Political-Science---Contemporary-World-Politics---Class-12

US Hegemony in World Politics sectors of the world economy and 41 in all areas of technology. The US It is the naval power of the share of the world economy How can this country hegemon that underwrites the remains an enormous 24 per cent. be so rich? I see so law of the sea and ensures many poor people freedom of navigation in The US also accounts for here. Most of them international waters. Since the almost 14 per cent of world trade, are non-White. decline of British naval power if intra-European Union trade is after the Second World War, the included in world trade data. multi-oceanic US Navy has played There is not a single sector of the this role. world economy in which an American firm does not feature in Another example of a global the “top three” list. public good is the Internet. Although it is seen today as It is important to remember making the virtual world of the that the economic preponderance World Wide Web possible, we of the US is inseparable from its should not forget that the Internet structural power, which is the is the direct outcome of a US power to shape the global economy military research project that in a particular way. After all, the began in 1950. Even today, the Bretton Woods system, set up by Internet relies on a global network the US after the Second World War, of satellites, most of which are still constitutes the basic owned by the US government. structure of the world economy. Thus, we can regard the World As we know, the US is present in all parts of the world, in all The American economy is the largest in the world, but unlike in the sphere of military power, the US faces credible competitors in the world economy. This becomes even clearer if we consider the world economy in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) terms as in the graphic on the right. PPP is what a nation’s currency actually buys in goods and services. 2018-19

42 Contemporary World Politics Bank, International Monetary win the consent of dominated Fund (IMF) and World Trade classes, by persuading the Organisation (WTO) as the dominated classes to view the products of American hegemony. world in a manner favourable to the ascendancy of the dominant class. A classic example of the Adapted to the field of world structural power of the US is the politics, this notion of hegemony academic degree called the suggests that a dominant power Master’s in Business Administration deploys not only military power but (MBA). The idea that business is also ideological resources to shape a profession that depends upon the behaviour of competing and skills that can be taught in a lesser powers. The behaviour of the university is uniquely American. weaker countries is influenced in The first business school in the ways that favour the interests of world, the Wharton School at the the most powerful country, in University of Pennsylvania, was particular its desire to remain pre- established in 1881. The first MBA eminent. Consent, in other words, courses were initiated around goes hand-in-hand with, and is 1900. The first MBA course often more effective than, coercion. outside the US was established only in 1950. Today, there is no The predominance of the US in country in the world in which the the world today is based not only MBA is not a prestigious academic on its military power and economic degree. This takes us back to our prowess, but also on its cultural South African friend Jabu. presence. Whether we choose to Structural hegemony explains recognise the fact or not, all ideas why Jabu’s father is insisting that of the good life and personal his son gives up painting and success, most of the dreams of studies for the MBA instead. individuals and societies across the globe, are dreams churned out If I had opted for the HEGEMONY AS SOFT POWER by practices prevailing in Science subjects twentieth-century America. I would have to sit for It would however be a mistake to America is the most seductive, and the entrance exams to see US hegemony in purely military in this sense the most powerful, medical or and economic terms without culture on earth. This attribute is engineering college. considering the ideological or the called ‘soft power’: the ability to That would mean cultural dimension of US persuade rather than coerce. Over competing with so hegemony. This third sense of time we get so used to hegemony many others who wish hegemony is about the capacity to that we hardly notice it, any more to become doctors or ‘manufacture consent’. Here, than we notice the rivers, birds, engineers so as to go hegemony implies class and trees around us. to the US. ascendancy in the social, political and particularly ideological You couldn’t have forgotten spheres. Hegemony arises when Andrei and his ‘cool’ pair of blue the dominant class or country can jeans. When his parents were youngsters in the Soviet Union, 2018-19

US Hegemony in World Politics 43 blue jeans were the ultimate symbol of ‘liberation’ for their generation. Young men and women often spent over a year’s salary to buy blue jeans from foreign tourists on the black market. Somehow, for an entire Soviet generation blue jeans came to represent aspirations of the ‘good life’ that were not available in their own country. During the Cold War, the US found it difficult to score victories against the Soviet Union in the realm of hard power. It was in the area of structural power and soft power that the US scored notable victories. Although the Soviet centrally-planned economy provided an alternate model of internal economic organisation, the world economy throughout the Cold War years remained a world capitalist economy. But it was in the area of soft power that the US was ultimately triumphant. As the example of blue jeans in the Soviet That is strange! I never think of the US when buying jeans for myself. How can I still be a victim of US hegemony? All these images are from Jakarta in Indonesia. Identify elements of US hegemony in each of these photographs. Can you identify similar elements on your way back from school to home? 2018-19

44 Contemporary World Politics Union clearly shows, the US was places significant brakes upon the able to engineer a generational unrestrained and immoderate divide in Soviet society on the basis exercise of America’s military of a cultural product. power by the executive branch. CONSTRAINTS ON AMERICAN The second constraint on POWER American power is also domestic in nature, and stems from the History tells us that empires open nature of American society. decline because they decay from Although the American mass within. Similarly, the biggest media may from time to time constraints to American impose or promote a particular hegemony lie within the heart of perspective on domestic public hegemony itself. We can identify opinion in the US, there is three constraints on American nevertheless a deep scepticism power. None of these constraints regarding the purposes and seemed to operate in the years methods of government in following 9/11. However, it now American political culture. This appears that all three of these factor, in the long run, is a huge constraints are slowly beginning constraint on US military action to operate again. overseas. The first constraint is the However, it is the third institutional architecture of the constraint on the US that is American state itself. A system of perhaps the most important. division of powers between the There is only one organisation in three branches of government the international system that could possibly moderate the These two photographs are from an exhibition on the Human Costs of the Iraq War by the American Friends Service Committee organised at the National Convention of the Democratic Party in 2004. To what extent do protests like this constrain the US government? 2018-19

US Hegemony in World Politics 45 exercise of American power today, interrelated. Consider the and that is the North Atlantic following facts: Treaty Organisation (NATO). The US obviously has an enormous The US absorbs about 65 per interest in keeping the alliance of cent of India’s total exports in democracies that follow the the software sector. market economies alive and therefore it is possible that its 35 per cent of the technical allies in the NATO will be able to staff of Boeing is estimated to moderate the exercise of US be of Indian origin. hegemony. 300,000 Indians work in INDIA’S RELATIONSHIP WITH Silicon Valley. THE US 15 percent of all high-tech During the Cold War years, India start-ups are by Indian- found itself on the opposite side Americans. of the divide from the US. India’s closest friendship during those Like all other countries, India As soon as I say I am years was with the Soviet Union. too has to decide exactly what type from India, they ask After the collapse of the Soviet of relationship it wants with the US me if I am a Union, India suddenly found itself in this phase of global hegemony. computer engineer. friendless in an increasingly hostile The choices are not exactly easy. That feels nice. internationalenvironment. However, Within India, the debate seems to these were also the years when be around three possible strategies. India decided to liberalise its economy and integrate it with the Those Indian analysts who see global economy. This policy and international politics largely in India’s impressive economic terms of military power are growth rates in recent years have fearful of the growing made the country an attractive closeness between India and economic partner for a number of the US. They would prefer that countries including the US. India maintains its aloofness from Washington and focuses It is important that we do not upon increasing its own lose sight of the fact that two new comprehensive national power. factors have emerged in Indo-US relations in recent years. These Other analysts see the growing Collect news factors relate to the technological convergence of interests clippings and dimension and the role of the between the US and India as a articles about Indian-American diaspora. historic opportunity for India. the recent Indeed, these two factors are They advocate a strategy that Indo-US civil would allow India to take nuclear deal. advantage of US hegemony Summarise the and the mutual convergences position of the to establish the best possible supporters and options for itself. Opposing the opponents of US, they argue, is a futile the deal. 2018-19

46 Contemporary World Politics LOK SABHA DEBATES INDO-US strategy that will only hurt RELATIONS India in the long run. Here are three extracts from the speeches by the Prime A third group of analysts Minister and two opposition leaders during the debate would advocate that India in Lok Sabha on the Indo-US agreement on nuclear should take the lead in energy. Are these three positions in some way linked establishing a coalition of to the three strategies mentioned in the chapter? countries from the developing world. Over time, this coalition Dr Manmohan Singh, Congress would become more powerful “Sir, I would respectfully urge this august House to and may succeed in weaning recognise the changed mood of the world towards the hegemon away from its India. This is not to say that power politics is a thing of dominating ways. the past; that there will never be any attempt to twist our arms. We will protect ourselves to ensure against India-US relations are perhaps the risks that are there. But it would be wrong for us too complex to be managed by a not to take advantage of the opportunities that are single strategy. India needs to now on the horizon. I sincerely believe that it is in the develop an appropriate mix of interest of our country to have good relations with all foreign policy strategies to deal the major powers. I make no apology that we seek with the US. good relations with the United States. The United States is a pre-eminent power.” HOW CAN HEGEMONY BE OVERCOME? Shri Basu Deb Acharia, CPI(M) “Since Independence, we have been pursuing How long will hegemony last? How independent foreign policy because of our national do we get beyond hegemony? interest. What have we seen in case of Iraq and in These become, for obvious case of Iran? After the July statement, and when there reasons, some of the burning was voting in International Atomic Energy Agency, we questions of our time. History found that we sided with the United States of America. provides us with some fascinating We supported the resolution moved by US and P 5. clues to answer these questions. That was not expected before that. When we were But what about the present and trying to bring gas from Iran via Pakistan which we the future? In international need, we supported America’s stand in regard to Iran. politics, very few factors formally There we find that the independent foreign policy has curtail the exercise of military been affected.” power by any country. There is no world government like the Maj. Gen. (Retd.) B. C. Khanduri, BJP government of a country. As we “We have also to take note of the fact that today US shall see in Chapter 6, is — whether we like it or not — the only super power international organisation is not in this unipolar world. But at the same time, we must world government. Thus, also remember that India is also emerging as a world international politics is ‘politics power, and a super power. Therefore, we feel that without government’. There are we should have good relations with the USA in the some rules and norms called the international scenario, but it should not be at the cost laws of war that restrict, but do of our security.” 2018-19

