout the Cold War the wilderness and forest campaign as industrialised countries of the well as anti-dam campaign. At North adopted a number of methods to ensure a steady flow of resources. These included the 2018-19

Environment and Natural Resources 129 deployment of military forces near exploitation sites and along sea- lanes of communication, the stockpiling of strategic resources, efforts to prop up friendly governments in producing countries, as well as support to multinational companies and favourable international agreements. Traditional Western strategic thinking remained concerned with access to supplies, which might be threatened by the Soviet Union. A particular concern was Western © Andy Singer, Cagle Cartoons Inc. control of oil in the Gulf and strategic minerals in Southern and Central Africa. After the end of the Cold War and the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the security of supply continues to worry government and business decisions with regard to several minerals, in particular radioactive materials. However, oil continues to be the most important resource in global strategy. substantial rise in oil demand. Saudi Arabia has a quarter of the The global economy relied on world’s total reserves and is the oil for much of the 20th century single largest producer. Iraq’s as a portable and indispensable known reserves are second only fuel. The immense wealth to Saudi Arabia’s. And, since associated with oil generates substantial portions of Iraqi political struggles to control it, territory are yet to be fully and the history of petroleum is explored, there is a fair chance also the history of war and that actual reserves might be far struggle. Nowhere is this more larger. The United States, Europe, obviously the case than in West Japan, and increasingly India and Asia and Central Asia. West Asia, China, which consume this specifically the Gulf region, petroleum, are located at a accounts for about 30 per cent of considerable distance from the global oil production. But it has region. about 64 percent of the planet’s known reserves, and is therefore Water is another crucial the only region able to satisfy any resource that is relevant to global 2018-19

130 Contemporary World Politics EVERYONE IS PLAYING CRUDE! \"The list of petroleum based products in our lives is endless. Toothbrush, pacemaker, paints, inks, ....Oil provides the energy for 95 per cent of the world's transportation needs. The whole industrialised world survives on petroleum. We cannot imagine living without it. There are billions of barrels of it under the earth for us to use. Yet there are disputes between countries. Why here is one of the problems\" I belong to the Royal Family of the Kingdom of Black Gold. I am Sheikh Petrodollah what they call filthy rich. Ever since black gold was found in my King of the land of Black Gold Kingdom things have never been the same again. Mr. Bigoil and his government came prospecting one day. We struck oil...and a deal. They armed me to the teeth till it hurt. So when I grin my subjects look at me with awe. In return Bigoil and sons get to buy all my oil and loyalty. I am happy and rich and so are they. I turn my blind eye to their military in this holy land. I value precious things. Bigoil says his President values freedom and democracy. So I keep both safely under lock and key in my land. Mr. Bigoil As advised, I did ask myself what can I do for my country. My country has CEO of Bigoil and sons an enormous appetite for oil. So ...provide it with oil of course! I believe in the free market system. Free to dig up oil in far away countries, free to create pliable tin-pot dictators to keep local populations at bay and free to destroy ecology. We play no politics but pay them at election campaigns and get them to invest in our company. That way we don't have to embarrass ourselves by foolishly waving and smiling at TV cameras. Leading the good life Mr & Mrs Gobbledoo A new beauty is parked outside our garage. Awesome! Isn't it?... sleek chrome finish, power steering, automatic gears. Excellent pick up and great mileage too. It is low on emissions too...gentle on the atmosphere, you know. Global warming and all that stuff. Now we really are in hurry to zoom off and lead the good life...God Save Everyone!...vvrrroooommmmm Toppleton defends freedom and democracy. That's why he is so generous with guns and missiles. Like the ones he gave us to fight the invading Ruffians. He even trained us. We did not realise that it was the oil they were after. Bigoil is always trying to woo us. But we are too busy playing war games. Now we have rules of our own. Toppleton's govt. kept changing its rules. Not fair we said. Some of us now hate Toppleton, his government and his people. Of course their bullets and missiles come in handy when we have to beat them at their game. Errorists Make no mistake, we are Errorists. Loose cannonballs Adapted from http://www.gobartimes.org/gt_covfeature2.htm 2018-19

