TEACHING WITH THE BRAIN IN MIND Edition ( PDFDrive )

["92 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Who is paying attention to the findings on and bounced off a series of baffles to provide soft, school design and learning? Are the decision mak- evenly distributed daylight throughout the facility. ers getting it? According to Scott Midler of SHW Group Architects in Dallas, Texas, Ecology. Many schools include ecology in their curriculum, but the school itself is commonly More and more research is emerging that an ecological disaster. Why not model ways to links building condition to student achieve- effectively deal with the energy crisis? This is an ment. . . . Educators are under enormous area of knowledge sure to profoundly affect the pressure to be frugal in their spending work and lives of the next generation. Students can . . . . Unfortunately it\u2019s short-term cost-cut- learn how to conserve electricity and manage it ting when they could design the environ- wisely, how to improve the environment, and how ment to improve learning and amortize the to sustain the earth for future generations. costs over the life of the building. (S. Midler, personal communication, January 22, 2004) Temperature, humidity, and ventilation. Issues include providing flexibility and individual classroom SHW Group Architects is a firm specializing control so that teachers can maintain the appropri- in sustainable and brain-friendly learning environ- ate comfort levels. Heating and cooling mecha- ments. Along with other innovators, the firm now nisms should also be simple to operate and quiet. designs schools with the whole community in mind, including such elements as safety, cognition, Learning spaces. In the well-designed school, curiosity, economics, mood, attendance, ecology, traditional classrooms give way to multipurpose and social factors. In fact, the award-winning \u201clearning studios\u201d or \u201czones\u201d\u2014places where children SHW Group is nationally recognized for outstand- can engage in specialized, task-specific activities ing contributions to the design profession and has together. \u201cLearning streets,\u201d atrium entranceways, been named one of the top 20 design firms nation- and sitting areas replace nondescript, narrow corri- wide. Here is an overview of what the top design dors. Wider hallways without lockers reduce bully- firms are now incorporating into school designs. ing, running, and discipline problems. Shorter, more socially compatible cubbyholes replace the Acoustics. Building a sound system into the standard maze of uniform lockers. A supervised school from the start is much less costly than doing atrium lobby allows students to de-stress and write, it later. There are no walls to tear down, and any draw, or reflect in creative ways. wiring can be hidden. In addition, walls can be set at better angles, and carpeting can be used to reduce Optimal views. It\u2019s not just windows and suffi- sound reverberation. Such factors are more than cient lighting that can improve learning. The view just functional; they raise or lower stress levels. also makes a difference! With more than 50 mea- sured variables in school environments, from pets Daytime lighting. The trend is toward more to moldy air and carpeting, you\u2019d think having a natural lighting and better use of skylights. New view would rate low. But it doesn\u2019t. Students do vertical solar monitors can scoop up the natural better when they have a calming, distant view of light and provide 100 percent of daily classroom vegetation, as opposed to a close-up view of people light. The sunlight is drawn into the light monitor walking by (Heschong Mahone Group, 2003).","Physical Environments for Learning 93 School size. Smaller overall facilities create a materials, and incorporating the school\u2019s design psychologically and emotionally better environ- into the academic program. The slightly higher ment for growth. They are both ecologically sound initial cost is offset by lower maintenance costs and easier to integrate with the community. It is over the long haul. An example of this new breed now possible to build and operate small campuses of \u201cbrain-smart\u201d schools is Roy Lee Walker Ele- for 300 to 700 students for the same cost per stu- mentary in McKinney Independent School Dis- dent as schools that accommodate 500 to 1,400 trict in North Texas, a facility built as one of the students. If you can\u2019t do that, subdivide your nation\u2019s first \u201chigh-performance\u201d schools. Designed school into smaller ones. To save space, students in 2000 by the SHW Group, this school combines older than 16 could spend part of their time out- what\u2019s best for safety, aesthetics, function, and side the classroom, involved in community service cognition. and school-to-work programs. Summary Although smaller is better in overall school size, students need adequate \u201celbow room\u201d in class- Environments do matter! If new schools are being rooms and other learning spaces. Research from planned in your district, build alliances with key the School Design Lab in Georgia suggests that decision makers and design firms that are well elementary schools with less than 100 square feet versed in the research on the effects of school per student have lower overall scores on the Iowa design, learning, stress, and cognition. Be Tests of Basic Skills (Zernike, 2001). proactive. Do what you can with what you have. If the only things you can modify are lighting, Staff areas. Teachers and staff need comfortable noise levels, and seating, begin there. Sometimes spaces where they can get away from the hustle and businesses are willing to pitch in and provide bustle to think, relax, plan, and reflect. Smart materials, supplies, or financial support for schools provide at least three places where teachers school- or classroom-improvement projects. If can get support: (1) a quiet reflective spot for power you don\u2019t have the funding, consider a partner- naps; (2) a learning center, library, or staff media ship with a local corporation. Could the Home center; and (3) a de-stressing area with a treadmill Depot sponsor a new vocational wing? Could and a floor mat for stretching. Most businesses have Microsoft support a new block of rooms? Any- an employee lounge, and many provide facilities that thing is possible once you set a goal and develop nurture good health and well-being. Teachers, on the attitude and the team to reach it. the other hand, despite having one of the most stressful jobs in our society, are lucky to have one For students to learn, grow, behave, and perform small, crowded staff lounge per school. optimally, a smartly designed, high-performance envi- ronment is necessary. Take charge; do your best to Major components of a sustainable school support your students in being their best by include protecting the environment, channeling orchestrating powerful learning environments. daylight into classrooms to minimize the use of artificial light, using recycled products and","7 Managing the Key Concepts Social Brain Q How social interaction Humans are essentially social beings, affects the brain and and school is a complex social expe- cognition rience. It\u2019s true that in some classes, you\u2019ll see students sitting quietly in rows, Q The effect of stress, working independently with little or no social bonding, bias, and peer contact. As an occasional strategy, this kind of pressure independent learning makes sense. But what about our social brain? As we know, humans Q How to make school a act very differently in social settings than they more positive social do individually. Now emerging evidence tells experience us those social experiences literally change the human brain. In fact, an entire new discipline has developed called social neuroscience. It\u2019s the study of brains in a social environment. Neuroscientists Stephen Quartz and Terry Sejnowski neatly summarize the interdepen- dent nature of the brain and society: \u201cCulture helps to shape your brain, which in turn cre- ates culture, which acts again on the brain . . .\u201d (2002, p. 59). Significant social experiences take place in the classroom and the school, and we now know that students\u2019 brains will be altered by those expe- riences. To ignore the social influence on student brains is irresponsible. We must understand 94","Managing the Social Brain 95 and take responsibility for the ways we are shaping brain. And the influences are not random, isolated, brains in the social environment of schools. or piecemeal. Environmental events at one level of an organism (chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, sys- Student brains spend approximately 13,000 tem, behavioral, social, and so on) can profoundly hours in the social environment of schools. Wouldn\u2019t influence events at other levels (Cacioppo et al., you want to know\u2014if it was your child\u2014how that 2001). For this reason, it makes sense to consider environment is changing his or her brain? How the connection between school social climates and might schools change the brain for the worse? the people within the schools. Schools are social What could the most recent brain research lead us places; as a result, they change students\u2019 brains. to do better or differently? This chapter considers what happens to learners in the social context that It\u2019s a profound paradigm shift to suggest that is relevant to educators and policymakers. We\u2019ll the social environment of school is actually shaping focus on three major themes: students\u2019 physical brains. Data from multiple sources (social and behavioral studies using both \u2022 How social experiences affect the brain. physical data and functional neuroimaging) indi- \u2022 The complex nature of the \u201csocial brain.\u201d cate that the development and influence of the \u2022 How to enhance the social experience of social cognitive brain is not limited to just one school. area. The areas of the brain active in processing social events (the visual system, frontal lobes, sen- How Social Experience sory cortex, and emotional pathways) often process Affects the Brain cognitive events as well (Frith & Frith, 1999). Their \u201cdouble duty\u201d nature helps explain why We\u2019ve all used the phrase \u201cpeople smarts\u201d to refer social events so strongly influence cognitive events. to social skills. Social cognition is the processing of information that leads to the accurate process- It\u2019s becoming clear that social contact affects ing of the dispositions and intentions of others human physiology in a number of remarkable (Brothers, 2000). It appears to have a plausible ways. Researchers have found stunning evidence of evolutionary basis, to be operationally distinct social influence on genetic expression (Suomi, from other types of knowledge, to have a devel- 1999) and hints of change through genetic consti- opmental pathway, and to have inborn selective tution (Wilson & Grim, 1991). Evidence suggests absences (which show up in disorders such as that an increase in social support lowers blood autism at the lower end of the social skill spec- pressure in hypertensive subjects (Uchino, trum and Williams syndrome at the higher end). Cacioppo, & Kiecolt-Glaser, 1996). We\u2019ve learned These are some of the key premises for Howard that social contact improves or hurts immune Gardner\u2019s identification of social skills as one of activity (Padgett, MacCallum, & Sheridan, 1998) the eight intelligences (1995). and that social stress weakens immune systems (Padgett & Sheridan, 2002). Researchers have Social neuroscience has