US Hegemony in World Politics 47 © Cam Cardow, Cagle Cartoons Inc. not prohibit, war. But few states How long do you think the US will stay on the super-power will entrust their security to stage? If you were to draw this, who would you show as waiting international law alone. Does this in the wings? mean that there is no escape from war and hegemony? seem to be viable for the big, second-rank powers for very long. In the short term, we must While it may be an attractive, viable recognise that no single power is policy for small states, it is hard to anywhere near balancing the US imagine mega-states like China, militarily. A military coalition India, and Russia or huge against the US is even less likely agglomerations such as the EU given the differences that exist being able to hide for any among big countries like China, substantial length of time. India, and Russia that have the potential to challenge US Some people believe that hegemony. resistance to American hegemony may not come from other states, Some people argue that it is which as we have seen are strategically more prudent to take powerless to confront the US advantage of the opportunities today, but rather from non-state that hegemony creates. For actors. These challenges to instance, raising economic growth American hegemony will emerge rates requires increased trade, in the economic and cultural technology transfers, and realms, and will come from a investment, which are best combination of non-governmental acquired by working with rather organisations (NGOs), social than against the hegemon. Thus, movements, and public opinion; it it is suggested that instead of may arise from sections of the engaging in activities opposed to media and intellectuals, artists, the hegemonic power, it may be and writers. These various actors advisable to extract benefits by operating within the hegemonic system. This is called the ‘bandwagon’ strategy. Another strategy open to states is to ‘hide’. This implies staying as far removed from the dominant power as possible. There are many examples of this behaviour. China, Russia, the European Union—all of them, in different ways, are seeking to stay below the radar, as it were, and not overly and unduly antagonise the US. However, this would not 2018-19

48 Contemporary World Politics STEPS may well form links across national boundaries, including Assign students to major geo-political regions of with Americans, to criticise and the world from the vantage point of the US resist US policies. (Central America, South America, Africa, Europe, former USSR, West Asia, South Asia, East You might have heard the Asia and Australia). Alternatively, you could saying that we now live in a assign students to major conflict zones of the ‘global village’. In this global post-Cold War period in which the US was village, we are all neighbours of involved. (e.g., Afghanistan, Iraq, Israel-Palestine the village headman. If the or Kosovo or any active conflict at the time of behaviour of the headman teaching). becomes intolerable, we will not Group the students in equal strength according have the option of leaving the to the number of areas identified. Each group is global village, because this is the to prepare a fact-file on the role of the US in only world we know and the only these regions or conflicts. The fact-file should village we have. Resistance will focus on the US interest in the region, its activities then be the only option available. and the public opinion about the US in the region. Students can also collect and present All this sounds like a related pictures/cartoons from all available lot of jealousy. What sources. is our problem with US Each group is to present their fact-file before hegemony? Just that the class. we were not born there? Or something Ideas for the Teacher else? Using the fact-file as the background information, the teacher has to refocus on the intervention made by the US and whether these interventions have been in line with the principles advocated by the UN. Invite the students to reflect on the future of the region or conflict twenty years from now. How long will the US continue to be hegemonic? Which other powers may be in a position to challenge US hegemony in that region? 2018-19

US Hegemony in World Politics 49 WHAT DOES HISTORY TEACH US ABOUT HEGEMONY? Given the logic of balance of power, hegemony is a rather unusual condition in international affairs. This is for a very simple reason: in the absence of world government, every state must ensure its own security and, in extreme circumstances, its own survival. Thus, states are acutely aware of power distribution in the international political system, and would not normally allow a single state to become so powerful as to pose a mortal threat to other states. The balance of power logic of international politics, as outlined above, is amply supported by history. By convention, we regard 1648 as the year in which the sovereign territorial state emerged as the principal actor in world politics. In the over three and a half centuries since then, there have been only two previous occasions when a single state succeeded in gaining preponderance in the system to a similar degree as the US predominates the system today. France from 1660 to 1713 in the context of European continental politics in the first instance of hegemony, Britain with its global maritime empire from 1860 to 1910 is the second. History also tells us that although at its height hegemony seems formidable, it does not last forever. To the contrary, balance of power politics over time reduces the relative power of the hegemon. In 1660, France under Louis XIV was unchallenged; by 1713, England, Habsburg Austria and Russia were contesting French power. In 1860, the high noon of the Victorian period, Pax Britannica looked secure forever. By 1910, it was clear that Germany, Japan and the US had emerged as contenders to British power. Thus, twenty years from now, another great power, or may be a coalition of great powers could well emerge just as US capabilities are declining in relative terms. Based on an article by Christopher Layne, “The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers Will Rise” 1. Which among the following statements about hegemony is Exercises incorrect? a. The word implies the leadership or predominance of one State. b. It was used to denote the predominance of Athens in the ancient Greece. c. The country having hegemonic position will possess unchallenged military power. d. Hegemonic position is fixed. Once a hegemon, always a hegemon. 2. Which among the following statements is wrong about the contemporary world order? a. There is an absence of world government, which could regulate the State’s behaviour. b. The US is the predominant player in world affairs. c. States are using force against one another. d. States, which violate international law, are severely punished by the UN. 2018-19

50 Contemporary World Politics Exercises 3. Which among the following statements is wrong with regard to ‘Operation Iraqi Freedom’? a. More than forty countries joined in the US-led coalition of the willing to invade Iraq. b. The reason given for invading Iraq was to prevent it from developing weapons of mass destruction. c. The action was taken with the prior approval of the UN. d. The US-led coalition did not face major resistance from Iraqi forces 4. Give an example each of the three kinds of hegemony that are dealt with in the chapter. Do not cite examples that are in the chapter. 5. Mention three ways in which US dominance since the Cold War is different from its position as a superpower during the Cold War. 6. Match the following: i. Operation Infinite Reach ii. Operation Enduring Freedom iii. Operation Desert Storm iv. Operation Iraqi Freedom a. War against Al-Qaeda and Taliban b. Coalition of the willing c. Missile attack in Sudan d. First Gulf War 7. What are the constraints on American hegemony today? Which one of these do you expect to get more important in the future? 8. Read the three extracts in the chapter from the Lok Sabha debate on the Indo-US deal. Develop any one of these into a full speech defending a certain position on Indo-US relations. 9. “If big and resourceful states cannot resist the US hegemony, it is unrealistic to expect much smaller and weaker non-state actors to offer any resistance.” Examine this proposition and give your opinion. 2018-19

Chapter 4 Alternative Centres of Power OVERVIEW The two images here represent two phases of the history of China. The red poster – “The Socialist Road is the Broadest of After the end of the bipolar All” – represents the ideology that guided China during its structure of world politics in the early phase after the Revolution. The photograph below is early 1990s, it became clear that that of the city of Shanghai, the symbol of China’s new alternative centres of political and economic power. economic power could limit America’s dominance. Thus, in Europe, the European Union (EU) and, in Asia, the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), have emerged as forces to reckon with. While evolving regional solutions to their historical enmities and weaknesses, both the EU and the ASEAN have developed alternative institutions and conventions that build a more peaceful and cooperative regional order and have transformed the countries in the region into prosperous economies. The economic rise of China has made a dramatic impact on world politics. In this chapter, we take a look at some of these emerging alternative centres of power and assess their possible role in the future. 2018-19

52 Contemporary World Politics EUROPEAN UNION (OEEC) was established in 1948 to channel aid to the west As the Second World War came to European states. It became a an end, many of Europe’s leaders forum where the western grappled with the ‘Question of European states began to Europe’. Should Europe be cooperate on trade and allowed to revert to its old rivalries economic issues. The Council of or be reconstructed on principles Europe, established in 1949, and institutions that would was another step forward in contribute to a positive conception political cooperation. The of international relations? The process of economic integration Second World War shattered many of European capitalist countries of the assumptions and structures proceeded step by step (see on which the European states had Timeline of European Integration) based their relations. In 1945, the leading to the formation of the European states confronted the European Economic Community ruin of their economies and the in 1957. This process acquired destruction of the assumptions a political dimension with the and structures on which Europe creation of the European had been founded. Parliament. The collapse of the Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast European integration after track and resulted in the 1945 was aided by the Cold War. establishment of the European America extended massive Union in 1992. The foundation financial help for reviving was thus laid for a common Europe’s economy under what foreign and security policy, was called the ‘Marshall Plan’. cooperation on justice and The US also created a new home affairs, and the creation collective security structure of a single currency. under NATO. Under the Marshall Plan, the Organisation for The European Union has European Economic Cooperation evolved over time from an economic union to an The European Union Flag increasingly political one. The EU has started to act more as a The circle of gold stars stands for solidarity and harmony between nation state. While the attempts the peoples of Europe. It has twelve stars, as the number twelve is to have a Constitution for the EU traditionally the symbol of perfection, completeness and unity. have failed, it has its own flag, Source: http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/emblem/index_en.htm anthem, founding date, and currency. It also has some form of a common foreign and security policy in its dealings with other nations. The European Union has tried to expand areas of cooperation while acquiring new 2018-19

Alternative Centres of Power 53 EUROPEAN UNION MAP Older Members Finland New Members Sweden Estonia Denmark Latvia Lithuania Ireland Netherlands United Kingdom Poland Belgium Germany Czech Republic Luxembourg Austria Slovakia France Hungary Italy Croatia Romania Slovenia Bulgaria Portugal Spain Greece Malta Cyprus members, especially from the GDP of more than $17 trillion in Oh, now I know what a erstwhile Soviet bloc. The process 2016, next to that of the United Schengen visa means! has not proved easy, for people States of America. Its currency, Under the Schengen in many countries are not very the euro, can pose a threat to the agreement, you have to enthusiastic in giving the EU dominance of the US dollar. Its get a visa from just one powers that were exercised by the share of world trade is much larger of the EU countries and government of their country. than that of the United States that allows you entry in There are also reservations about allowing it to be more assertive in most of the other including some new countries trade disputes with the US and European Union within the EU. China. Its economic power gives countries. it influence over its closest The EU has economic, political neighbours as well as in Asia and and diplomatic, and military Africa. It also functions as an influence. The EU is the world’s important bloc in international second biggest economy with a 2018-19

54 Contemporary World Politics TIMELINE OF EUROPEAN of the EU, Britain and France, hold INTEGRATION permanent seats on the UN Security Council. The EU includes 1951 April: Six west European countries, France, West several non-permanent members Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg of the UNSC. This has enabled the sign the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and EU to influence some US policies Steel Community (ECSC). such as the current US position on Iran’s nuclear programme. Its 1957 March 25: These six countries sign the Treaties of Rome use of diplomacy, economic establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and investments, and negotiations the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). rather than coercion and military force has been effective as in the 1973 January: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom case of its dialogue with China on join the European Community (EC). human rights and environmental degradation. 1979 June: First direct elections to the European Parliament Militarily, the EU’s combined 1981 January: Greece joins the EC. armed forces are the second largest in the world. Its total 1985 June: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border spending on defence is second controls among the EC members. after the US. Two EU member states, Britain and France, also 1986 January: Spain and Portugal join the EC. have nuclear arsenals of approximately 550 nuclear 1990 October: Unification of Germany. warheads. It is also the world’s second most important source of 1992 February 7: The Treaty of Maastricht was signed space and communications establishing the European Union (EU). technology. 1993 January: The single market was created. As a supranational organi- sation, the EU is able to intervene 1995 January: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU. in economic, political and social areas. But in many areas its 2002 January: Euro, the new currency, was introduced in member states have their own the 12 EU members. foreign relations and defence policies that are often at odds 2004 May: Ten new members, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, with each other. Thus, Britain’s Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia Prime Minister Tony Blair was and Slovenia join the EU. America’s partner in the Iraq invasion, and many of the EU’s 2007 January: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. newer members made up the US- Slovenia adopts the Euro. led ‘coalition of the willing’ whereas Germany and France 2009 December: The Lisbon Treaty came into force. opposed American policy. There is also a deep-seated ‘Euro- 2012 : The EU is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. skepticism’ in some parts 2013: Croatia becomes the 28th member of the EU. 2016: Referendum in Britain, 51.9 per cent voters decide that Britain exit (Brexit) from the EU. economic organisations such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The EU also has political and diplomatic influence. Two members 2018-19