Environment and Natural Resources 131 (lower riparian) state’s objection to How are these pollution, excessive irrigation, or conflicts different the construction of dams by an from the many water upstream (upper riparian) state, conflicts within our which might decrease or degrade own country? the quality of water available to © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. the downstream state. States have used force to protect or The larger part of the Earth is water than seize freshwater resources. the land and yet the cartoonist decides Examples of violence include to show larger image of the land than those between Israel, Syria, and water. How does the image show the Jordan in the 1950s and 1960s scarcity of water? over attempts by each side to divert water from the Jordan and politics. Regional variations and Yarmuk Rivers, and more recent the increasing scarcity of threats between Turkey, Syria, freshwater in some parts of the and Iraq over the construction of world point to the possibility of dams on the Euphrates River. A disagreements over shared water number of studies show that resources as a leading source of countries that share rivers — and conflicts in the 21st century. many countries do share rivers — Some commentators on world are involved in military conflicts politics have referred to ‘water with each other. wars’ to describe the possibility of violent conflict over this life- THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES sustaining resource. Countries that share rivers can disagree over AND THEIR RIGHTS many things. For instance, a typical disagreement is a downstream The question of indigenous people brings the issues of environment, resources and politics together. The UN defines indigenous populations as comprising the descendants of peoples who inhabited the present territory of a country at the time when persons of a different culture or ethnic origin arrived there from other parts of the world and overcame them. Indigenous people today live more in conformity with their particular social, economic, and cultural customs and traditions than the institutions of the country of which they now form a part. 2018-19

132 In the context of world politics, Contemporary World Politics © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. what are the common interests of Why don’t we hear approximately 30 crore present day island states in the much about the indigenous peoples spread Oceania region (including indigenous people throughout the world including Australia and New Zealand), and their India? There are 20 lakh were inhabited by the Polynesian, movements? Is the indigenous people of the Melanesian and Micronesian media biased Cordillera region of the people over the course of against them? Philippines, 10 lakh Mapuche thousands of years. They appeal people of Chile, six lakh tribal to governments to come to terms people of the Chittagong Hill with the continuing existence of Tracts in Bangladesh, 35 lakh indigenous nations as enduring North American natives, 50,000 communities with an identity of Kuna living east of Panama Canal their own. ‘Since times and 10 lakh Small Peoples of the immemorial’ is the phrase used by Soviet North. Like other social indigenous people all over the movements, indigenous people world to refer to their continued speak of their struggles, their occupancy of the lands from agenda and their rights. which they originate. The worldviews of indigenous The indigenous voices in world societies, irrespective of their politics call for the admission of geographical location, are indigenous people to the world strikingly similar with respect to community as equals. Indigenous land and the variety of life systems people occupy areas in Central supported by it. The loss of land, and South America, Africa, India which also means the loss of an (where they are known as Tribals) economic resource base, is the and Southeast Asia. Many of the Spoonful of Ecology Do you agree with this perspective where a man from an urban (developed!) area becomes greedy for nature? 2018-19

Environment and Natural Resources 133 most obvious threat to the survival experiences. The World Council of Indigenous of indigenous people. Can political Peoples was formed in 1975. The Council autonomy be enjoyed without its became subsequently the first of 11 indigenous attachment to the means of NGOs to receive consultative status in the UN. physical survival? Many of the movements against globalisation, discussed in Chapter 9, have focussed on the In India, the description rights of the indigenous people. ‘indigenous people’ is usually applied to the Scheduled Tribes STEPS who constitute nearly eight per cent of the population of the Each student is asked to list any ten items they country. With the exception of consume/use every day. small communities of hunters and (The list could include — pen/paper/eraser/ gatherers, most indigenous computer/water etc.) populations in India depend for Ask students to calculate the amount of natural their subsistence primarily on the resources being used to make these items. (For cultivation of land. For centuries, finished products like pen/pencil/computer if not millennia, they had free etc., students will calculate the amount of access to as much land as they resources and for items like water they could could cultivate. It was only after calculate the amount of electricity used for the establishment of the British purifying and pumping along with gallons of colonial rule that areas, which had water). Each would calculate and arrive at an previously been inhabited by the approximate figure. Scheduled Tribe communities, were subjected to outside forces. Ideas for the Teacher Although they enjoy a constitutional protection in Collect the approximate figures from each student and political representation, they have sum up all to arrive at total resources consumed by the not got much of the benefits of students of that particular class. (Teacher is to act as a development in the country. In facilitator and allow students to do the calculations.) fact they have paid a huge cost Project this figure to other classes of the same school, then for development since they are the to schools across the country. The country figure could be single largest group among the used to measure the amount of resources being used by people displaced by various schools in other countries too. (The teacher is to have developmental projects since background information about the resources being used independence. by students in a few select countries. While selecting countries, teacher should ensure that the selected countries Issues related to the rights of belong to the developed / developing countries category). the indigenous communities have Ask students to imagine the amount of resources we are been neglected in domestic and consuming and also to estimate future consumption. international politics for very long. During the 1970s, growing international contacts among indigenous leaders from around the world aroused a sense of common concern and shared 2018-19