revealed an astonishing found that social isolation is just as devastating a array of influences that social contact has on the health risk factor as is smoking or high blood","96 Teaching with the Brain in Mind pressure (House, Landis, & Umberson, 1988) and The Complex Nature of that social stress early in life can lead to lasting the Social Brain changes in the stress\u2013response system (Rojas, Padgett, Sheridan, & Marucha, 2002). And Yeh An important characteristic of healthy, social and colleagues (1996) found that social status humans is their capacity and desire to detect the modified levels of serotonin in the brain, which is features of mental lives, both their own and oth- highly implicated in attention, memory, aggres- ers\u2019. We want to know what we are thinking and sion, and the growth of neurons (see Figure 7.1). feeling, and what everybody else is thinking and feeling too. When this feature is diminished, as is Figure 7.1 the case with autism, social skills are undermined. How Social Contact Affects In short, a complex set of anatomical structures the Brain and Body and chemicals mediate both social skills and cog- nition (see Figure 7.2). Social contact in\ufb02uences \u2022 Stress levels What can we expect of our developing social \u2022 Heart rate brain? How does it respond to small or large social \u2022 Chemical levels gatherings? How is our behavior when we are in a \u2022 Blood pressure social setting different from our behavior when we are alone? Are there gender differences in the social brain? These are the kinds of questions we need to explore. These in turn Cognition can in\ufb02uence \u2022 Hormones The extent to which social conditions can \u2022 Immune system influence cognition cannot be overestimated. Some \u2022 Behaviors of the key factors to consider within the learning \u2022 Gene expression environment are peer pressure, acceptance, disap- proval and reinforcement, and the role of emotions in decision making. Solid evidence supports the notion that working cooperatively can enhance learning. Cooperative work has helped civilizations survive for thousands of years, and it works in the classroom, too. The most important elements in good cooperative learn- ing structures, according to Johnson and Johnson (1999), the leaders in the field, are the following: \u2022 Face-to-face interactions that promote the group (smiling, helping, reinforcing).","Managing the Social Brain 97 \u2022 Positive interdependence (the idea that we group. Second, smaller groups of three to four per- are all in this together and must help each other). form better than larger or smaller ones (Lou et al., 1996). Finally, relying too exclusively on social \u2022 Both group and individual accountability grouping may create excessive familiarity or (the belief that personal and group achievement dependence, not independent skills. Ideally, stu- goals matter). dents should spend 5 to 20 percent of class time in social groupings, and grouping should be used pur- \u2022 Small-group and interpersonal skills like listen- posefully and strategically. These principles also ing, decision making, trust, and conflict resolution. apply to various kinds of informal groups, such as pairs and impromptu groups. \u2022 Metaprocessing skills (the ability to reflect on whole-group effectiveness and to improve As we learned in Chapter 4, social play also has functionality). a role in the classroom. Studies have shown that such play can help in the development of quick- Note that many of these require social thinking skills (Dugatkin, 2002). Quick, active skills\u2014and that\u2019s the point! Without social cog- play enhances the ability to handle unexpected nition either already in place or being developed events and regulate stress; fosters quick planning, by the group interactions, the cooperative pro- decision-making, and evaluative judgments; boosts cess is impaired. Yet social cognitive skills are creativity; forges social bonds; and introduces emo- not universal. The prefrontal cortex, the area of tional intelligence and codes of conduct. the brain that is critical for sophisticated social cognition, matures slowly and often does not Figure 7.2 reach complete maturity until we are well into Social Brain Regulators our teens and 20s (Durston et al., 2001). This means that students are not even close to being Orbitofrontal area of Corpus callosum born with social skills\u2014it\u2019s something they have the frontal lobe (integrates left and to be taught. (integrates emotion right hemispheres) and cognition) To help students develop social cognitive skills, Occipital it makes sense to allow them to spend some part of Amygdala cortex their learning time in groups. Options for group- (responds to fear (responds ing include pair-share, competitions, simulations, and uncertainty) to social cooperative groups, and unstructured social time cues) for discussions. Raphe nuclei Hypothalamus and (produces a key social pituitary gland Social grouping comes with many caveats. chemical, serotonin) (responds to stress) First, most students do better when they are in groups with others who share their same approxi- mate academic readiness level. Although low- ability students gain more from being in groups of higher ability, medium-ability students gain the most in a medium-ability group, and high-ability groups gain a small amount in a high-ability","98 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Social Stress established social groups (Lyons & Levine, 1994). We also know that the loss or absence of a valued Stress plays a role in many social interactions, social companion is a robust risk factor for depres- including so-called \u201cflocking\u201d behaviors in which sion (Billings, Cronkite, & Moos, 1983). The adolescents or teens form groups for social com- increased risk of depression and suicide among fort, camaraderie, or protection. At school, we see teens makes obvious their need for more guidance, specific examples of the social brain acting under camaraderie, and support. These findings all rein- stress, and many of the behaviors show gender dif- force the importance of social bonding with peers ferences. For example, females are more likely to and others. mobilize social support under stress than males are; females report more sources of social support than Social Bias males do. This lack of social support can put males at greater risk for suicide. Males are more likely to Racial differences can be a serious social issue. affiliate with groups of people with similar status One of the more interesting studies on race or power; females are more likely to affiliate by focused on the question of built-in racial bias. friendships or task needs (Baumeister & Sommer, Adolphs (1998) found that some students experi- 1997). And animal studies suggest that position ence discomfort around members of a race other within a social group may influence brain chemis- than their own. This typically happens when stu- try, which, in turn, affects behavior. In one study dents have had few or no multicultural experiences involving primates, monkeys that rose to top of the or friendships during their upbringing. Is the brain social hierarchy showed increased levels of dopa- biased against other races? No, racism is learned. mine (Czoty, Morgan, Shannon, Gage, & Nader, But wariness about \u201cdifferent\u201d others is built in. 2004), the \u201cnatural high\u201d brain chemical. It does How you treat another after the initial wariness is feel good to be right, to win, to come out on top. the learned behavior. The anticipation of that \u201chigh\u201d is partly what pushes students to do an activity. Racial bias has absolutely no biological basis, but our brain does respond in a negative way to Social Bonding those different from ourselves if we have not been desensitized to those differences. As we learned ear- Preening is a common manifestation of the lier, the amygdala is the brain\u2019s \u201cuncertainty activa- social brain. Students spend time grooming, pos- tor.\u201d When we don\u2019t understand what is happening ing, applying makeup\u2014all in preparation for social or we detect any uncertainty, this structure initiates contact and bonding. Choices they make at school either a fear or a stress response. Studies show that to join a group, pair up, form teams, or leave oth- the response is indirect and implicit. The subjects ers alone can have profound implications. In ani- claim no explicit bias, but various measures show a mal studies, separation from peers caused cortisol clear negative response (Phelps et al., 2000). These levels for both males and females to rise 18 to 87 studies, along with others, show that we often percent higher than for those housed with friendly, choose friends on a subconscious basis (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).","Managing the Social Brain 99 Peer Pressure We have learned from neuroimaging that certain social impairments often involve the amygdala, the Although the young brain\u2019s priorities are system deep in the temporal lobes of the brain that is focused more on pleasing others, developing self- critical to emotional processing (Bechara et al., 2003). concept, and making friends, things change some- The brains of people whose social skill deficits are what with age. Adolescent and teen students are associated with fetal alcohol syndrome, genetic dis- more interested in peer approval, autonomy, and orders, or traumatic brain injury are more likely to discovery. These tendencies can be either a night- show compromised function in the orbitofrontal mare for a school or a delight, depending on how lobes, the area linked to self-expression, problem well they are managed. For example, many teens solving, willpower, and planning. will not exercise unless their friends do (Winters, Petosa, & Charlton, 2003). Because social influ- When specific areas of the brain are damaged, ence is a significant factor in an adolescent\u2019s deci- social skills fail. A classic example is the story of sion to exercise, policymaking might focus on Phineas Gage, a 19th-century railroad worker who making previously unpopular activities (for exam- suffered a terrible accident. A 13-pound tamping ple, high academic achievement or exercise) a iron more than three feet long exploded and flew group activity or a \u201ccool\u201d thing to do with peers. like a missile through Gage\u2019s left cheek. The metal pierced his frontal lobes and exited his head, land- Although some educators complain that school- ing a hundred feet away. Miraculously, Gage lived, age kids are too social, many other, more perceptive but his personality was never the same and his educators are taking advantage of this reality social skills were ruined (Damasio, 1994). through the smart use of cooperative learning in the elementary classroom and the use of teams in the Enhancing the Social secondary classroom. It just makes sense to engage Experience of School and structure social forces to help shape student behavior in a positive way instead of complaining Social contact has significant and broad-based that the social forces are out of control. effects. Because students spend so many hours of their lives in school, we must consider what we\u2019re Social Difficulties doing to their brains during that time. Socially, we are influencing them a great deal. If we believe that Research suggests that more than 10 percent of school is about the \u201cwhole person,\u201d then the social students may suffer some social impairment (Cice- side is worth understanding and addressing. rone & Tanenbaum, 1997; Rilling et al., 2002). Sometimes social difficulty is a