Alternative Centres of Power 55 © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. The cartoon appeared in 2003 when the European Union’s initiative to draft a common Constitution failed. Why does the cartoonist use the image of the ship Titanic to represent EU? of Europe about the EU’s region of Asia? Before and during Imagine what would integrationist agenda. Thus, for the Second World War, this region happen if they have example, Britain’s former prime of Asia suffered the economic and a European Union minister, Margaret Thatcher, political consequences of football team! kept the UK out of the European repeated colonialisms, both Market. Denmark and Sweden European and Japanese. At the have resisted the Maastricht end of the war, it confronted Treaty and the adoption of the problems of nation-building, the euro, the common European ravages of poverty and economic currency. This limits the ability backwardness and the pressure of the EU to act in matters of to align with one great power or foreign relations and defence. another during the Cold War. This was a recipe for conflict, which ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH the countries of Southeast Asia EAST ASIAN NATIONS could ill afford. Efforts at Asian (ASEAN) and Third World unity, such as the Bandung Conference and the Take a look at the political map of Non-Aligned Movement, were the world. Which countries would ineffective in establishing the you say fall in the southeastern conventions for informal cooperation and interaction. Hence, the Southeast Asian 2018-19

56 Contemporary World Politics MAP OF EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC ASEAN taking its strength to ten. Unlike the EU there is little desire in ASEAN for supranational structures and institutions. ASEAN countries have celebrated what has become known as the ‘ASEAN Way’, a form of interaction that is informal, non- confrontationist and cooperative. The respect for national sovereignty is critical to the functioning of ASEAN. With some of the fastest growing economies in the world, ASEAN broadened its objectives Source: http://www.unicef.org/eapro/EAP_map_final.gif beyond the economic and social spheres. In Note: Maps on this site do not reflect a position by UNICEF on the legal status of any 2003, ASEAN moved country or territory or the delimitation of any frontiers. along the path of the EU alternative by establishing the by agreeing to establish an ASEAN Association of South East Asian Community comprising three Nations (ASEAN). pillars, namely, the ASEAN Locate the ASEAN was established in Security Community, the ASEAN ASEAN 1967 by five countries of this Economic Community and the members on region — Indonesia, Malaysia, the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community. the map. Find Philippines, Singapore and the location Thailand — by signing the of the ASEAN Bangkok Declaration. The Secretariat. objectives of ASEAN were primarily to accelerate economic growth and through that ‘social progress and cultural development’. A secondary objective was to promote regional peace and stability based on the The ASEAN Flag rule of law and the principles of the In the ASEAN logo, the ten stalks of United Nations Charter. Over the paddy (rice) represent the ten years, Brunei Darussalam, Southeast Asian countries bound Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar together in friendship and solidarity. (Burma) and Cambodia joined The circle symbolises the unity of ASEAN. Source : www.aseansec.org 2018-19

Alternative Centres of Power organisation. Its Vision 2020 has 57 defined an outward-looking role The ASEAN security for ASEAN in the international Isn’t India a part of community was based on the community. This builds on the Southeast Asia? The conviction that outstanding existing ASEAN policy to north-eastern states territorial disputes should not encourage negotiation over are so close to the escalate into armed confrontation. conflicts in the region. Thus, ASEAN countries. By 2003, ASEAN had several ASEAN has mediated the end of agreements in place by which the Cambodian conflict, the East Who are member states promised to uphold Timor crisis, and meets annually the peace, neutrality, cooperation, to discuss East Asian cooperation. members non-interference, and respect for of the national differences and sovereign The current economic strength ASEAN rights. The ASEAN Regional of ASEAN, especially its economic Regional Forum (ARF), which was relevance as a trading and Forum established in 1994, is the investment partner to the growing (ARF)? organisation that carries out Asian economies such as India and coordination of security and China, makes this an attractive foreign policy. proposition. During the Cold War years Indian foreign policy did not ASEAN was and still remains pay adequate attention to ASEAN. principally an economic But in recent years, India has tried association. While the ASEAN to make amends. It signed trade region as a whole is a much agreements with three ASEAN smaller economy compared to the members, Malaysia, Singapore and US, the EU, and Japan, its economy is growing much faster Keshav, The Hindu than all these. This accounts for the growth in its influence both in India’s ‘Look East’ Policy since the early 1990s and ‘Act East’ Policy the region and beyond. The since 2014 have led to greater economic interaction with the East objectives of the ASEAN Economic Asian nations (ASEAN, China, Japan and South Korea). Community are to create a common market and production base within ASEAN states and to aid social and economic development in the region. The Economic Community would also like to improve the existing ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism to resolve economic disputes. ASEAN has focused on creating a Free Trade Area (FTA) for investment, labour, and services. The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN. ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional 2018-19

58 Thailand. The ASEAN-India FTA Contemporary World Politics came into effect in 2010. ASEAN’s Why did ASEAN strength, however, lies in its policies affairs. The strength of its succeed where of interaction and consultation economy, together with other SAARC did not? Is with member states, with dialogue factors such as population, land this because they partners, and with other non- mass, resources, regional location do not have one regional organisations. It is the only and political influence, adds to its dominant country in regional association in Asia that power in significant ways. that region? provides a political forum where Asian countries and the major After the inception of the powers can discuss political and People’s Republic of China in 1949, security concerns. following the communist revolution under the leadership of Mao, its Leaders release postal stamps to commemorate silver jubilee of India economy was based on the Soviet and ASEAN partnership in New Delhi on 25 January 2018 model. The economically backward communist China chose to sever THE RISE OF THE CHINESE its links with the capitalist world. It had little choice but to fall back ECONOMY on its own resources and, for a brief period, on Soviet aid and Let us now turn to the third major advice. The model was to create a alternative centre of power and our state-owned heavy industries immediate neighbour, China. The sector from the capital cartoon on the following page accumulated from agriculture. As sums up the current mood all over it was short of foreign exchange the world about the rise of China that it needed in order to buy as an economic power. China’s technology and goods on the economic success since 1978 has world market, China decided to been linked to its rise as a great substitute imports by domestic power. China has been the fastest goods. growing economy since the reforms first began there. It is This model allowed China to projected to overtake the US as the use its resources to establish the world’s largest economy by 2040. foundations of an industrial Its economic integration into the economy on a scale that did not region makes it the driver of East exist before. Employment and Asian growth, thereby giving it social welfare was assured to all enormous influence in regional citizens, and China moved ahead of most developing countries in educating its citizens and ensuring better health for them. The economy also grew at a respectable rate of 5-6 per cent. But an annual growth of 2-3 per cent in population meant that economic growth was insufficient to meet the needs of a growing population. Agricultural production was not sufficient to 2018-19

Alternative Centres of Power 59 generate a surplus for industry. In © Deng Coy Miel, Cagle Cartoons Inc. Chapter 2, we discussed the crisis of the state controlled economy in The Great Wall and Dragon are two symbols most commonly the USSR. A similar crisis was to face associated with China. This cartoon uses both these to depict China too: its industrial production China’s economic rise. Who do you think is the little man in this was not growing fast enough, cartoon? Can he stop the dragon? international trade was minimal and per capita income was very low. Privatisation of agriculture led to a A total of 6 SEZs in remarkable rise in agricultural China and more The Chinese leadership took production and rural incomes. High than 200 approved major policy decisions in the personal savings in the rural SEZs in India! Is this 1970s. China ended its political economy lead to an exponential good for India? and economic isolation with the growth in rural industry. The establishment of relations with the Chinese economy, including both United States in 1972. Premier industry and agriculture, grew at a Zhou Enlai proposed the ‘four faster rate. The new trading laws modernisations’(agriculture, and the creation of Special industry, science and technology Economic Zones led to a and military) in 1973. By 1978, phenomenal rise in foreign trade. the then leader Deng Xiaoping China has become the most announced the ‘open door’ policy important destination for foreign and economic reforms in China. direct investment (FDI) anywhere The policy was to generate higher in the world. It has large foreign productivity by investments of exchange reserves that now allow it capital and technology from to make big investment in other abroad. countries. China’s accession to the China followed its own path in introducing a market economy. The Chinese did not go for ‘shock therapy’ but opened their economy step by step. The privatisation of agriculture in 1982 was followed by the privatisation of industry in 1998. Trade barriers were eliminated only in Special Economic Zones (SEZs) where foreign investors could set up enterprises. In China, the state played and continues to play a central role in setting up a market economy. The new economic policies helped the Chinese economy to break from stagnation. 2018-19

© Mike Lane, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 60 Contemporary World Politics © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. China then and now WTO in 2001 has been a further step in its opening to the outside Chinese bicycle world. The country plans to deepen Like the opening images for this chapter, the first cartoon its integration into the world comments on the change in China’s orientation. The second economy and shape the future cartoon uses the symbol of the bicycle — China is the largest user world economic order. of bicycles in the world — to comment on a duality in today’s China. What is this duality? Can we call this a contradiction? While the Chinese economy has improved dramatically, not everyone in China has received the benefits of the reforms. Unemployment has risen in China with nearly 100 million people looking for jobs. Female employment and conditions of work are as bad as in Europe of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Environmental degradation and corruption have increased besides a rise in economic inequality between rural and urban residents and coastal and inland provinces. However, regionally and globally, China has become an economic power to reckon with. The integration of China’s economy and the inter-dependencies that this has created has enabled China to have considerable influence with its trade partners. Hence, its outstanding issues with Japan, the US, ASEAN, and Russia have been tempered by economic considerations. It hopes to resolve its differences with Taiwan, which it regards as a renegade province, by integrating it closely into its economy. Fears of China’s rise have also been mitigated by its contributions to the stability of the ASEAN economies after the 1997 financial crisis. Its more outward looking investment and aid 2018-19