134 Contemporary World Politics Exercises 1. Which among the following best explains the reason for growing concerns about the environment? a. The developed countries are concerned about protecting nature. b. Protection of the environment is vital for indigenous people and natural habitats. c. The environmental degradation caused by human activities has become pervasive and has reached a dangerous level. d. None of the above. 2. Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements about the Earth Summit: a. It was attended by 170 countries, thousands of NGOs and many MNCs. b. The summit was held under the aegis of the UN. c. For the first time, global environmental issues were firmly consolidated at the political level. d. It was a summit meeting. 3. Which among the following are TRUE about the global commons? a. The Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, ocean floor and outer space are considered as part of the global commons. b. The global commons are outside sovereign jurisdiction. c. The question of managing the global commons has reflected the North-South divide. d. The countries of the North are more concerned about the protection of the global commons than the countries of the South. 4. What were the outcomes of the Rio Summit? 5. What is meant by the global commons? How are they exploited and polluted? 6. What is meant by ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’? How could we implement the idea? 7. Why have issues related to global environmental protection become the priority concern of states since the 1990s? 8. Compromise and accommodation are the two essential policies required by states to save planet Earth. Substantiate the statement in the light of the ongoing negotiations between the North and South on environmental issues. 9. The most serious challenge before the states is pursuing economic development without causing further damage to the global environment. How could we achieve this? Explain with a few examples. 2018-19

OVERVIEW Chapter 9 In this final chapter of the book we Globalisation look at globalisation, something that has been referred to in many chapters of this book and textbooks of many other subjects. We begin by analysing the concept of globalisation and then examine its causes. We then discuss at length the political, economic and cultural consequences of globalisation. Our interest is also in studying the impact of globalisation on India as well as how India is affecting globalisation. We finally draw attention to resistance to globalisation and how social movements in India also form part of this resistance. 2018-19

136 Contemporary World Politics So many Nepalese THE CONCEPT OF She now has an opportunity to workers come to take on a job and begin an India to work. Is that GLOBALISATION independent career, which the globalisation? women of her family had never Janardhan works in a call centre. dreamt of earlier. While some of Go through He leaves late in the evening for her relatives are opposed, she newspapers work, becomes John when he finally decides to go ahead for a week enters his office, acquires a new because of the new opportunities and collect accent and speaks a different that have been made available to clippings on language (than he does when he is her generation. anything at home) to communicate with his related to clients who are living thousands All three examples illustrate an globalisation. of miles away. He works all night, aspect each of what we call which is actually day time for his globalisation. In the first instance overseas customers. Janardhan is Janardhan was participating in the rendering a service to somebody globalisation of services. who in all probability he is never Ramdhari’s birthday purchases tell likely to meet physically. This is his us something about the movement daily routine. His holidays also do of commodities from one part of not correspond to the Indian the world to another. Sarika is calendar but to those of his clients faced with a conflict of values who happen to be from the US. partly originating from a new opportunity that earlier was not Ramdhari has gone shopping available to the women in her to buy a birthday gift for his family but today is part of a reality nine-year old daughter. He has that has gained wider promised her a small cycle and acceptability. decides to search the market for something he finds affordable as If we look for examples of the well as of reasonable quality. He use of the term ‘globalisation’ in finally does buy a cycle, which real life, we will realise that it is is actually manufactured in used in various contexts. Let us China but is being marketed in look at some examples, different India. It meets his requirements from the ones that we have looked of quality as well as affordability, above: and Ramdhari decides to go ahead with his purchase. Last Some farmers committed year, Ramdhari on his daughter’s suicide because their crops insistence had bought her a failed. They had bought very Barbie doll, which was originally expensive seeds supplied by a manufactured in the US but was multinational company being sold in India. (MNC). Sarika is a first generation An Indian company bought a learner who has done remarkably major rival company based in well throughout her school and Europe, despite protests by college life by working very hard. some of the current owners. 2018-19

Globalisation 137 Many retail shopkeepers fear This chapter has that they would lose their a series of images livelihoods if some major about political, international companies open economic and retail chains in the country. cultural aspects of globalisation, taken A film producer in Mumbai from different parts was accused of lifting the story of the world. of his film from another film made in Hollywood. Much of the Chinese stuff that comes to A militant group issued a India is smuggled. statement threatening college Does globalisation girls who wear western lead to smuggling? clothes. These examples show us that globalisation need not always be positive; it can have negative consequences for the people. Indeed, there are many who believe that globalisation has more negative consequences than positive. These examples also show us that globalisation need not be only about the economic issues, nor is the direction of influence always from the rich to the poor countries. Since much of the usage tends to be imprecise, it becomes important to clarify what we mean by globalisation. Globalisation as a concept fundamentally deals with flows. These flows could be of various kinds — ideas moving from one part of the world to another, capital shunted between two or more places, commodities being traded across borders, and people moving in search of better livelihoods to different parts of the world. The crucial element is the ‘worldwide interconnectedness’ that is created and sustained as a consequence of these constant flows. 2018-19

© Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc.138 Globalisation is a multi- Contemporary World Politics dimensional concept. It has Isn’t globalisation a political, economic and cultural While globalisation is not new name for manifestations, and these must be caused by any single factor, imperialism? Why do adequately distinguished. It is technology remains a critical we need a new wrong to assume that element. There is no doubt that name? globalisation has purely economic the invention of the telegraph, dimensions, just as it would also the telephone, and the microchip Digital Economy be mistaken to assume that it is a in more recent times has purely cultural phenomenon. The revolutionised communication impact of globalisation is vastly between different parts of the uneven — it affects some societies world. When printing initially more than others and some parts came into being it laid the basis of some societies more than others for the creation of nationalism. — and it is important to avoid So also today we should expect drawing general conclusions that technology will affect the about the impact of globalisation way we think of our personal but without paying sufficient attention also our collective lives. to specific contexts. The ability of ideas, capital, CAUSES OF GLOBALISATION commodities and people to move more easily from one part What accounts for globalisation? of the world to another has If globalisation is about the flows been made possible largely by of ideas, capital, commodities, and technological advances. The people, it is perhaps logical to ask pace of these flows may vary. For instance, the movement of if there is anything novel capital and commodities will about this phenomenon. most likely be quicker and Globalisation in terms of wider than the movement of these four flows has taken peoples across different parts of place through much of the world. human history. However, those who argue that there Globalisation, however, does is something distinct about not emerge merely because of contemporary globalisation the availability of improved point out that it is the scale communications. What is and speed of these flows important is for people in that account for the different parts of the world to uniqueness of globalisation recognise these interconnections in the contemporary era. with the rest of the world. Globalisation has a strong Currently, we are aware of the historical basis, and it is fact that events taking place in important to view contem- one part of the world could have porary flows against this an impact on another part of the backdrop. world. The Bird flu or tsunami is not confined to any particular nation. It does not respect national boundaries. Similarly, 2018-19

Globalisation 139 when major economic events take place, their impact is felt outside their immediate local, national or regional environment at the global level. POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES One of the debates that has been generated as a consequence of contemporary processes of globalisation relates to its ongoing political impact. How does globalisation affect traditional conceptions of state sovereignty? There are at least three aspects that we need to consider when answering this question. At the most simple level, globalisation results in an erosion of state capacity, that is, the ability of government to do what they do. All over the world, the old ‘welfare state’ is now giving way to a more minimalist state that performs certain core functions such as the maintenance of law and order and the security of its citizens. However, it withdraws from many of its earlier welfare functions directed at economic and social well-being. In place of the welfare state, it is the market that becomes the prime determinant of economic and social priorities. The entry and the increased role of multinational companies all over the world leads to a reduction in the capacity of governments to take decisions on their own. At the same time, globalisation does not always reduce state capacity. The primacy of the state 2018-19

140 Contemporary World Politics continues to be the unchallenged ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES basis of political community. The old jealousies and rivalries between While everything may not be countries have not ceased to matter known about the economic facets in world politics. The state of globalisation, this particular continues to discharge its dimension shapes a large part of essential functions (law and order, the content and direction of national security) and consciously contemporary debates surrounding withdraws from certain domains globalisation. from which it wishes to. States continue to be important. A part of the problem has to do with defining economic Indeed, in some respects state globalisation itself. The mention of capacity has received a boost as a economic globalisation draws our consequence of globalisation, with attention immediately to the role enhanced technologies available of international institutions like at the disposal of the state to the IMF and the WTO and the role collect information about its they play in determining economic citizens. With this information, the policies across the world. Yet, state is better able to rule, not less globalisation must not be viewed able. Thus, states become more in such narrow terms. Economic powerful than they were earlier as globalisation involves many actors an outcome of the new technology. other than these international institutions. A much broader way © Milt Priggee, Cagle Cartoons Inc. of understanding of economic globalisation requires us to look at the distribution of economic gains, i.e. who gets the most from globalisation and who gets less, indeed who loses from it. What is often called economic globalisation usually involves greater economic flows among different countries of the world. Some of this is voluntary and some forced by international institutions and powerful countries. As we saw in the examples at the beginning of this chapter, this flow or exchange can take various forms: commodities, capital, people and ideas. Globalisation has involved greater trade in commodities across the globe; the restrictions imposed by 2018-19