result of an \u201cemo- Practical Suggestions tionally poor\u201d upbringing\u2014one characterized by neglect, abuse, or a lack of proper emotional model- There are many practical ways to apply ing. Sometimes it has genetic causes or is the result research findings related to the social brain. of congenital factors, such as fetal alcohol syndrome. Sometimes, as with autism and Asperger\u2019s syn- drome, there is a less clear-cut biological origin.","100 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Information gathering. For starters, educators are strong (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Research on can do a better job in gathering information about students engaged in cooperative learning suggests that students\u2019 social preferences. How much time do they achieve better learning when compared with students want to spend alone, how much time in students competing against each other individually pairs, and how much time in groups or teams? To (Walberg, 1999). Teams can work well, too\u2014and are find out, simply ask them. Then watch and listen properly deployed for focused, goal-oriented work on for changes in their preferences over time. Once a specific project (as contrasted with cooperative you have a sense of what they prefer, you can plan group learning, which is a more open-ended, long- accordingly. But don\u2019t forget, variety is always a term arrangement). The bottom line is this: social- good strategy. bonding structures like either of these are important and valuable. Quick social grouping. Much of the social time students need can occur in informal group- Social skills instruction. Most elementary ings. Ask students to stand up, walk 10 steps, and teachers invest time in developing students\u2019 social find a partner. Students can then pair-share or skills, but the practice is far less common in middle interview each other, test a hypothesis, or review and high school. When blended into the curricu- prior learning. They can switch from one pair to lum, teaching social skills takes little extra time. another to \u201cjigsaw\u201d their learning. Ask them to And you may get a significant payoff in terms of find a partner outside of class\u2014perhaps a parent, efficiency: fewer disruptions, more camaraderie, a school employee, or a friend with whom they and better overall feelings about the learning. can discuss their classwork. Another option is to incorporate simple social greetings in class with Summary the use of \u201cturn-to\u2019s.\u201d When appropriate, you say, \u201cTurn to your neighbor and say, \u2018Good morn- The social experience is a brain-changing experi- ing.\u2019\u201d Or \u201cTurn to your neighbor and say, ence, and it can be either positive or negative, \u2018Good job!\u2019\u201d depending to a large degree on how schools and teachers orchestrate it. Classrooms that feature A balance of social and individual events. too little social contact between students raise Mandated social events such as assemblies and long-term concerns, especially when you consider team activities should be a part of school life; how- the clear evidence that face-to-face contact is a ever, it\u2019s important to balance these with time positive and powerful force in increasing coopera- spent on individual work. The goal is a good mid- tion (Dawes, McTavish, & Shaklee, 1977). dle ground between social and individual experi- ences. To a certain extent, student choice should The negative effect of social isolation suggests play a role, allowing individuals to go with their troubling implications for two growing areas of strengths and decide which mode will work best education: online schooling (increasingly attractive for them. to school systems looking to cut costs) and home schooling. Although both approaches have many Cooperative learning. When done well, coop- virtues, one cannot help but wonder about erative learning does teach social skills and its effects","Managing the Social Brain 101 important questions: What kind of social skills will expected to work in a social world? We have, at these students have? What kind of world will we this time, more questions than answers. But the live in if millions of young children are raised in implications are sobering in a world that seems to child care centers, educated online, and then have all too little cooperation as it is.","8 Motivation and Key Concepts Engagement Q Common causes of Is she or isn\u2019t she? Is he or isn\u2019t he? Within demotivation the first few days of meeting a student, teachers often want an answer to the com- Q The brain\u2019s reaction to pelling question: Is this student intrinsically rewards motivated or not? And, if the student is not motivated, what approach should be taken to Q The nature of intrinsic change this? motivation Researchers often refer to motivation as Q Tools for motivation \u201carousal\u201d and \u201cdrive.\u201d Arousal suggests orienta- Q The SuperCamp model tion toward a goal, and drive is caring enough to do something about achieving the goal. Another way to think of motivation is that it consists of the willingness to be active (voli- tion) combined with the actual behavior (meaningful participation). It\u2019s common knowledge that different students will have varying levels of these two motivational forces. But does our new understanding of the brain tell us anything about learner motivation? Is there really such a thing as an unmotivated learner? Why are some learners intrinsically motivated? And what does brain research tell us about using rewards? These are some of the questions we explore in this chapter. Here are the three main topics: 102","Motivation and Engagement 103 \u2022 Common sources of demotivation. \u2022 Learned helplessness. This attitude is more \u2022 Rewards and the brain\u2014good or bad? common in middle and high school students than \u2022 Ways to motivate and engage students. in elementary school students. Clearly, motivation is an issue for many teach- \u2022 Awareness of disrespect toward one\u2019s culture or ers. The story is the same, whether middle school ethnicity. Every culture carries a language, a set of teachers or college professors tell it: \u201cToday\u2019s stu- values, a set of learning styles, and a work ethic. dents just aren\u2019t as motivated as I was when I was in school.\u201d First, remember you are the person who \u2022 Perception of threats. These threats may be survived and made it through school, so you\u2019re not real or imagined, and may be related to something exactly part of a random population sample. Sec- going on during the commute to school, in the ond, many students who do not appear to be hallways, or in the classroom. highly motivated in school turn out to do well in life. Finally, there is plenty that you can do to \u2022 Brain anomalies. Abnormal brain function reduce the problem of low student motivation, can result in delayed development, dyslexia, emo- which leads us to the theme for the chapter: You tional distress, or attention deficits. have far more influence over the volition and engage- ment of your students than you may realize. \u2022 Drug use. Marijuana use is strongly demo- tivating; chronic alcohol use reduces motivation, as Common Sources of Demotivation do many over-the-counter medications. The causes of reduced student motivation are vir- \u2022 Perception that class assignments or tasks are tually unlimited. They vary by student population, irrelevant. Why work hard when what you\u2019re work- by time of year, and even by income level. In many ing on doesn\u2019t seem to matter? ways, it would be productive to flush out all the potential causes at your school and eliminate them. The list is varied and interesting for a good Realistically, you can learn a lot just by talking to reason: differences in the brain, which commonly your students to find out what holds them back. result in differences in behavior. And remember Their reasons may be very different from what you that it goes the other way, too: differences in think. Without some careful homework on your behavior usually lead to differences in the brain, part, you might end up investing resources to solve which is why there are many \u201cright\u201d ways to moti- a nonexistent problem. vate students. The brain is changed for the better by good parenting, tutoring, good friends, smart Although causes of demotivation will vary from nutrition, healthy habits, perceptive teachers, or one student to another, certain causes are fairly uni- even drugs prescribed to treat a problem. The best versal. Here are some of the more common ones: and most lasting way to motivate students involves creating long-term internal motivation through \u2022 Lack of positive relationships. A negative rela- good parenting and through effective schooling tionship with the teacher or even the lack of a best that offers meaningful choices and appropriate cur- friend can be demotivating. riculum. (See Chapter 12 for more about this kind of schooling.) Here, I want to focus on two other ways to motivate and engage learners, both of","104 Teaching with the Brain in Mind which use instructional strategies to get the job on simple tasks, and some evidence supports the done. The first is the simplest form of motivation: targeted use of rewards for short-term tasks. using direct rewards. Rewards can temporarily stimulate simple physical responses; however, more complex behaviors are Rewards and the Brain: Good or Bad? usually impaired, not helped, by rewards (Kohn, 1993). So if you think giving rewards will help Teachers often use rewards as a motivational develop great minds, you\u2019re likely to be disap- strategy. Rewards seem harmless and are often pointed. Here\u2019s what one great mind, physicist and effective, which leads us to an important ques- Nobel laureate Richard Feynman (1999), has to tion: Are rewards good for the brain? say about rewards: Biologically, human brains are designed to pre- I don\u2019t see that it makes any point that dict, process, enjoy, and remember rewards. This someone in the Swedish Academy decides process has enormous survival value; consider that this work is noble enough to receive a behaviors related, for example, to such factors as prize\u2014I\u2019ve already got the prize. The prize food, safety, attracting a mate, and sex. When we is the pleasure of finding the thing out, the think of rewards, we usually think about the posi- kick in the discovery. (p. 12) tive functions they serve. For example, rewards can The brain makes its own rewards. They are \u2022 Induce pleasure. called opiates, and they can produce a natural high \u2022 Increase the frequency of goal-seeking similar to that produced by morphine, alcohol, behaviors. nicotine, heroin, and cocaine. It probably does not \u2022 Maintain learned behaviors. matter to the brain whether the reward is concrete\u2014 \u2022 Increase social behaviors. like money or objects of value\u2014or more cogni- \u2022 Reinforce existing learning. tive\u2014like privilege, status, recognition, attention, \u2022 Increase the success rate of new learning. security, or fame. Working like a thermostat or a personal trainer, the brain\u2019s reward system ordi- The brain\u2019s pathways for rewards are complex narily doles out good feelings on a daily basis, because they involve the tasks of prediction, detec- which suggests that the brain has a built-in bias to tion, goal orientation, planning, pleasure, expecta- experience pleasurable causes and effects. But tions, and memory (see Figure 8.1). The brain rewards are not as simple as a yes\u2013no question. It areas engaged include the hypothalamus, the turns out