Alternative Centres of Power 61 policies in Latin America and military conflict over a border Africa are increasingly projecting dispute between the two countries it as a global player on the side of marred that hope. Soon after developing economies. independence, both states were involved in differences arising from INDIA – CHINA RELATIONS the Chinese takeover of Tibet in 1950 and the final settlement of India and China were great the Sino-Indian border. China and powers in Asia before the advent India were involved in a border of Western imperialism. China conflict in 1962 over competing had considerable influence and territorial claims principally in control on the periphery of its Arunachal Pradesh and in the borders based on its unique Aksai Chin region of Ladakh. tributary system. At different times in China’s long history of The conflict of 1962, in which dynastic rule, Mongolia, Korea, India suffered military reverses, parts of Indo-China, and Tibet had long-term implications for accepted China’s authority. India–China relations. Diplomatic Various kingdoms and empires relations between the two in India also extended their countries were downgraded until influence beyond their borders. 1976. Thereafter, relations In both cases this influence was between the two countries began political, economic and cultural. to improve slowly. After the change However, the regions where India in China’s political leadership and China exercised influence from the mid to late 1970s, rarely ever overlapped. Thus, China’s policy became more there was limited political and pragmatic and less ideological. So cultural interaction between the it was prepared to put off the two. The result was that neither settlement of contentious issues country was very familiar with while improving relations with the other. In the twentieth India. A series of talks to resolve century, when both nations the border issue were also initiated confronted each other, they had in 1981. some difficulty evolving a foreign policy to deal with each other. Since the end of the Cold After India regained its War, there have been significant independence from Britain, and China expelled the foreign powers, changes in India– there was hope that both would come together to shape the future China relations. Chinese President of the developing world and of Their relations now Xi Jinping paid a visit Asia particularly. For a brief while, have a strategic as to India in 2014. Prime the slogan of ‘Hindi-Chini bhai- well as an economic Minister Narendra Modi bhai’ was popular. However, dimension. Both view visited China in 2015. themselves as rising Find out about the powers in global agreements signed politics, and both during their visits. would like to play a 2018-19

62 Contemporary World Politics STEPS per year since 1999, a more positive perspective on relations Divide the classroom into three groups. with China has emerged. Bilateral trade between India and China has Assign each group one organisation to work on increased from $338 million in a fact file on the EU, ASEAN and SAARC. 1992 to more than $70 billion in 2016. More recently, both Students have to prepare a fact file that countries have agreed to cooperate contains information on the objectives, with each other in areas that could functions and recent activities of these otherwise create conflict between organisations. Pictures of the conferences / the two, such as bidding for energy summit meetings can be collected. deals abroad. At the global level, India and China have adopted Each group is to present its fact file before the similar policies in international class. economic institutions like the World Trade Organisation. Ideas for the Teacher India’s nuclear tests in 1998, The teacher is to focus on the functions of these organisations. sometimes justified on the grounds of a threat from China, Draw the attention of students to the achievements of regional did not stop greater interaction. organisations. It is true that China was seen as contributing to the build up of Link the role of regional economic organisations to the over Pakistan’s nuclear programme. all development of the member countries. China’s military relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar were Sensitise students to the growing importance of regional viewed as hostile to Indian economic organisations as an alternative approach to the interests in South Asia. However, peace and security of the world. none of these issues is likely to lead to conflict between the two. Some people say major role in the Asian economy One sign of this is that the talks to Chinese products are and politics. resolve the boundary question have going to flood our continued without interruption and market? But where Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in military-to-military cooperation is are they? December 1988 provided the increasing. Indian and Chinese impetus for an improvement in leaders and officials visit Beijing India–China relations. Since then and New Delhi with greater both governments have taken frequency, and both sides are now measures to contain conflict and becoming more familiar with each maintain ‘peace and tranquility’ on other. Increasing transportation the border. They have also signed and communication links, common agreements on cultural exchanges economic interests and global and cooperation in science and concerns should help establish a technology, and opened four more positive and sound border posts for trade. With India– relationship between the two most China trade growing at 30 per cent populous countries of the world. 2018-19

Alternative Centres of Power 63 Japan ASIMO, the world's most advanced humanoid robot, walking with a You might have heard about famous Japanese brands such as Sony, person while holding hand Panasonic, Canon, Suzuki, Honda, Toyota, Mazda. They have a reputation for making high-technology products. Japan has very few Credit: http://asimo.honda.com natural resources and imports most of the its raw materials. Even then it progressed rapidly after the end of the Second World War. Japan became a member of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1964. In 2016, it is the third largest economy in the world. It is the only Asian member of the G-7. It is the tenth most populous nation in the world. Japan is the only nation that suffered the destruction caused by nuclear bombs. It is the second largest contributor to the regular budget of the UN, contributing almost 10 per cent of the total. Japan has a security alliance with the US since 1951. As per Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, “the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes.” Although Japan’s military expenditure is only one per cent of its GDP, it is the seventh largest in the world. Keeping all this in mind, do you think Japan can effectively function as an alternative centre of power? Also find out about major agreements signed during high-level bilateral visits between the two nations in the recent past. South Korea The Korean peninsula was divided into South Korea (Republic of Korea) and North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) at the end of the Second World War along the 38th Parallel. The Korean War during 1950-53 and dynamics of the Cold War era further intensified the rivalries between the two sides. Both the Koreas finally became Members of the UN on 17 September 1991. Meanwhile, South Korea emerged as a centre of power in Asia. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, it rapidly developed into an economic power, which is termed as \"Miracle on the Han River\". Signalling its all-round development, South Korea became a Member of the OECD in 1996. In 2016, its economy is the eleventh largest in the world and its military expenditure is the tenth largest. According to the Human Development Report 2016, the Skyline of Seoul city near the Han River HDI rank of South Korea is 18. The major factors responsible Credit: http://english.seoul.go.kr for its high human development include \"successful land reforms, rural development, extensive human resources development and rapid equitable economic growth.\" Other factors are export orientation, strong redistribution policies, public infrastructure development, effective institutions and governance. The South Korean brands such as Samsung, LG and Hyundai have become renowned in India. Numerous agreements between India and South Korea signify their growing commercial and cultural ties. Find out about major agreements signed in the recent past. 2018-19

64 Contemporary World Politics 1. Arrange the following in chronological order. a. China’s accession to WTO b. Establishment of the EEC c. Establishment of the EU d. Birth of ARF Exercises 2. The ‘ASEAN Way’ a. Reflects the life style of ASEAN members b. A form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal and cooperative c. The defence policy followed by the ASEAN members d. The road that connects all the ASEAN members 3. Which of the following nations adopted an ‘open door’ policy? a. China b. South Korea c. Japan d. USA 4. Fill in the blanks: a. The border conflict between China and India in 1962 was principally over ______________ and __________________ region. b. ARF was established in the year ______________________ . c. China entered into bilateral relations with __________ (a major country) in 1972. d. ____________ Plan influenced the establishment of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation in 1948. e. ___________ is the organisation of ASEAN that deals with security. 5. What are the objectives of establishing regional organisations? 6. How does geographical proximity influence the formation of regional organisations? 7. What are the components of the ASEAN Vision 2020? 8. Name the pillars and the objectives of the ASEAN Community. 9. In what ways does the present Chinese economy differs from its command economy? 10. How did the European countries resolve their post-Second World War problem? Briefly outline the attempts that led to the formation of the European Union. 11. What makes the European Union a highly influential regional organisation? 12. The emerging economies of China and India have great potential to challenge the unipolar world. Do you agree with the statement? Substantiate your arguments. 13. The Peace and prosperity of countries lay in the establishment and strengthening of regional economic organisations. Justify this statement. 14. Identify the contentious issues between China and India. How could these be resolved for greater cooperation? Give your suggestions. 2018-19

Chapter 5 Contemporary South Asia OVERVIEW Source: Subhas Rai’s adaptation of ‘Liberty Leading the People’, painted by Eugene Delacroix in 1830. Courtesy of Let us shift our gaze from the larger Himal Southasian, (January 2007) The Southasia Trust, Nepal global developments in the post-Cold War era to developments in our own region, South Asia. When India and Pakistan joined the club of nuclear powers, this region suddenly became the focus of global attention. The focus was, of course, on the various kinds of conflict in this region: there are pending border and water sharing disputes between the states of the region. Besides, there are conflicts arising out of insurgency, ethnic strife and resource sharing. This makes the region very turbulent. At the same time, many people in South Asia recognise the fact that this region can develop and prosper if the states of the region cooperate with each other. In this chapter, we try to understand the nature of conflict and cooperation among different countries of the region. Since much of this is rooted in or conditioned by the domestic politics of these countries, we first introduce the region and the domestic politics of some of the big countries in the region. 2018-19

66 Contemporary World Politics WHAT IS SOUTH ASIA? The various countries in South Asia do not have the same kind of Identify some We are all familiar with the political systems. Despite many features gripping tension during an India- problems and limitations, Sri common to all Pakistan cricket match. We have Lanka and India have successfully the South Asian also seen the goodwill and operated a democratic system countries but hospitality shown to visiting since their independence from the different from Indian and Pakistani fans by their British. You will study more about countries in hosts when they come to watch a the evolution of democracy in West Asia or cricket match. This is symbolic of India in the textbook that deals Southeast Asia. the larger pattern of South Asian with politics in India since affairs. Ours is a region where independence. It is, of course, rivalry and goodwill, hope and possible to point out many despair, mutual suspicion and limitations of India’s democracy; trust coexist. but we have to remember the fact that India has remained a Is there a fixed Let us begin by asking an democracy throughout its definition of these elementary question: what is South existence as an independent regions? Who Asia? The expression ‘South Asia’ country. The same is true of Sri decides that? usually includes the following Lanka. countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan Pakistan and Bangladesh have and Sri Lanka. The mighty experienced both civilian and Himalayas in the north and the vast military rulers, with Bangladesh Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and remaining a democracy in the the Bay of Bengal in the south, west post-Cold War period. Pakistan and east respectively provide a began the post-Cold War period natural insularity to the region, with successive democratic which is largely responsible for the governments under Benazir linguistic, social and cultural Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif distinctiveness of the sub- respectively. But it suffered a continent. The boundaries of the military coup in 1999 and has region are not as clear in the east been run by a military regime and the west, as they are in the since then. Till 2006, Nepal was a north and the south. Afghanistan constitutional monarchy with the and Myanmar are often included danger of the king taking over in discussions of the region as a executive powers. In 2006 a whole. China is an important player successful popular uprising led to but is not considered to be a part the restoration of democracy and of the region. In this chapter, we reduced the king to a nominal shall use South Asia to mean the position. From the experience of seven countries mentioned above. Bangladesh and Nepal, we can say Thus defined, South Asia stands for that democracy is becoming an diversity in every sense and yet accepted norm in the entire region constitutes one geo-political space. of South Asia. 2018-19

Contemporary South Asia 67 Similar changes are taking place in the two Both these graphs are based on interviews with more smallest countries of the region. Bhutan is still than 19,000 ordinary citizens in the five countries of a monarchy but the king has initiated plans for South Asia. Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy its transition to multi-party democracy. The in South Asia, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007 Maldives, the other island nation, was a Sultanate till 1968 when it was transformed into a republic with a presidential form of government. In June 2005, the parliament of the Maldives voted unanimously to introduce a multi-party system. The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) dominates the political affairs of the island. Democracy strengthened in the Maldives after the 2005 elections when some opposition parties were legalised. Despite the mixed record of the democratic experience, the people in all these countries share the aspiration for democracy. A recent survey of the attitudes of the people in the five big countries of the region showed that there is widespread support for democracy in all these countries. Ordinary citizens, rich as well as poor and belonging to different religions, view the idea of democracy positively and support the institutions of representative democracy. They prefer democracy over any other form of democracy and think that democracy is suitable for their country. These are significant findings, for it was earlier believed that democracy could flourish and find support only in prosperous countries of the world. Countries Life Adult Gross GDP per Infant Deaths due Population living below HDI expectancy at literacy rate enrolment capita (2011 mortality rate to TB (per income poverty line (%) Rank birth (years) (% ages 15 100,000 and older) ratio PPP $) (per 1,000 PPP $1.90 a day 2015 (Secondary) 2015 live births) people) 2005-2014 2015 2014 2010-15 2015 World 71.6 84.3 76 14,600 31.6 15.5 –– Developing 70.0 83.3 71 9,376 34.4 18.4 –– countries South Asia 68.7 70.3 65 5,806 40.7 20.7 –– Bangladesh 72.0 61.5 58 3,137 30.7 51.0 18.5 139 India 68.3 72.1 69 5,730 37.9 17.0 21.2 131 Nepal 70.0 64.7 67 2,313 29.4 17.0 15.0 144 Pakistan 66.4 58.7 42 4,745 65.8 26.0 Sri Lanka 75.0 92.6 100 11,048 6.1 147 8.4 6.1 – 73 Source: United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report, 2016 2018-19

68 Contemporary World Politics TIMELINE OF SOUTH ASIA In that sense the South Asian SINCE 1947 experience of democracy has expanded the global imagination of 1947: India and Pakistan emerge as independent nations democracy. after the end of British rule 1948: Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) gains independence; Indo- Let us look at the experience Pak conflict over Kashmir of democracy in each of the four 1954-55: Pakistan joins the Cold War military blocs, SEATO big countries of the region other and CENTO than India. 1960: India and Pakistan sign the Indus Waters Treaty 1962: Border conflict between India and China THE MILITARY AND 1965: Indo-Pak War; UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission DEMOCRACY IN PAKISTAN 1966: India and Pakistan sign the Tashkent Agreement; Six-point proposal of Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman for greater After Pakistan framed its first autonomy to East Pakistan constitution, General Ayub Khan 1971 March: Proclamation of Independence by leaders of took over the administration of Bangladesh the country and soon got himself August : Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship signed for 20 years elected. He had to give up office December : Indo-Pak War, Liberation of Bangladesh when there was popular 1972 July: India and Pakistan sign the Shimla Agreement dissatisfaction against his rule. 1974 May: India conducts nuclear test This gave way to a military 1976: Pakistan and Bangladesh establish diplomatic ties takeover once again under 1985 December: South Asian leaders sign the SAARC General Yahya Khan. During Charter at the first summit in Dhaka Yahya’s military rule, Pakistan 1987: Indo-Sri Lanka Accord; Indian Peace Keeping Force faced the Bangladesh crisis, and (IPKF) operation in Sri Lanka (1987-90) after a war with India in 1971, 1988: India sends troops to the Maldives to foil a coup East Pakistan broke away to attempt by mercenaries emerge as an independent country India and Pakistan sign the agreement not to attack called Bangladesh. After this, an nuclear installations and facilities of each other elected government under the 1988-91: Democracy restoration in Pakistan, Bangladesh leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Nepal came to power in Pakistan from 1996 December: India and Bangladesh sign the Farakka 1971 to 1977. The Bhutto Treaty for sharing of the Ganga Waters government was removed by 1998 May: India and Pakistan conduct nuclear tests General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977. December: India and Sri Lanka sign the Free Trade Agreement General Zia faced a pro-democracy (FTA) movement from 1982 onwards and 1999 February: Indian PM Vajpayee undertakes bus journey and an elected democratic to Lahore to sign a Peace Declaration government was established once June-July: Kargil conflict between India and Pakistan again in 1988 under the leadership 2001 July: Vajpayee - Musharraf Agra Summit unsuccessful of Benazir Bhutto. In the period 2004 January: SAFTA signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in that followed, Pakistani politics Islamabad centred around the competition 2007: Afghanistan joins SAARC between her party, the Pakistan 2014 November: The 18th SAARC Summit in Kathmandu, People’s Party, and the Muslim Nepal 2018-19

Contemporary South Asia 69 League. This phase of elective Surendra, The Hindu democracy lasted till 1999 when the army stepped in again and General This cartoon comments on the dual role of Pakistan’s ruler Pervez Pervez Musharraf removed Prime Musharraf as the President of the country and as the army General. Minister Nawaz Sharif. In 2001, Read the equations carefully and write down the message of this General Musharraf got himself cartoon. elected as the President. Pakistan continued to be ruled by the army, countries have encouraged the though the army rulers have held military’s authoritarian rule in the some elections to give their rule a past, for their own reasons. Given democratic image. Since 2008, their fear of the threat of what they democratically elected leaders call ‘global Islamic terrorism’ and have been ruling Pakistan. the apprehension that Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal might fall into the Several factors have hands of these terrorist groups, contributed to Pakistan’s failure in the military regime in Pakistan building a stable democracy. has been seen as the protector of The social dominance of the Western interests in West Asia and military, clergy, and landowning South Asia. aristocracy has led to the frequent overthrow of elected governments DEMOCRACY IN BANGLADESH If Germany can be and the establishment of military reunited, why can’t government. Pakistan’s conflict Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan the people of India with India has made the pro- from 1947 to 1971. It consisted and Pakistan at least military groups more powerful. of the partitioned areas of Bengal travel more easily to These groups have often said that and Assam from British India. The each other’s political parties and democracy in people of this region resented the country? Pakistan are flawed, that domination of western Pakistan Pakistan’s security would be and the imposition of the Urdu harmed by selfish-minded parties language. Soon after the partition, and chaotic democracy, and that the army’s stay in power is, therefore, justified. While democracy has not been fully successful in Pakistan, there has been a strong pro-democracy sentiment in the country. Pakistan has a courageous and relatively free press and a strong human rights movement. The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan has further encouraged the military to continue its dominance. The United States and other Western 2018-19

70 Contemporary World Politics they began protests against the arrested. Under the military rule unfair treatment meted out to the of General Yahya Khan, the Bengali culture and language. They Pakistani army tried to suppress also demanded fair representation the mass movement of the Bengali in administration and a fair share people. Thousands were killed by in political power. Sheikh Mujib- the Pakistan army. This led to a ur Rahman led the popular large scale migration into India, struggle against West Pakistani creating a huge refugee problem domination. He demanded for India. The government of India autonomy for the eastern region. supported the demand of the In the 1970 elections in the then people of East Pakistan for their Pakistan, the Awami League led by independence and helped them Sheikh Mujib won all the seats in financially and militarily. This East Pakistan and secured a resulted in a war between India majority in the proposed and Pakistan in December 1971 constituent assembly for the whole that ended in the surrender of the of Pakistan. But the government Pakistani forces in East Pakistan dominated by the West Pakistani and the formation of Bangladesh leadership refused to convene the as an independent country. assembly. Sheikh Mujib was A mural in Dhaka University to remember Noor Hossain who was killed by the police during pro-democracy protests against General Ershad in 1987. Painted on his back: “Let Democracy be Freed” . Photo credit: Shahidul Alam/ Drik 2018-19

Contemporary South Asia 71 Bangladesh drafted its responsive system of government. Let’s know more constitution declaring faith in But the king, with the help of the about secularism, democracy and socialism. However, in 1975 Sheikh army, retained full control over the Bangladesh’s Mujib got the constitution amended to shift from the government and restricted the Grameen Bank. parliamentary to presidential form of government. He also abolished expansion of democracy in Nepal. Can we make all parties except his own, the Awami League. This led to conflicts The king accepted the demand use of the idea and tensions. In a dramatic and to reduce tragic development, he was for a new democratic constitution poverty in assassinated in a military uprising in 1990, in the wake of a strong India? in August 1975. The new military pro-democracy movement. ruler, Ziaur Rahman, formed his own Bangladesh National Party However, democratic governments and won elections in 1979. He was assassinated and another military had a short and troubled career. takeover followed under the leadership of Lt Gen H. M. Ershad. During the nineties, the Maoists The people of Bangladesh soon rose in support of the demand for of Nepal were successful in democracy. Students were in the forefront. Ershad was forced to spreading their influence in many allow political activity on a limited scale. He was later elected as parts of Nepal. They believed in President for five years. Mass public protests made Ershad step down armed insurrection against the in 1990. Elections were held in 1991. Since then representative monarch and the ruling elite. This democracy based on multi-party elections has been working in led to a violent conflict between Bangladesh. the Maoist guerrillas and the MONARCHY AND DEMOCRACY IN NEPAL armed forces of the king. For Nepal was a Hindu kingdom in the some time, there was a triangular past and then a constitutional monarchy in the modern period conflict among the monarchist for many years. Throughout this period, political parties and the forces, the democrats and the common people of Nepal have wanted a more open and Maoists. In 2002, the king abolished the parliament and dismissed the government, thus ending even the limited democracy that existed in Nepal. In April 2006, there were massive, country wide, pro- democracy protests. The struggling pro-democracy forces achieved their first major victory when the king was forced to restore the House of Representatives that had been dissolved in April 2002. The largely non-violent movement was led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), the Maoists and social activists. Nepal’s transition to democracy is almost complete. Nepal has undergone a unique moment in its history because it formed a constituent assembly to 2018-19

72 draft the constitution for Nepal. Contemporary World Politics Some sections in Nepal thought Nepal sounds really that a nominal monarchy was since its independence in 1948. exciting. I wish I was necessary for Nepal to retain its But it faced a serious challenge, not in Nepal! link with the past. The Maoist from the military or monarchy but groups agreed to suspend armed rather from ethnic conflict leading struggle. They wanted the to the demand for secession by constitution to include the radical one of the regions. programmes of social and economic restructuring. All the parties in the After its independence, politics SPA did not agree with this in Sri Lanka (it was then known programme. The Maoists and as Ceylon) was dominated by some other political groups were forces that represented the interest also deeply suspicious of the of the majority Sinhala Indian government and its role in community. They were hostile to a the future of Nepal. In 2008, Nepal large number of Tamils who had became a democratic republic after migrated from India to Sri Lanka abolishing the monarchy. In 2015, and settled there. This migration it adopted a new constitution. continued even after independence. The Sinhala nationalists thought ETHNIC CONFLICT AND that Sri Lanka should not give DEMOCRACY IN SRI LANKA ‘concessions’ to the Tamils because Sri Lanka belongs to the Sinhala We have already seen that Sri people only. The neglect of Tamil Lanka has retained democracy concerns led to militant Tamil nationalism. From 1983 onwards, the militant organisation, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Democracy activist, Durga Thapa, participating in a pro-democracy rally in Kathmandu in 1990. The second picture shows the same person in 2006, this time celebrating the success of the second democracy movement. Photo credit: Min Bajracharya 2018-19