that the brain may have different types of orbitofrontal cortex, the prefrontal cortex, the reward signal systems (Fiorillo, Tobler, & Schultz, amygdala, and other midbrain structures (Schultz, 2003). One of the systems includes codes for 2000). Keep in mind that there\u2019s an enormous dif- reward prediction, and the other, for error correc- ference in how the human brain responds to tion. The first system creates attentiveness (more if rewards for different kinds of accomplishments. the reinforcer is random), and the second creates Most brain-related research on rewards has focused better learning.","Motivation and Engagement 105 Figure 8.1 \u201cPleasure prediction of pleasure as by the pleasure itself The Biology of Rewards pathway\u201d (Berridge & Robinson, 2002). Nucleus Another problem, biologically speaking, is that accubens the brain quickly habituates to rewards (Koob & LeMoal, 2001). Remember, we have an adaptive Ventural brain, a dynamic brain that changes in response to tegmental the environment, which means that what worked area at one time may not work for long. We can quickly The \u201cpleasure pathway\u201d includes key structures that produce move from being satisfied with a dollar to wanting and distribute dopamine, the specific neurotransmitter that 10 dollars for the same task. In other words, induces pleasure. rewards change the brain very rapidly, and what worked well before ceases to work (Koob & The reward\u2013prediction system takes on the job LeMoal, 1997). How does this relate to school? of predicting upcoming pleasure. The prediction of In 1st grade, a gold sticker may be a perfect a pleasurable outcome is enough to activate the reward. By 3rd grade, the child wants a cookie, pleasure network (Tremblay & Schultz, 2000), and by 5th grade, only a pizza will do. (Note the producing a burst of dopamine, the brain\u2019s reward escalation in value.) By 8th grade, pizzas are not neurotransmitter. Although you get pleasure from quite so great, and the guys want a skateboard, the anticipation of reward, your brain really goes PlayStation, Xbox, or Nintendo. By 11th grade, crazy when the reward comes as a surprise, trigger- the girls want jewelry or a new car. Stickers have ing a blissful release of dopamine. With this new- long since left the equation. found pleasure, the brain then stores the reward condition as part of the memory, and reward\u2013 And, finally, what one student finds reward- prediction may begin for next time. The catch is ing may not be rewarding to another. Most teach- that although learners improve when they\u2019ve ers have learned that two different students will received an initial reward, over time, the perfor- react to the same external reward in different mance of many of them will actually drop as their ways. The degree of pleasure that various students actions are being rewarded. This pattern bears out take in a reward is linked to the uniqueness of research that dopamine is activated as much by the their brains, which makes rewards \u201cunequal\u201d from the start. A significant genetic susceptibility runs through the reward system, meaning that if you want to reward everyone fairly, all rewards must be individualized. In short, rewards are not with- out their down side. Where do these findings leave us in understanding the role of rewards? Perhaps we can conclude that rewards should be described in terms of \u201cbetter\u201d and \u201cworse\u201d instead of \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad.\u201d","106 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Practical Suggestions become responsible for the outcome of their choices. Be sure to celebrate successes. After all this, if you still want to use rewards for motivation in your classroom, here are some \u2022 Step up the abstract rewards. These kinds of suggestions to keep in mind: rewards include the acknowledgments and celebra- tions mentioned earlier (smiles, certificates, thank- \u2022 Use rewards judiciously. Consider using rewards you notes, games, fun activities, and privileges). only for special populations, for short lengths of time, and for specific reasons. Remember, many A useful guideline is that inappropriate (or students\u2019 performance will drop with the repeated \u201cworse\u201d) rewards have two elements: predictability use of rewards over time (Berridge & Robinson, and market value. Let\u2019s say that your class puts on a 2002). It\u2019s the anticipation of pleasure that creates play for the school and parents once a year. At the most of the good effects of rewards, not the end of the play, the audience offers a standing ova- reward itself. tion. The kids come off stage, and you proudly announce that you\u2019re taking everyone out for pizza. \u2022 Use low-cost, concrete rewards. Choose eco- Is that a reward? No, it\u2019s a celebration. Had you nomical items that are easy to give (such as tokens, said to the students right before the opening cur- M&Ms, and raisins), and plan to stop giving them tain, \u201cDo well and you\u2019ll all get pizza,\u201d it would after several weeks. Otherwise, your students will have been an inappropriate reward. habituate to them, and you\u2019ll lose the effect. Get as much mileage as possible from the anticipation of The predictability issue is legitimate because it a reward by reminding students how and when becomes a racket over time. Students often begin they will get it. to feel a sense of loss when they don\u2019t get a reward. Research suggests the absence of an expected \u2022 Use abstract rewards. Rewards in the form of reward is often interpreted as a kind of punishment acknowledgments (certificates, thank-you notes, (Schultz, Dayan, & Montague, 2002). Pizza, compliments) or celebrations with no monetary candy, stickers, and certificates all have market value (games, fun activities, privileges) are an effec- value. Research suggests that students will want tive alternative, especially when used unpredictably them each time the behavior is required, they\u2019ll for task reinforcement. Rewards may seem to work want an increasingly valuable reward, and rewards in the short run, but, as you now know, over the will provide little or no lasting pleasure. long haul they can be demotivating (Kohn, 1993). Activating Intrinsic Motivation If you want to stop using rewards, keep in mind these suggestions: Rewards may seem like a heck of a lot of work. Maybe you\u2019d just rather activate a student\u2019s natu- \u2022 Avoid going \u201ccold turkey.\u201d Don\u2019t dramatically ral curiosity to learn. Making content more rele- stop giving rewards; phase them out gradually. vant by linking it to students\u2019 lives is always smart. There\u2019s no sense in the brain\u2019s making new \u2022 Begin to develop intrinsic motivation. Allow students to make decisions, and let them learn to","Motivation and Engagement 107 connections if the task is already known well. But \u2022 Allow more time for the \u201cflow\u201d state, when the task has to be behaviorally relevant to the learners are so engrossed in their learning that they learner (Ahissar et al., 1992), which is why the lose track of time. brain will not adapt to senseless tasks. Be sure to ask learners how they feel about a project up \u2022 Set up apprentice programs. front\u2014they\u2019ll tell you if they think it\u2019s stupid. \u2022 Invite past graduates to share success stories. Their feelings matter a great deal. Maybe a simple alteration in the project would make it worth Alternatives to Rewards doing. As the process proceeds, add feedback and debriefing sessions. You may recall that we discussed emotional states at length in Chapter 5. Another way to Whether you can activate intrinsic motivation understand them is through the lens of motiva- easily or not depends on the student as well as your tion and engagement. Those positive states own skill level. Many factors contribute to motiva- occur when we are in a particular mind-body- tion\u2014only some of which you can control (see feeling state. A major revelation in the history of Figure 8.2). But your skills in orchestrating a good neuroscience was the discovery that all external environment\u2014one with low stress and high chal- behaviors somehow correlate to the brain\u2019s inter- lenge\u2014are critical. For many, intrinsic motivation nal processes. Millions of neurons cooperate to is a state that is a bit difficult to access. There are, however, a few guidelines. Figure 8.2 Sources of Motivation: Three Layers Practical Suggestions Touch Hunger Reading Here are some ways to build students\u2019 intrinsic Thirst motivation. Generic drive bSdobnriupoigivelloteco-sigii\ufb01nniccgaSlexssfmcCopouoroecnntaccttievteie\ufb01tnasxecttstn,i-otinDoinsC,cuoPsmesiefoornrtteaching \u2022 Make sure students have either a process that fuels all model to follow or a strong end goal. arousal states \u2022 Ensure they have the working tools they need. Af\ufb01liation \u2022 Provide plenty of encouragement, but not a direct reward. \u2022 Allow students to exercise choice\u2014for the little things as well as the big things. \u2022 Role-model the joy of learning. \u2022 Provide a variety of relevant experiences. \u2022 Ensure that the content has high relevance. \u2022 Allow students to be part of a successful team. \u2022 Increase feedback to the learners.","108 Teaching with the Brain in Mind form complex, weblike signaling systems that to both the internal and external environment. It represent the behaviors we call \u201cstates.\u201d This makes sense to describe states as \u201cemergent proper- causation is similar to the way in which wind, ties\u201d of our self-organizing brains because they are sunshine, and moisture collectively form the always in a state of flux (Grigsby & Stevens, 2000). complex atmospheric patterns we call \u201cweather.\u201d Even though you may experience your own state as States create \u201cweather\u201d conditions in our brains stable at any particular moment, it is always in the at every moment. You\u2019ve probably observed that process of strengthening, diminishing, or changing we all go through changes of states (unless we\u2019re to another state. In fact, the majority of our states in a coma). States change as our sensations (such are more like background moods, occupying sec- as hunger, fatigue, itchiness), feelings (such as ondary positions we are hardly conscious of. None- guilt, happiness, worry), and thoughts (such as theless, they are noticeable when we are able to optimism, gullibility, focus) combine and stop, listen, and feel for them. recombine simultaneously. But states are not intangible, as we once thought; instead, they are Now to the practical side. What does all this highly quantifiable, very real, and definitely cog- have to do with motivation and engagement? It has nitive (Damasio, 1994). everything to do with it. All behaviors you want from students come from a pool of potential states. Now, what do states have to do with motiva- If I am being threatened with a gun, my life is in tion and engagement? For one, states combine our emotional, cognitive, and physical interactions to Figure 8.3 allow us to make all our decisions. Evoking specific Brain States emotional states allows learners more freedom, not less, to make new discoveries. Once you learn to Our behaviors are limited by evoke a greater variety of learner states, you will the mind\u2013body state we\u2019re in. begin to uncouple the learner\u2019s rigidity. You\u2019ll open up enormous flexibility because you will have One \u201cpool\u201d contains A different \u201cpool\u201d contains artificially decoupled the stereotyped set