Contemporary South Asia 73 (LTTE) has been fighting an armed Keshav, The Hindu struggle with the army of Sri Lanka The cartoon depicts the dilemma of the Sri Lankan leadership in and demanding ‘Tamil Eelam’ or a trying to balance Sinhala hardliners or the Lion and Tamil militants separate country for the Tamils of or the Tiger while negotiating peace. Sri Lanka. The LTTE controls the northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. In spite of the conflict, Sri Lanka has registered considerable The Sri Lankan problem economic growth and recorded involves people of Indian origin, high levels of human development. and there is considerable pressure Sri Lanka was one of the first from the Tamil people in India to developing countries to the effect that the Indian successfully control the rate of government should protect the growth of population, the first interests of the Tamils in Sri country in the region to liberalise Lanka. The government of India the economy, and it has had the has from time to time tried to highest per capita gross domestic negotiate with the Sri Lankan product (GDP) for many years government on the Tamil question. right through the civil war. Despite But in 1987, the government of the ravages of internal conflict, it India for the first time got directly has maintained a democratic involved in the Sri Lankan Tamil political system. question. India signed an accord with Sri Lanka and sent troops to INDIA-PAKISTAN CONFLICTS stabilise relations between the Sri Lankan government and the Let us now move from domestic Tamils. Eventually, the Indian politics and take a look at some Army got into a fight with the of the areas of conflict in the inter- LTTE. The presence of Indian national relations in this region. troops was also not liked much The post-Cold War era has not by the Sri Lankans. They saw this meant the end of conflicts and as an attempt by India to interfere in the internal affairs of Sri Lanka. In 1989, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) pulled out of Sri Lanka without attaining its objective. The Sri Lankan crisis continued to be violent. However, international actors, particularly the Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Iceland tried to bring the warring groups back to negotiations. Finally, the armed conflict came to an end, as the LTTE was vanquished in 2009. 2018-19

74 Contemporary World Politics Keshav, The Hindu Kashmir and the Indian province of A view of the current phase of the Indo-Pak negotiations. Jammu and Kashmir divided by the Line of Control. In 1971, India won Discussion on Kashmir tensions in this region. We have a decisive war against Pakistan but sounds like a property already noted the conflicts around the Kashmir issue remained dispute between the internal democracy or ethnic unsettled. rulers of India and differences. But there are also Pakistan! What do the some very crucial conflicts of an India’s conflict with Pakistan is Kashmiris feel about it? international nature. Given the also over strategic issues like the position of India in this region, control of the Siachen glacier and most of these conflicts involve over acquisition of arms. The arms India. race between the two countries assumed a new character with The most salient and over- both states acquiring nuclear whelming of these conflicts is, of weapons and missiles to deliver course, the one between India and such arms against each other in Pakistan. Soon after the partition, the 1990s. In 1998, India the two countries got embroiled in conducted nuclear explosion in a conflict over the fate of Kashmir. Pokaran. Pakistan responded The Pakistani government claimed within a few days by carrying out that Kashmir belonged to it. Wars nuclear tests in the Chagai Hills. between India and Pakistan in Since then India and Pakistan 1947-48 and 1965 failed to settle seem to have built a military the matter. The 1947-48 war relationship in which the resulted in the division of the possibility of a direct and full-scale province into Pakistan-occupied war has declined. But both the governments continue to be suspicious of each other. The Indian government has blamed the Pakistan government for using a strategy of low-key violence by helping the Kashmiri militants with arms, training, money and protection to carry out terrorist strikes against India. The Indian government also believes that Pakistan had aided the pro- Khalistani militants with arms and ammunitions during the period 1985-1995. Its spy agency, Inter Services Intelligence (ISI), is alleged to be involved in various anti-India campaigns in India’s northeast, operating secretly through Bangladesh and Nepal. 2018-19

Contemporary South Asia unhappy with Bangladesh’s 75 denial of illegal immigration to The government of Pakistan, in India, its support for anti-Indian Why is it that every turn, blames the Indian Islamic fundamentalist groups, one of our government and its security Bangladesh’s refusal to allow neighbours has a agencies for fomenting trouble in Indian troops to move through problem with India? the provinces of Sindh and its territory to northeastern Is there something Balochistan. India, and its decision not wrong with our to export natural gas to India foreign policy? Or is India and Pakistan also have or allow Myanmar to do so it just our size? had problems over the sharing of through Bangladeshi territory. river waters. Until 1960, they were Bangladeshi governments have felt locked in a fierce argument over that the Indian government the use of the rivers of the Indus behaves like a regional bully over basin. Eventually, in 1960, with the sharing of river waters, the help of the World Bank, India encouraging rebellion in the and Pakistan signed the Indus Chittagong Hill Tracts, trying to Waters Treaty which has survived extract its natural gas and being to this day in spite of various unfair in trade. The two countries military conflicts in which the two could not resolve their boundary countries have been involved. dispute for a long while. There are still some minor differences about the interpretation Despite their differences, India of the Indus Waters Treaty and the and Bangladesh do cooperate on use of the river waters. The two many issues. Economic relations countries are not in agreement have improved considerably in the over the demarcation line in Sir last 20 years. Bangladesh is a part Creek in the Rann of Kutch. The of India’s Look East (Act East since dispute seems minor, but there is 2014) policy that wants to link up an underlying worry that how the with Southeast Asia via Myanmar. dispute is settled may have an On disaster management and impact on the control of sea environmental issues, the two resources in the area adjoining Sir states have cooperated regularly. Creek. India and Pakistan are In 2015, they exchanged certain holding negotiations on all enclaves. Efforts are on to broaden these issues. the areas of cooperation further by identifying common threats INDIA AND ITS OTHER and being more sensitive to each NEIGHBOURS other’s needs. The governments of India and Nepal and India enjoy a very Bangladesh have had differences special relationship that has very over several issues including the few parallels in the world. A treaty sharing of the Ganga and between the two countries allows Brahmaputra river waters. The the citizens of the two countries to Indian government has been travel to and work in the other country without visas and 2018-19

76 Contemporary World Politics STEPS passports. Despite this special relationship, the governments of the Divide the classroom into eight groups (as many two countries have had trade- as the number of countries). The number of students related disputes in the past. The in each group may vary, reflecting the size of the Indian government has often countries of South Asia. expressed displeasure at the warm relationship between Nepal and Name each group after a country and hand over China and at the Nepal a brief country profile to respective groups. Besides government’s inaction against anti- the basic information, include a short note on the Indian elements. Indian security contentious issues/disputes among the South Asian agencies see the Maoist movement countries. The issues could be those discussed in in Nepal as a growing security this chapter or an issue of relevance but not threat, given the rise of Naxalite discussed in the chapter. groups in various Indian states from Bihar in the north to Andhra Allow students to select an issue of their choice. Pradesh in the south. Many leaders The dispute could be bilateral or multilateral (the and citizens in Nepal think that the issue could be related to India, given the Indian government interferes in its geographic peculiarity of the region). internal affairs, has designs on its river waters and hydro-electricity, Assign each group to find out what initiatives the and prevents Nepal, a landlocked governments involved have taken and the reasons country, from getting easier access for their failures in resolving the disputes. to the sea through Indian territory. Nevertheless, Indo-Nepal relations Students should assume the role of representing are fairly stable and peaceful. their respective countries and share their findings. Despite differences, trade, scientific cooperation, common natural Ideas for the Teacher resources, electricity generation and interlocking water Pair up the countries sharing the common issue/dispute. It management grids hold the two could be two groups in the case of a bilateral issue or more in countries together. There is a hope case of a multilateral issue (examples of bilateral issues include that the consolidation of democracy the Jammu and Kashmir dispute between India and Pakistan, in Nepal will lead to improvements the migrant problem between India and Bangladesh; in the ties between the two multilateral issues include the creation of a free trade zone or countries. tackling terrorism). Groups should negotiate on the proposals and counter- The difficulties in the proposals within a time limit. The teacher is to take note of the relationship between the outcome of the negotiations. The focus should be on the areas governments of India and Sri Lanka of agreement and disagreement. are mostly over ethnic conflict in Link the outcome of the negotiations with the prevailing the island nation. Indian leaders situation among the countries of South Asia. Talk about the and citizens find it impossible to difficulties involved in negotiating on a political issue based remain neutral when Tamils are on the observation made. Conclude by discussing the politically unhappy and are importance of accommodating each other’s interest for the being killed. After the military sake of peaceful coexistence. intervention in 1987, the Indian 2018-19

Contemporary South Asia the region. The smaller countries 77 fear that India wants to be a government now prefers a policy of regionally-dominant power. If the chapter, on US disengagement vis-à-vis Sri Lanka’s was called ‘US internal troubles. India signed a free Not all conflicts in South Asia Hegemony’ why is trade agreement with Sri Lanka, are between India and its this chapter not which strengthened relations neighbours. Nepal and Bhutan, as called ‘Indian between two countries. India’s help well as Bangladesh and Myanmar, Hegemony’? in post-tsunami reconstruction in have had disagreements in the past Sri Lanka has also brought the two over the migration of ethnic countries closer. Nepalese into Bhutan and the Rohingyas into Myanmar, India enjoys a very special respectively. Bangladesh and Nepal relationship with Bhutan too and have had some differences over the does not have any major conflict future of the Himalayan river with the Bhutanese government. waters. The major conflicts and The efforts made by the Bhutanese differences, though, are between monarch to weed out the guerrillas India and the others, partly and militants from northeastern because of the geography of the India that operate in his country region, in which India is located have been helpful to India. India is centrally and is therefore the only involved in big hydroelectric country that borders the others. projects in Bhutan and remains the Himalayan kingdom’s biggest Surendra, The Hindu source of development aid. India’s ties with the Maldives remain warm What does this cartoon tell you about the role of India and and cordial. In November 1988, Pakistan in the process of regional cooperation in South Asia? when some Tamil mercenaries from Sri Lanka attacked the Maldives, the Indian air force and navy reacted quickly to the Maldives’ request to help stop the invasion. India has also contributed towards the island’s economic development, tourism and fisheries. You may have noticed that India has various problems with its smaller neighbours in the region. Given its size and power, they are bound to be suspicious of India’s intentions. The Indian government, on the other hand, often feels exploited by its neighbours. It does not like the political instability in these countries, fearing it can help outside powers to gain influence in 2018-19

78 Contemporary World Politics Keshav, The Hindu PEACE AND COOPERATION Pakistan Tribune Do the states of South Asia cooperate with each The two cartoons, one from India and the other other? Or do they only keep fighting with each from Pakistan, interpret the role of two key other? In spite of the many conflicts, the states players who are also interested in the region. Do of South Asia recognise the importance of you notice any commonality between their cooperation and friendly relationship, among perspectives? themselves. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a major regional Every association initiative by the South Asian states to evolve seems to have cooperation through multilateral means. It emerged for trade! began in 1985. Unfortunately, due to persisting Is trade more political differences, SAARC has not had much important than success. SAARC members signed the South people-to-people Asian Free Trade (SAFTA) agreement which relations? promised the formation of a free trade zone for the whole of South Asia. A new chapter of peace and cooperation might evolve in South Asia if all the countries in the region allow free trade across the borders. This is the spirit behind the idea of SAFTA. The Agreement was signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1 January 2006. SAFTA aims at lowering trade tariffs. But some of our neighbours fear that SAFTA is a way for India to ‘invade’ their markets and to influence their societies and politics through commercial ventures and a commercial presence in their countries. India thinks that there are real economic benefits for all from SAFTA and that a region that trades more freely will be able to cooperate better on political issues. Some in India think that SAFTA is not worth the trouble since India already has bilateral agreements with Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Although India-Pakistan relations seem to be a story of endemic conflict and violence, there have been a series of efforts to manage tensions and build peace. The two countries have agreed to undertake confidence building measures to reduce the risk of war. Social activists and prominent personalities have collaborated to create an atmosphere of friendship among the people of both countries. Leaders have met at summits to understand each other better and to find solutions 2018-19

Contemporary South Asia 79 to the major problems between the American involvement in South two neighbours. A number of bus Asia has rapidly increased after the routes have been opened up Cold War. The US has had good between the two countries. Trade relations with both India and between the two parts of Punjab Pakistan since the end of the Cold has increased substantially in the War and increasingly works as a last five years. Visas have been moderator in India-Pakistan more easily given. relations. Economic reforms and liberal economic policies in both No region exists in a vacuum. countries have greatly increased It is influenced by outside powers the depth of American participation and events no matter how much in the region. The large South Asian it may try to insulate itself from diasporas in the US and the huge non-regional powers. China and size of the population and markets the United States remain key of the region also give America an players in South Asian politics. added stake in the future of Sino-Indian relations have regional security and peace. improved significantly in the last ten years, but China’s strategic However, whether South Asia partnership with Pakistan will continue to be known as a remains a major irritant. The conflict prone zone or will evolve into demands of development and a regional bloc with some common globalisation have brought the two cultural features and trade interests Asian giants closer, and their will depend more on the people and economic ties have multiplied the governments of the region than rapidly since 1991. any other outside power. 1. Identify the country: Exercises a. The struggle among pro-monarchy, pro-democracy groups and extremists created an atmosphere of political instability: b. A landlocked country with multi-party competition: c. The first country to liberalise its economy in the South Asian region: d. In the conflict between the military and pro-democracy groups, the military has prevailed over democracy: e. Centrally located and shares borders with most of the South Asian countries: f. Earlier the island had the Sultan as the head of state. Now, it’s a republic: g. Small savings and credit cooperatives in the rural areas have helped in reducing poverty: h. A landlocked country with a monarchy: 2018-19

80 Contemporary World Politics Exercises 2. Which among the following statements about South Asia is wrong? a) All the countries in South Asia are democratic. b) Bangladesh and India have signed an agreement on river-water sharing. c) SAFTA was signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad. d) The US and China play an influential role in South Asian politics. 3. What are some of the commonalities and differences between Bangladesh and Pakistan in their democratic experiences? 4. List three challenges to democracy in Nepal. 5. Name the principal players in the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. How do you assess the prospects of the resolution of this conflict? 6. Mention some of the recent agreements between India and Pakistan. Can we be sure that the two countries are well on their way to a friendly relationship? 7. Mention two areas each of cooperation and disagreement between India and Bangladesh. 8. How are the external powers influencing bilateral relations in South Asia? Take any one example to illustrate your point. 9. Write a short note on the role and the limitations of SAARC as a forum for facilitating economic cooperation among the South Asian countries. 10. India’s neighbours often think that the Indian government tries to dominate and interfere in the domestic affairs of the smaller countries of the region. Is this a correct impression? 2018-19

Chapter 6 International Organisations OVERVIEW This is the United Nations’ logo. The emblem has a world map with olive branches around it, signifying world peace. In this chapter we shall discuss Credit : www.un.org the role of international organisations after the collapse of the Soviet Union. We shall examine how, in this emerging world, there were calls for the restructuring of international organisations to cope with various new challenges including the rise of US power. The potential reform of the United Nations Security Council is an interesting case of the reform process and its difficulties. We then turn to India’s involvement in the UN and its view of Security Council reforms. The chapter closes by asking if the UN can play any role in dealing with a world dominated by one superpower. In this chapter we also look at some other trans- national organisations that are playing a crucial role. 2018-19

82 WHY INTERNATIONAL Contemporary World Politics ORGANISATIONS? That’s what they say “Talking shop? Yes, there are about the Read the two cartoons on this a lot of speeches and meetings at parliament too — page. Both the cartoons comment the U.N., especially during the a talking shop. Does on the ineffectiveness of the annual sessions of the General it mean that we United Nations Organisation, Assembly. But as Churchill put it, need talking shops? usually referred to as the UN, in jaw-jaw is better than war-war. the Lebanon crisis in 2006. Both Isn’t it better to have one place the cartoons represent the kind of where all… countries in the world opinions that we often hear about can get together, bore each other the UN. sometimes with their words rather than bore holes into each other on On the other hand, we also the battlefield?” — Shashi Tharoor, find that the UN is generally the former UN Under-Secretary- regarded as the most important General for Communications and international organisation in Public Information. today’s world. In the eyes of many people all over the world, it is These two quotes suggest indispensable and represents the something important. International great hope of humanity for peace organisations are not the answer and progress. Why do we then to everything, but they are need organisations like the UN? important. International organi- Let us hear two insiders: sations help with matters of war and peace. They also help “The United Nations was not countries cooperate to make created to take humanity to better living conditions for us all. heaven, but to save it from hell.” — Dag Hammarskjold, the UN’s Countries have conflicts and second Secretary-General. differences with each other. That does not necessarily mean they must go to war to deal with their © Harry Harrison, Cagle Cartoons Inc. © Petar Pismestrovic, Cagle Cartoons Inc. During June 2006, Israel attacked Lebanon, saying that it was necessary to control the militant group called Hezbollah. Large numbers of civilians were killed and many public buildings and even residential areas came under Israeli bombardment. The UN passed a resolution on this only in August and the Israel army withdrew from the region only in October. Both these cartoons comment on the role of the UN and its Secretary-General in this episode. 2018-19

International Organisations 83 antagonisms. They can, instead, IMF IMF discuss contentious issues and find peaceful solutions; indeed, The International Monetary Fund even though this is rarely noticed, (IMF) is an international organ- most conflicts and differences are isation that oversees those resolved without going to war. The financial institutions and regula- role of an international tions that act at the international organisation can be important in level. The IMF has 189 member this context. An international countries (as on 12 April 2016) but they do not organisation is not a super-state enjoy an equal say. The G-7 members with authority over its members. US (16.52%), Japan (6.15%), Germany (5.32%), It is created by and responds to France (4.03%), UK (4.03%), Italy (3.02%) and states. It comes into being when Canada (2.22%) have 41.29% of the votes. states agree to its creation. Once China (6.09%), India (2.64%), Russia (2.59%) created, it can help member states Brazil (2.22%) and Saudi Arabia (2.02%) are the resolve their problems peacefully. other major members. International organisations are cooperating are two different helpful in another way. Nations things. Nations can recognise the can usually see that there are some need to cooperate but cannot things they must do together. always agree on how best to do so, There are issues that are so how to share the costs of challenging that they can only be cooperating, how to make sure dealt with when everyone works that the benefits of cooperating are together. Disease is an example. justly divided, and how to ensure Some diseases can only be that others do not break their end eradicated if everyone in the world of the bargain and cheat on an cooperates in inoculating or agreement. An international vaccinating their populations. Or organisation can help produce take global warming and information and ideas about how its effects. As temperatures rise to cooperate. It can provide because of the increase in mechanisms, rules and a greenhouse gases in the bureaucracy, to help members have atmosphere, there is a danger that more confidence that costs will be sea levels will also rise, thereby shared properly, that the benefits submerging many coastal areas of the world including huge cities. Of Make a list of issues or course, each country can try to problems (other than the find its own solution to the effects ones mentioned in the of global warming. But in the end text) that cannot be a more effective approach is to stop handled by any one the warming itself. This requires at country and require an least all of the major industrial international organisation. powers to cooperate. Unfortunately, recognising the need for cooperation and actually 2018-19

84 Contemporary World Politics FOUNDING OF THE UNITED NATIONS government? We shall try to answer this question at the end of 1941August: Signing of the Atlantic Charter by the US President the chapter. Franklin D. Roosevelt and British PM Winston S. Churchill EVOLUTION OF THE UN 1942 January: 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers meet in Washington, D.C., to support the Atlantic The First World War encouraged Charter and sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’ the world to invest in an international organisation to deal 1943 December: Tehran Conference Declaration of the with conflict. Many believed that Three Powers (US, Britain and Soviet Union) such an organisation would help the world to avoid war. As a result, 1945 February: Yalta Conference of the ‘Big Three’ the League of Nations was born. (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) decides to organise a United However, despite its initial Nations conference on the proposed world organisation success, it could not prevent the Second World War (1939-45). April-May: The 2-month long United Nations Conference on Many more people died and were International Organisation at San Francisco wounded in this war than ever before. 1945 June 26: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (Poland signed on October 15; so the UN has 51 original The UN was founded as a founding members) successor to the League of Nations. It was established in 1945 October 24: the UN was founded (hence October 24 is 1945 immediately after the celebrated as UN Day) The US Office of War Information 1945 October 30: India joins the UN created the above poster during the Second World War as per the will be fairly divided, and that once Declaration by United Nations of 1942. a member joins an agreement it The poster features the flags of all will honour the terms and nations that were part of the Allied conditions of the agreement. Forces. It reflects the belligerent origins of the UN. With the end of the Cold War, we can see that the UN may have a slightly different role. As the United States and its allies emerged victorious, there was concern amongst many governments and peoples that the Western countries led by the US would be so powerful that there would be no check against their wishes and desires. Can the UN serve to promote dialogue and discussion with the US in particular, and could it limit the power of the American 2018-19