of behav- only our sillier, more wild only our more serious, iors to which unmotivated students have become intellectual, thoughtful accustomed. These states are frequently activated, and crazy behaviors. behaviors. fast-changing, specific neural networks that typi- cally incorporate multiple areas of the brain. States provide the \u201cpool of choices\u201d Thousands, often millions, of neurons make up from which all behaviors emerge. the integrated combination of mind, body, and feelings that are your states (see Figure 8.3). These systems inside our brains and bodies can- not be separated. Surprisingly, states are moving targets, con- stantly fluctuating because of their high sensitivity","Motivation and Engagement 109 danger. I will not feel very romantic toward my appropriate for the next action (target behavior) I wife in that state. Similarly, in a classroom, a stu- want? If it\u2019s not, you have a potential solution: dent who is in a \u201cYou can\u2019t make me and I don\u2019t Change the state first, and then a change in behavior want to\u201d state is unlikely to participate much. In a is easy. Here\u2019s an example. If you want to ask stu- different state, that same student might be willing dents to do an activity, first put them in an active to participate in class. So now there\u2019s a new objec- state. Have them stretch or walk first, and then ask tive: Get students into the appropriate state first, them to form groups while they are already stand- into a better \u201cpool\u201d of potential behaviors. Then ing. In a standing state, students are more likely to the change of behavior becomes more possible. want to do something else similar to it. This approach suggests a very different take on Over the years, many educators have argued this issue of motivation and engagement\u2014that it\u2019s for the role of additional choice in the learning really an issue of state management (see Figure 8.4). process. Clearly, choice matters more to older stu- How can you, as an educator, read and manage dents than to younger ones, but we all like it. The student states? Reading the states first is critical. If critical feature is choice must be perceived as choice to you see a student in a state of apathy, remember be one. If you get to choose 10 things but not the that he probably started out in another state, such 11th, you might take the first 10 for granted and as frustration. When a teacher does not deal with grumble about the 11th. Many savvy teachers the frustration, the student could either get angry allow students to control aspects of their learning, (enter an alternative state) or disconnect (enter a but they also work to increase students\u2019 perception state of apathy). The point is that it\u2019s easier to of that control. The teacher still quietly chooses make an effort to become aware of states like frus- which decisions are appropriate for the students to tration than to have to deal with anger. Read your control, yet the students feel good that their opin- students\u2019 states constantly. They\u2019ll tell you what\u2019s ions are valued. In other classrooms, students may going on if you pay attention. play a larger role in decision making but still believe that the teacher is choosing for them. The Once you have read the state, you should ask secret? Point out choices whenever you can: \u201cI have yourself a question: Is the state I am seeing an idea! How about if I give you the choice over what to do next? Do you want to do choice A or Figure 8.4 choice B?\u201d Seven Easy Steps for Changing States More Tools for Motivation 1. Choose the target state for your audience. 2. Read present states. Remember, in the ideal states, motivation and 3. Plan your strategy (Who? How? When?) engagement are far easier to achieve than you 4. Create a back-up plan. could ever imagine. If you were going to receive a 5. Set up the state change (\u201cframing\u201d). marriage proposal, certain states might lead you to 6. Begin the change of state. say yes. But in other (nonromantic) states, you 7. Monitor and adjust during the process.","110 Teaching with the Brain in Mind might easily say no. The point is this: States are the states. If students are in a negative state, give them body\u2019s environment for making decisions. If you a topic to talk about that allows them to express think you\u2019re going to get a negative response to the themselves and to direct their focus toward some- next activity you want your students to do, change thing more positive. Music and activities are excel- their state first. Then ask them to do the activity lent ways to influence or change the states of your while they\u2019re in a good state to say yes. students. But so are short walks, good stories, stretching, games, and going outside. In other Practical Suggestions words, use every tool at your disposal to influence student states. Here are some practical ways to change stu- dent states: \u2022 Provide relevant curriculum and coherent activities. Both are absolutely essential to maintain- \u2022 Eliminate threat. Use small-group discus- ing motivation. When students are actively sions or an anonymous class survey to ask students involved in something they care about, motivation what makes school uncomfortable and unpleasant is nearly automatic. Choice can and should be part and what would make learning more potent and of this strategy, too. enjoyable. Some of the likely sources of negativity are threatening comments, \u201cscore-keeping\u201d disci- \u2022 Give feedback. It\u2019s one of the greatest sources pline strategies, sarcasm, unannounced quizzes, a of intrinsic motivation. Set up learning that stu- lack of resources, unforgiving deadlines, and cul- dents can do with built-in, self-managed feedback. tural or language barriers. A computer does this perfectly, but so do well- designed projects, group work, checklists, dramatic \u2022 Set daily goals that incorporate some student presentations, peer editing, and rubrics. choice. This strategy can provide a more focused atti- tude. Prepare students for a topic with \u201cteasers\u201d or SuperCamp: A Motivation and personal stories to prime their interest, which will Engagement Model help ensure that the content is relevant to them. In 1981, two partners and I cofounded SuperCamp \u2022 Work to have a positive influence. Do this in (www.supercamp.com), a 10-day residential aca- every way you can, symbolically and concretely. demic immersion program for students ages 8 to Don\u2019t forget students\u2019 beliefs about themselves and 22 that incorporates many brain-compatible sug- the learning. Exerting a positive influence includes gestions. Many students arrive at the program the use of affirmations, acknowledging student with a history of chronic demotivation. Yet after successes, giving positive nonverbal signals, encour- attending for just 10 days, students typically become aging teamwork, and displaying positive posters. insatiable learners who go on to improve their grades, their school participation, and their self- \u2022 Manage student emotions and teach them to esteem. Many elements of the SuperCamp experi- do it too. A good approach involves the productive ence can be easily transferred to other settings. use of rituals, drama, movement, and celebration. Use positive, structured conversations to manage","Motivation and Engagement 111 The SuperCamp staff creates \u201cemotional include applause when learners contribute, a song bridges\u201d from students\u2019 worlds outside the class- to close or end something, affirmations, discussion, room to the start of learning. To do this in your journal writing, cheers, self-assessment, and ges- classroom, you need to assume (even though it tures. These opportunities to influence the affec- won\u2019t always be true) that your students need tran- tive side of learning make a strong case for longer sition time from their personal lives to their aca- teaching blocks at the secondary level, so that a demic lives and from one teacher to the next. You teacher can practice some of these strategies and never know what happens in the hallways. At the still have adequate time for content. start of class, students could still be reeling from an insult, a breakup with a close friend, a fight, or the The environment created at SuperCamp pro- loss of something valuable. Using dependable vides extensive opportunities for students to get activities that trigger specific, predictable states can personal and academic feedback. Typically, stu- be the perfect way to bridge into learning. Appro- dents get this feedback 10 to 20 times a day priate rituals keep the stress levels low and can even through the purposeful use of sharing time, goal eliminate threat responses. setting, group work, question-and-answer time, observation of others, and journals. Teachers who For example, each morning could start with follow the SuperCamp model and specifically \u201cgetting ready to learn\u201d time. These predictable, safe design their teaching to include dozens of kinds of rituals might include a morning walk with a partner, learner-generated feedback\u2014not one or two\u2014find time with teammates to discuss personal problems, that motivation soars. and a review of the previous day\u2019s learning. Such built-in transitions allow the brain to change to the Summary right chemical state needed for learning. They also allow students to \u201csynchronize\u201d their clocks to the As a whole, the collected research leads us to same learning time. During the day, high levels of understand that part of the motivation problem novelty, movement, and choice will enrich a highly is the way we treat students. They are not factory relevant curriculum. The end of the day can follow workers who need to be prodded, cajoled, and the same routine as the start, almost in reverse. motivated by bribes, management, or threats. Closure rituals help students put the day\u2019s learning Instead of asking, \u201cHow can I motivate stu- in its new cognitive\u2013emotional place. dents?\u201d ask, \u201cIn what ways is the brain naturally motivated from within?\u201d Now you know: You might consider arrival and beginning ritu- Rewards are natural to the brain, and states rule als that include a music fanfare, positive greetings, our motivations and behaviors. Start with mean- special handshakes, hugs, or sharing time. You can ingful, developmentally appropriate curriculum, use certain songs to bring students back from a and add learner choice and positive social group- break and let them know it\u2019s time to start up. ings. Create the challenge, build a supportive (Music sure beats a bell!) Group and organizational environment with compelling biases, and get out rituals also help, such as team names, cheers, ges- of the way! tures, and games. Successful situational rituals","9 Critical Thinking Skills Key Concepts Society in general and schools in particu- Q How gender, culture, lar place a high premium on thinking disorders, and life skills and intelligence. The reasons we experience shape a unique value thinking skills and intelligence are obvi- brain ous, but unfortunately, the path to develop them is not. In brief, thinking is the process; Q How the brain tackles intelligence is the product. (The definition of problem solving intelligence can be debated, but that\u2019s a topic for another book.) We teach thinking skills so Q How the brain\u2019s maturation that learners will make decisions that are more process affects learning intelligent. All of your students can and do think, and they use that facility to solve prob- Q How the brain adapts to lems. What varies, of course, are the complex- changing circumstances ity, novelty, and quantity of that thinking. All cognition is built from lower-order brain systems, including (1) sensory and motor systems, (2) auditory and language systems, (3) attention and executive functions, (4) social and emotional systems, (5) memory systems, and (6) behavioral and reward systems. We\u2019re not born with the \u201csmart\u201d package in place; these systems need to be \u201ccoaxed\u201d into cross- modality or cross-platform functionality to perform at high levels. To clarify how these systems work together, in this chapter, we\u2019ll explore the general brain-based principles that apply in 112","Critical Thinking Skills 113 understanding limitations and opportunities. Then drug exposure, or head trauma may need far we\u2019ll consider the specifics of thinking skills. more repetition, explicit links, and hands-on Although brain research does not tell us precisely learning than a student with a healthier brain. what to do to develop thinking skills, we can They\u2019ll often appreciate pictures that show clear gather some emerging principles that may have relationships between cause and effect that a stu- value for guiding our decision making. Some of dent without brain injury might infer naturally. the brain-based aspects that promote critical think- A healthy student may need only to do some ing of our intelligent brain include Figure 9.1 \u2022 The unique brain. Degrees of Brain Variability \u2022 The problem-solving brain. \u2022 The maturing brain. \u2022 The adaptive brain. \u2022 The emotional brain. The Unique Brain All humans are unique because of both prenatal differences and postnatal experiences. This uniqueness shows up as differences in the brain; although some parts of the brain show little vari- ability from one person to another, other parts may vary considerably (see Figure 9.1). Even the same activity performed by two subjects may show up as very different activations in the cortex (Mills et al., 2000). The differences are attribut- able to many factors, including the following: \u2022 Gender. \u2022 Exposure to abuse or neglect. \u2022 Specific disorders. \u2022 Culture. \u2022 Exposure to drugs, trauma, or toxins. These realities suggest we consider approaches to teaching thinking that include a significant amount of variety and choice. As an example, students with fetal alcohol syndrome, prenatal","114 Teaching with the Brain in Mind reflective thinking or brainstorming to come up there are other, lesser-known, maturational differ- with better-quality choices. ences. For example, in one study of 30 boys and girls (Yurgelun-Todd et al., 2002), researchers used Gender Differences an MRI to track gender differences in cerebral tis- sue volume and both gray and white brain matter Gender is an area of brain differentiation that during adolescence. In the boys, greater white mat- is of considerable interest. For decades, it was polit- ter (more connective axons) was positively corre- ically incorrect to talk of biologically based gender lated with intelligence; information processing was differences. Then several reputable researchers faster and verbal abilities were higher. Surprisingly, began to publish studies that helped flesh out bio- the researchers found no significant correlations logical differences between the genders. Here\u2019s the between cerebral tissue volume and stronger cogni- bottom line: easily quantified, physical differences tive abilities in girls. This finding suggests that a distinguish the brains of males and females. Top slew of other compounding variables may be gender researcher Doreen Kimura asks, \u201cDo sys- clouding our understanding of gender-specific tematic, meaningful, reliable differences exist in the brain differences. It\u2019s plausible that because male problem-solving abilities of men and women? The and female brain development is on such different answer is an unequivocal yes\u201d (2000, p. 69). time trajectories, we need to qualify any data emerging from studies where time is not consid- Nobody with any credibility is denying that ered as a factor. Still, these are the kinds of results males and females are raised differently. And we that make it difficult to speak definitely about gen- also know that differences in experience change the der-based differences in the brain. brain. But the quantity, range, and quality of stud- ies on physical, brain-based differences is stagger- Researchers believe that biological differences ing. Here are just five of the differences between do lead to functional variations in the brain, but males and females that researchers have found: they still don\u2019t know enough to make causal state- ments in this area. For example, in female brains, \u2022 Mean and median brain size varies, even the anterior commissure, a bundle of nerves that when adjusted for body size (Ackney, 1992). functions much like the corpus callosum, is larger than it is in male brains. But can that difference\u2014 \u2022 Developmental schedules vary (Yurgelun- and the greater access it might provide females to Todd, Killgore, & Young, 2002). \u201ccross-hemispheric\u201d (often called intuitive) knowl- edge\u2014really be behind \u201cwomen\u2019s intuition\u201d? No \u2022 Differences exist in cross-hemispheric con- one knows yet. nections (Allen & Gorski, 1991). Here\u2019s some of what we do know about com- \u2022 Functional emotional processing differs petencies and how the genders typically compare. (Killgore et al., 2001). Females recall words better, can label objects quicker, and have better verbal memory and better \u2022 Differences exist in language areas of the verbal fluency. But on overall tests of vocabulary or brain (Shaywitz et al., 1995). Teachers know that 1st grade girls are typically more ready to read than are 1st grade boys. But","Critical Thinking Skills 115 verbal reasoning, females and males show little dif- The Problem-Solving Brain ference. Females are better at remembering land- marks and people than they are at remembering The human brain seems to be designed to solve distances and objects. Males throw and hit targets problems. Usually the more compelling the need, or objects more accurately. They do gross-motor the greater the resources, and the tighter the tasks better and reason out math problems better. In deadline, the greater the likelihood the problem higher-level math competitions, men outnumber will be solved. General problem solving requires women by 10 to 1. Women match pictures and many skills. In addition, specific expertise and letters with better perceptual speed, calculate quan- talent are required to solve the \u201cacademic prob- tities faster, and do fine-motor tasks better. Yes, it lem\u201d (how to survive in school). Some of the seems that males might be generally better hunters, more useful skills have been highlighted in other and females might be better gatherers. popular educational books, such as Classroom Instruction That Works (2001) by Marzano, Practical Suggestions Pickering, and Pollock. Here are some key think- ing skills: Considering all of the differences in a typical classroom, one must be careful when making spe- \u2022 Maintaining focus and attention (managing cific recommendations for a specific population. It personal states). makes more sense to use simple accommodations to support the learning than it does to make \u2022 Having the ability to locate and prioritize wholesale changes based on differences. resources. With this in mind, we can still make some \u2022 Making distinctions in relevance, similari- healthy generalizations. Students with learning ties, order, and differences. delays\u2014regardless of cause\u2014will need more time to master skills and understandings, more repeti- \u2022 Being able and willing to ask for help (social tion, more explicit instruction, and more class- confidence). room support. \u2022 Reading and summarizing content. Males may act out and be more physical when frustrated or simply communicating a need. \u2022 Being able to speak, draw, or build non- Females are typically more likely to use language linguistic representations. and covert behaviors to meet their needs. In gen- eral, boys are more impulsive and quicker to get \u2022 Setting goals and using feedback. called on in class. In general, girls are more inclined to work cooperatively than boys, but they \u2022 Having self-awareness of personal health are also more inclined to socialize. Teachers might and nutrition. want to remember that and cut each gender some slack in different ways. \u2022 Generating and testing hypotheses. \u2022 Developing working-memory capacity. \u2022 Being able to organize or map out ideas and information. \u2022 Showing persistence and follow-through in the face of adversity.","116 Teaching with the Brain in Mind It\u2019s critical to understand that healthy brains planning your instructional time lines, be sure to are born with the capacity to learn these skills, but consider the complexity of the skill building, how there\u2019s nothing built-in or automatic about a stu- novel it will seem to the learner, and the learner\u2019s dent having them. They have to be taught as part emotional state. Massed intervals (limited consecu- of a well-thought-out curriculum. All the skills in tive minutes, over many trials) may be optimal for the list (and there are certainly more of them), thinking-skills training. For most of your students, require the following: the following guidelines may be appropriate: \u2022 Motivation to use the skill. \u2022 Grades K\u20132: Twenty to 30 minutes, two or \u2022 Role modeling (a visible, tactile, or audible three times per week. model). \u2022 Direct instruction or simply an opportunity \u2022 Grades 3\u20135: Up to 30 minutes, three times to acquire the skills. per week. \u2022 Time for trial and error, practice, and debriefing. \u2022 Grades 6\u201312: Up to 60 minutes, three to \u2022 Time to use and strengthen the skill in mul- five times per week. tiple contexts. \u2022 Adult learners: Forty-five to 90 minutes, Critical thinking skills take time to learn three or four times per week. because you\u2019re asking the brain to make changes in both cortical organization and interregional con- Many improvements take weeks, even years to nectivity. Learning new skills literally reorganizes realize. It may be that essential neural scaffolding brain mass. Yes, you\u2019re creating new connections at takes place early on, but that is conjecture at this the synapse, but the brain will make changes, point. It is also not clear whether there is a critical depending on the type, duration, and use of the or sensitive period for these interventions. How- skills. In Chapter 3, we explored some of the basic, ever, from a practical point of view, it is easier to built-in rules that govern learning in the brain. get younger children (ages 2 to 8) to comply than Although all of those rules apply to thinking skills, older children (ages 8 to 16). here are a few nuances for thinking skills in particular. Context and the Learning Transfer Issues Intervals and Duration Many things that we do are so highly embed- ded in a particular context that our learning drops A good rule is to limit the amount of training dramatically in a new environment. In some cases, in new thinking skills. Although some researchers the new environment is distracting, uncomfort- have found two hours to be the upper limit for able, or just too novel. In other cases, the brain\u2019s skills training (Kilgard & Merzenich, 2002), clearly memories are triggered only by the specific cues in it depends on other variables, too. When you\u2019re