International Organisations 85 Adapted from http://www.newint.org/issue375/pics/un-map-big.gif For more details about the UN System, visit www.un.org 2018-19

86 Contemporary World Politics Search for at Second World War. The (1995-2002) and the UN High least one news organisation was set up through Commissioner for Refugees item about the the signing of the United Nations (2005-2015). activities of Charter by 51 states. It tried to each of the achieve what the League could not The UN consists of many UN agencies between the two world wars. The different structures and agencies. mentioned on UN’s objective is to prevent War and peace and differences this page. international conflict and to between member states are facilitate cooperation among discussed in the General Cold War or no states. It was founded with the Assembly as well as the Security Cold War, one hope that it would act to stop the Council. Social and economic reform is needed conflicts between states escalating issues are dealt with by many above all. Only into war and, if war broke out, to agencies including the World democratic leaders limit the extent of hostilities. Health Organisation (WHO), the should be allowed Furthermore, since conflicts often United Nations Development to represent their arose from the lack of social and Programme (UNDP), the United countries in the UN. economic development, the UN Nations Human Rights Commision How can they allow was intended to bring countries (UNHRC), the United Nations High dictators to speak in together to improve the prospects Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), the name of the of social and economic the United Nations Children’s Fund people of their development all over the world. (UNICEF), and the United Nations country? Educational, Scientific, and By 2011, the UN had 193 Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), member states. These includeed among others. almost all independent states. In the UN General Assembly, all REFORM OF THE UN AFTER members have one vote each. In THE COLD WAR the UN Security Council, there are five permanent members. These Reform and improvement are are: the United States, Russia, the fundamental to any organisation United Kingdom, France and to serve the needs of a changing China. These states were selected environment. The UN is no as permanent members as they exception. In recent years, there were the most powerful have been demands for reform of immediately after the Second the world body. However, there is World War and because they little clarity and consensus on the constituted the victors in the War. nature of reform. The UN’s most visible public Two basic kinds of reforms face figure, and the representative the UN: reform of the head, is the Secretary-General. organisation’s structures and The present Secretary-General is processes; and a review of the António Guterres. He is the ninth issues that fall within the Secretary-General of the UN. He jurisdiction of the organisation. took over as the Secretary-General Almost everyone is agreed that on 1 January 2017. He was the both aspects of reform are Prime Minister of Portugal 2018-19

International Organisations 87 necessary. What they cannot agree UN SECRETARIES-GENERAL on is precisely what is to be done, how it is to be done, and when it is Trygve Lie(1946-1952) Norway; lawyer and foreign to be done. minister; worked for ceasefire between India and Pakistan on Kashmir; criticised for his failure to On the reform of structures quickly end the Korean war; Soviet Union opposed and processes, the biggest second term for him; resigned from the post. discussion has been on the functioning of the Security Dag Hammarskjöld(1953-1961) Sweden; Economist Council. Related to this has been and lawyer; worked for resolving the Suez Canal the demand for an increase in the dispute and the decolonisation of Africa; awarded UN Security Council’s permament Nobel Peace Prize posthumously in 1961 for his and non-permanent membership efforts to settle the Congo crisis; Soviet Union and so that the realities of France criticised his role in Africa. contemporary world politics are better reflected in the structure of U Thant(1961-1971) Burma (Myanmar); teacher and the organisation. In particular, diplomat; worked for resolving the Cuban Missile there are proposals to increase Crisis and ending the Congo crisis; established the membership from Asia, Africa and UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus; criticised the South America. Beyond this, the US during the Vietnam War. US and other Western countries want improvements in the UN’s Kurt Waldheim(1972-1981) Austria; diplomat and budgetary procedures and its foreign minister; made efforts to resolve the administration. problems of Namibia and Lebanon; oversaw the relief operation in Bangladesh; China blocked his On the issues to be given bid for a third term. greater priority or to be brought within the jurisdiciton of the UN, Javier Perez de Cuellar(1982-1991) Peru; lawyer some countries and experts want and diplomat; worked for peace in Cyprus, the organisation to play a greater Afghanistan and El Salvador; mediated between or more effective role in peace and Britain and Argentina after the Falklands War; security missions, while others negotiated for the independence of Namibia. want its role to be confined to development and humanitarian Boutros Boutros-Ghali(1992-1996) Egypt; diplomat, work (health, education, jurist, foreign minister; issued a report, An Agenda for environment, population control, Peace; conducted a successful UN operation in human rights, gender and social Mozambique; blamed for the UN failures in Bosnia, justice). Somalia and Rwanda; due to serious disagreements, the US blocked a second term for him. Let us look at both sets of reforms, with an emphasis on Kofi A. Annan (1997-2006) Ghana; UN official; reform of the structures and created the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis processes. and Malaria; declared the US-led invasion of Iraq as an illegal act; established the Peacebuilding The UN was established in Commission and the Human Rights Council in 2005; 1945 immediately after the awarded the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize Second World War. The way it was Ban Ki-moon (2007-2016) Republic of Korea (South Korea); diplomat and foreign minister; the first Asian to hold the post since 1971; highlighted climate change; focused on the Millennium Development Goals; worked for the creation of UN Women; emphasised conflict resolution and nuclear disarmament. Photo Credit: www.un.org 2018-19

88 Contemporary World Politics Ban Ki-moon, UN Secretary-General, launches UN @ 70 to celebrate terrorism, nuclear proliferation, the 70th Anniversary in New Delhi in 2015 (UN Photo/Mark Garten) climate change, environmental degradation, epidemics). organised and the way it functioned reflected the realities of In this situation, in 1989, as world politics after the Second the Cold War was ending, the World War. After the Cold War, question facing the world was: is those realities are different. Here the UN doing enough? Is it are some of the changes that have equipped to do what is required? occurred: What should it be doing? And how? What reforms are necessary The Soviet Union has to make it work better? For the collapsed. past decade and a half, member The US is the strongest power. states have been trying to find The relationship between satisfactory and practical answers Russia, the successor to the to these questions. Soviet Union, and the US is much more cooperative. REFORM OF STRUCTURES AND China is fast emerging as a PROCESSES great power, and India also is growing rapidly. While the case for reform has The economies of Asia are widespread support, getting growing at an unprecedented agreement on what to do is rate. difficult. Let us examine the Many new countries have debate over reform of the UN joined the UN (as they became Security Council. In 1992, the UN independent from the Soviet General Assembly adopted a Union or former communist resolution. The resolution states in eastern Europe). reflected three main complaints: A whole new set of challenges confronts the world (genocide, The Security Council no longer civil war, ethnic conflict, represents contemporary political realities. Its decisions reflect only Western values and interests and are dominated by a few powers. It lacks equitable representation. In view of these growing demands for the restructuring of the UN, on 1 January 1997, the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry into how the 2018-19

International Organisations 89 UN should be reformed. How, for World Bank WORLD BANK instance, should new Security Council members be chosen? The World Bank was created during the Second World War in In the years since then, the 1944. Its activities are focused following are just some of the on the developing countries. It criteria that have been proposed works for human development for new permanent and non- (education, health), agriculture and rural permanent members of the development (irrigation, rural services), Security Council. A new member, environmental protection (pollution reduction, it has been suggested, should be: establishing and enforcing regulations), infrastructure (roads, urban regeneration, A major economic power electricity) and governance (anti-corruption, A major military power development of legal institutions). It provides A substantial contributor to loans and grants to the member-countries. In the UN budget this way, it exercises enormous influence on the A big nation in terms of its economic policies of developing countries. It is population often criticised for setting the economic A nation that respects agenda of the poorer nations, attaching democracy and human rights stringent conditions to its loans and forcing free A country that would market reforms. make the Council more representative of the world’s Clearly, each of these criteria diversity in terms of has some validity. Governments geography, economic systems, saw advantages in some criteria and culture and disadvantages in others depending on their interests and Major contributors to the aspirations. Even if they had no UN regular budget, 2017 desire to be members themselves, countries could see that the No. Member State % criteria were problematic. How big an economic or military power did 1 USA 22.0 you have to be to qualify for 2 Japan 9.6 Security Council membership? 3 China 7.9 What level of budget contribution 4 Germany 6.3 would enable a state to buy its way 5 France 4.8 into the Council? Was a big 6 UK 4.4 population an asset or a liability 7 Brazil 3.8 for a country trying to play a bigger 8 Italy 3.7 role in the world? If respect for 9 Russia 3.0 democracy and human rights was 10 Canada 2.9 the criteria, countries with 11 Spain 2.4 excellent records would be in line 12 Australia 2.3 to be members; but would they be 13 Republic of Korea 2.0 effective as Council members? 14 Netherlands 1.4 15 Mexico 1.4 16 Saudi Arabia 1.1 17 Switzerland 1.1 18 Turkey 1.0 Source: www.un.org 2018-19

90 Contemporary World Politics STEPS members of the developing world? Even here, there are difficulties. The Divide the class into six groups. Each group is to developing world consists of follow one of the six criteria (or more if there are countries at many different levels more suggestions) listed here for permanent of development. What about membership of the UN Security Council. culture? Should different cultures Each group is to make its own list of the or ‘civilisations’ be given permanent members based on its given representation in a more balanced criterion (e.g. the group working on the way? How does one divide the ‘population’ criterion will find out the which are world by civilisations or cultures five most populous countries). given that nations have so many Each group can make a presentation of their cultural streams within their recommended list and reasons why their borders? criterion should be accepted. A related issue was to change Ideas for the Teacher the nature of membership Allow the students to opt for the group whose criterion they altogether. Some insisted, for themselves favour. instance, that the veto power of Compare all the lists and see how many names are the five permanent members be common and how often India features. abolished. Many perceived the Keep some time for an open ended discussion on which veto to be in conflict with the criterion should be adopted. concept of democracy and sovereign equality in the UN and Furthermore, how was the thought that the veto was no matter of representation to be longer right or relevant. resolved? Did equitable representation in geographical In the Security Council, there terms mean that there should be are five permanent members and one seat each from Asia, Africa, ten non-permanent members. The and Latin America and the Charter gave the permanent Caribbean? Should the members a privileged position to representation, on the other hand, bring about stability in the world be by regions or sub-regions after the Second World War. The (rather than continents)? Why main privileges of the five should the issue of equitable permanent members are representation be decided by permanency and the veto power. geography? Why not by levels of The non-permanent members economic development? Why not, serve for only two years at a time in other words, give more seats to and give way after that period to newly elected members. A country cannot be re-elected immediately after completing a term of two years. The non-permanent members are elected in a manner so that they represent all continents of the world. 2018-19