the old situation. The most detailed minutiae may be stored as part of the original learning process. Finally, the skills or content learned may have prompted the formation of \u201crules\u201d in the learning","Critical Thinking Skills 117 process. The learner may not have translated and skills make much more sense than a focus on field- applied these \u201crules\u201d to the new environment, even independent classroom learning. if the rules applied perfectly. Coherent, Challenging Learning Neither context nor cognition can be understood in isolation; they form an inte- Typically, new learning creates new synapses, grated system in which the cognitive skill especially when the subject matter is challenging in question becomes part of the context. To (Black, Isaacs, Anderson, Alcantara, & Greenough, try to assess them separately is akin to try- 1990). This suggests that we should constantly ing to assess the beauty of a smile sepa- manage the level of difficulty for our students. We rately from the face it is a part of. (Ceci & can do that in three key ways: Roazzi, 1994, p. 98) \u2022 By varying the learning resources available Here\u2019s a striking example of this phenomenon. (allowing students to work with friends, providing The daily use of in-context mathematics by adoles- access to information or tools, varying the time cent street vendors in Brazil is impressive, in the allowed). range of 98 to 99 percent accuracy. Yet in a labora- tory setting, their accuracy drops by half, even on \u2022 By varying the learning expectations (asking tasks that require the same skills (Carraher, for more or less quality, making the final output Carraher, & Schliemann, 1985). This finding sug- more public or more private). gests that the skills are highly context dependent, not that the learners lack any general cognitive \u2022 By varying the learning context (allowing capacity. Unfortunately, most schools seem to have students to work at home as well as in class to missed this concept. The evidence of the abysmal complete work over periods of days or weeks). failure of students to transfer learning from school subjects to real life is legendary (Ceci & Roazzi, Practical Suggestions 1994) and cuts across age, IQ, and social status. The \u201cstreet math\u201d researchers conclude, \u201cThe per- In earlier chapters, we discussed other factors formance of an individual in an experiment is that support coherent learning and the develop- inherently grounded [italics added] in the social situ- ment of thinking skills. These factors include rele- ation of their performance\u201d (Carraher et al., 1985, vance, activity, repetition, and specificity. p. 21). One study at the University of Arizona showed that even students with a background in Relevance. As we discussed in Chapter 8, the statistics, math, and science do not transfer that brain will not adapt to senseless tasks. As a teacher, learning to novel contexts (Leshowitz, 1989). you have to constantly reaffirm the relevance, These data suggest that schools would do well to value, and meaning of the skills taught. Some of focus on much more real-world learning. Field the better strategies related to relevance include the trips, simulations, role-plays, and away-from- use of choice, real-world personal applications, and school activities that use school knowledge and project-based learning. Activity. Chapter 4 described in depth the importance of movement for \u201cbrain-friendly\u201d","118 Teaching with the Brain in Mind learning. We learned, for example, that gross- maturation is not a passive unfolding of nature\u2019s motor activity may enhance the production of new plan. Specific life experiences during the early years cells known to be necessary for learning and mem- influence patterns of interactivity between brain ory (Van Praag et al., 1999) and that physical exer- areas. When youngsters are actively directed to ori- cise can help some students who have difficulties ent and respond to certain stimuli, some brain sys- learning to read (Reynolds et al., 2003). Allow and tems will, in a sense, \u201ctutor\u201d the development of encourage your learners to be active through walks, other brain areas (Johnson, 2001). recess, athletics, or personal workout routines. The tricky part is that different areas of the Repetition. Neuroscientist Michael Kilgard brain mature at different rates (see Figure 9.2). The has studied change in the brain extensively and peak of synaptic development in the prefrontal cor- found that repetition is a fundamental quality for tex happens between ages 1 and 2 (Huttenlocher learning new skills (Kilgard & Merzenich, 1998). & Dabholkar, 1997). However, the overall matura- It is also essential for supporting the brain reorga- tion of the frontal lobes is a slow process, not com- nization that accompanies novel learning. Be sure plete until as late as age 25 to 30. In fact, the brain to include repetition in your learning plans. changes so much that the same behaviors in infants and adults may be mediated by completely differ- Specificity. Quality skill-learning programs can ent brain structures (Mills et al., 2000). Clear make a substantial difference, regardless of the changes in the thinking brain as we mature include intelligence level of the learner. The practice the following: involved in learning a skill should move from the particular subskill (e.g., task analysis), to generaliz- \u2022 Theory of mind (ability to make inferences, ing the subskill, to real-life experiences. Examples perceive occluded objects, and so on). of good skill-building activities include tasks that require sorting, grouping, and rearranging. Others \u2022 Perceptual functions. include building, organizing, or assembly. Art proj- \u2022 Social awareness. ects involving designing, building, and publishing \u2022 Working-memory capacity. are excellent. Dramatic arts including mime, the- \u2022 Language and reading skills. ater, and role-plays are superb. And, finally, voca- \u2022 Ability to infer cause and effect. tional or industrial arts all have built-in skills and \u2022 Capacity for both concrete information and subskills. No matter which kind of thinking-skills abstraction. program you use, be sure to include feedback and debriefing in the process. The process of brain maturation is clearly impaired in cases of prior diminution from neglect The Maturing Brain or poor nutrition. But it can also be enhanced, as we found earlier. One area worthy of special atten- One of the most remarkable bodies of recent brain- tion is the frontal lobes. Most of what we call related research has shown us that environmental \u201chigher order\u201d thinking skills incorporate a variety factors can influence brain maturation. Brain of subskills (e.g., attention and working memory), but they all engage the prefrontal cortex. This","Critical Thinking Skills 119 brain area is primarily responsible for planning, the thinking learner\u2019s brain. The developing brain judgment, decision making, working memory, and engages in highly complex interactions that need most other critical-thinking skills. Life experiences stimulation, and these interactions, over time, will slowly prune and tune this critical brain area. prompt the brain to become increasingly special- Eventually, neurons in the frontal lobe orchestrate, ized (Friston & Price, 2001). But what are the encode, abstract, and form rules from a learned qualities of those experiences that sculpt more experience (Wallis, Anderson, & Miller, 2001). thoughtful, sophisticated, and complex thinking skills? Brain research can contribute only parts of Practical Suggestions the answer. Here are some of them. What we know about the maturing brain sug- Exploratory Learning and Play gests that we can expect a wide range of student per- formance, and some of the inabilities students display Exploratory learning is what may allow infants may be merely a function of maturation. When you to look \u201csmart\u201d long before parents have even notice this, you can vary the type, as well as the com- plexity, of the assignment. For example, mental prac- Figure 9.2 tice can improve actual performance (Driskell, The Developing Brain Cooper, & Moran, 1994) but it requires visual thinking, which some students struggle with before ages 8 to 12. To develop frontal-lobe functions, include daily tasks that require delayed gratification, mental juggling, or persistence. Arts (music, perfor- mance, or drawing) are some of the best examples. Computer tasks, delicate experiments, or construct- ing something can work, too. Frontal-lobe function is uneven, fickle, and inconsistent while developing. In some cases, you might teach something five times and the fifth time might be the charm, especially if the brain is suddenly becoming ready for it. In other cases, you might simply plant the seeds for a task and let it go until next year. The Adaptive Brain Source: Based on data from Gogtay et al. (2004); Paus et al. (1998); Sampaio & Truwit (2001); Sowell, Delis, Stiles, & Jernigan (2001). The brain is exquisitely susceptible to postnatal experiences. To a large degree, it is the quality of the interaction with the environment that sculpts","120 Teaching with the Brain in Mind noticed that the infant is using subtle trial-and- children, having anything to eat is better than error learning. Parents who allow their children to having nothing. But if you\u2019re asking the brain to play, who interact with them, and who provide maintain sharp mental focus, respond to stress them with early experiences that let them make with poise, and encode and recall stored learning mistakes are \u201cdoing it right.\u201d For the K\u201312 stu- \u201con cue\u201d in a classroom, then a diet of corn flakes, dent, field trips, games, simulations, arts, and donuts, and soft drinks won\u2019t get it done. The evi- sports will fill the bill. Creative play is highly valu- dence strongly supports the cognitive advantages of able. Students engaged in theater performance at better nutrition among all school-age learners. school have higher SAT scores than their peers who Because we\u2019ve explored this topic in more detail in are not involved in the arts, though the relation- Chapter 2, let\u2019s simply state that nutrition and ship is a correlation only (for more information, learning are highly correlated. see the Web site of the National Association for Music Education at www.menc.org). When you Opportunities for Using Thinking Skills include creative, exploratory play in the classroom, be sure to include discussion and feedback time at Many students begin to develop specific think- the end; otherwise, the activity may end up being ing skills but then reach a plateau. This may happen only good fun (heaven forbid!). because there was no adaptive advantage to fostering the skills. But when parents, peers, or teachers help Novel Circumstances provide ways to use the skills, they tend to develop. For example, if a student learns to play an instru- There\u2019s no need for the brain to adapt to ment, being in a band is pretty important. If a stu- change if what it must deal with is the same. Nov- dent is good at spatial memory, then playing chess elty creates a stronger opportunity for new learning or football may support the related skills. The more and pathways in the brain. Often, children who opportunities we provide for students to develop grow up with exceptional thinking skills had some- talents and abilities, the more they are able to do thing exceptional (either good or bad) in their so. This is as true for the development of thinking upbringing. Examples include an unusually long skills as it is for the development of other skill sets. walk or ride to and from school; opportunities and This makes a good case for arts programs in support for hobbies; and unusual mentors, teach- schools (including music, dance, visual arts, voca- ers, or parents. Novelty is part of the foundation tional arts, and graphic arts). It also supports the for gifted and talented programs nationwide. Pro- value of clubs and other organizations, community vide something unusual and the support to go with outreach, and academic competitions. it, and learning is off and running. Nutritional Support The Emotional Brain When it comes to nutrition, there\u2019s a wide As we learned in Chapter 5, the ability to think range of what\u2019s considered acceptable. For poorer critically is highly dependent on emotional","Critical Thinking Skills 121 states: complex patterns of spatiotemporal it must be taught. If the parents aren\u2019t doing it, (space-time) brain activity that lasts for seconds someone has to jump in and get the job done. or minutes. The patterns themselves are com- posed of cooperative neural clusters, activated by Emotional states draws from three things: sen- both chemical and electrical energy. Our emo- sations (hungry, sunburned, bloated, cold, itchy, tional states are constantly fluctuating because etc.), mental state (confident, calculating, scat- of their high sensitivity to both the internal and tered, etc.), and feelings (disappointed, joyful, dis- external environment. Even though you may gusted, etc.). Although many things may be going experience your own state as stable at any partic- on at the same time (we might be hungry, focused, ular moment, it is always in the process of and discouraged all at once), we can consciously strengthening, diminishing, or changing to experience only one aspect of an emotional state at another state. You are feeling curious, then any given moment. This finding is key, because slightly blah, then a bit anxious, and then later, good critical thinkers are able to downplay the you\u2019re hungry. Because states are always in flux, \u201cnegative aspects\u201d of a state (e.g. hungry, sad) and it makes sense to describe them as \u201cemergent to consciously activate the state necessary to com- properties\u201d of our self-organizing brains plete the task at hand, such as confidence or deter- (Grigsby & Stevens, 2000). These complex mination. This ability to \u201ccompartmentalize\u201d is activities cannot be separated from cognition. one of the most important for success in life. It allows you to focus on what you need to do to It\u2019s important for teachers to know that when move ahead and set aside what stalls your progress. students enter a state again and again (mischie- vousness, concentration, bullying, etc.), the neu- Where do learners gain this facility\u2014this mar- rons involved tend to coalesce into cooperative velous ability to focus, to do what\u2019s necessary to groups, self-organizing into collective behavior sci- succeed? Some students learn it at home, some entists call \u201cstable states.\u201d The longer a person is a learn it from sports, and others learn it from hob- stable state, the more likely he or she is to re-enter bies or through things like the Outward Bound that state at another time. Yes, this means that stu- program. In general, though, if students don\u2019t get it dents who frequently get angry are able to reacti- through school, they\u2019re not going to get it. vate that anger more quickly; however, it also means that when we teach students to focus, to First, students need to become attuned to their concentrate, to be determined, and to think cre- emotional states. If they don\u2019t recognize their own atively, these too can become \u201cstable states\u201d for states, they are powerless to influence them pro- them\u2014and priceless, lifelong skills. Anyone inter- ductively. In my visits to classrooms, I\u2019ve seen a ested in improving students\u2019 thinking skills must chart called \u201cHow am I feeling today?\u201d that shows understand the complex interplay between emo- illustrations depicting 50 emotional states. This tional states and cognition. For students to be able great tool helps students develop some awareness to think well, they absolutely must be able to man- of their own states. age their emotional states. This ability is not innate; Second, students need to understand the direct links between how they feel and how they think. Emotional states are frequently activated,","122 Teaching with the Brain in Mind fast-changing, neural networks that typically sudden turn of events, take a stand on an issue (or incorporate multiple areas of the brain. Thou- on a table!), and so on. Then, as quickly as these sands, even millions, of neurons make up the inte- specialized clusters assemble, they collapse and grated combination of mind, body, and feelings other specialized clusters form. It\u2019s because our that are emotional states. These assemblies of neu- emotional states are so responsive and so suscepti- rons can be the difference between thinking clearly or ble to environmental influence that something as not thinking at all. How can teachers support the seemingly minor as moving from a slumped-over development of these critical life skills? Give students posture to sitting up straight can shift a state a taste of what good emotional states are like! We significantly. can do it by carefully considering When students realize the amazing power they \u2022 The questions we ask students. have over their own cognition\u2014a power they can \u2022 The postures, movement, and activities we grasp simply by changing their breathing or posture, use and incorporate in classroom activities. or by consciously seizing on a new thought\u2014it\u2019s \u2022 The personal encouragement we provide. typically a revelation. Teachers who help students \u2022 The attitudes and opinions we hold of them. understand and maintain useful productive emo- \u2022 The respect and affirmation we give them. tional states that support thinking and living give \u2022 The hobbies and habits we encourage and their students a priceless gift. support. \u2022 The learning and successes they gain. Practical Suggestions All these behaviors can elicit specific emotional The reality of the emotional brain suggests that states. Why is this so important? Again, the longer an you can expect a wide range of student perfor- individual remains in a state, the more easily he or she mance, depending on the states of the students. can reactivate that state. Over time and through con- Doing one\u2019s best requires a person to get into and tinued activation and association with positive feed- maintain the optimal emotional state to support back (encouragement, smiles, etc.), the emotional thinking. The best learners \u201cshift states\u201d on their states necessary for success can become a more reli- own; other students need to learn how. Begin by able part of the student\u2019s everyday experience. teaching the basic skills of emotional state recogni- tion and management. There are countless activi- Finally, students must understand that they can ties that can help students\u2019 awareness of internal manage their own emotional states. It\u2019s not an easy states, including the following: thing to do, however, and facility can be achieved only through practice. You might explain it this \u2022 Drama, theater, and role-plays. way: Our neurons may be busy all day doing many \u2022 Journaling about feelings. different tasks, but within a split second, they can \u2022 Identifying feelings from a list of options. arrange themselves into specialized clusters or \u2022 Discussing emotional states with other stu- \u201cneural mobs\u201d so that we can do or feel something: dents and adults. react to something hot, express pleasure at a","Critical Thinking Skills 123 \u2022 Discussing reading material that deals with Summary the emotions of literary characters. All children, adolescents, and adults can benefit For pre-K through 3rd grade students, keep from programs that develop thinking skills. All things simple. One idea is to use a set of stan- students, whether identified as academically dard signals to \u201ctrigger\u201d and encourage certain \u201cgifted\u201d or \u201cstruggling,\u201d need education about emotional and physical states. For example, you thinking skills. The development of thinking might teach students that when you say, \u201cGreen requires constant layering and scaffolding. More light,\u201d they should proceed with active learning. exposure to this process is better than less When you say, \u201cYellow light,\u201d they should slow because there\u2019s interplay between maturation down, take a pause to think about what they\u2019re and experience. The reasons are unclear, but it doing, or talk quietly. And when you say, \u201cRed may be that early exposure to quality thinking light,\u201d that\u2019s their signal to freeze and wait for skills creates the intercortical connections directions or ask for help. It\u2019s important for needed to develop much more sophisticated young children to understand the process: You thinking skills as we mature. give them a cue, and then they exercise their power over their own behavior. These simple Research into early childhood or school-based connections communicate the basic message interventions for thinking and enrichment pro- that each of us has something to do with our grams has been vigorous. Publicly funded early own emotional states. childhood programs have been divided into \u201cflag- ship\u201d (receiving much attention, involving small For older students, design simple activities so sample size, and gaining much publicity) and they can discover how things like food, romance, \u201cfleet\u201d programs (receiving less attention and offer- worry, excitement, despair, and anger influence ing broader public services, such as Head Start). As their thinking. Then help them brainstorm ways to might be expected, the results of the flagship pro- self-regulate their emotional states\u2014ways other grams are superior (most likely because of the than sex and drugs and rock and roll (all of which enhanced control over variables) to the results of work, but they do have side effects). For example, the fleet programs (Ryan et al., 2002). Here\u2019s what you might let them journal for two minutes each we\u2019ve learned about these programs: day. Ask them to write about what happened, how they felt about what happened, and what they did \u2022 Language fluency, IQ, and other cognitive next to influence how they felt. processes may improve in children in these programs when compared with children not in the programs. Finally, for all age groups, set up classes so that opening activities put students into receptive or curi- \u2022 Quality programs can reduce discipline ous states. Orchestrate the endings of lessons so that problems, tardiness, vandalism, theft, and aca- students are engaged in joyful states of celebration. If demic failure in both elementary and high school. you can successfully influence students\u2019 emotional states, the behaviors you want will follow. \u2022 Children in quality early-childhood programs have better social and emotional intelligence than","124 Teaching with the Brain in Mind children who are not enrolled in early-childhood pro- Whenever schools go through a budget-cutting grams and, instead, stay at home with a parent. frenzy, have you noticed what is cut and what gets preserved? What gets cut are the things that are \u2022 Children in these programs have fewer risk most likely to be enriching experiences for building behaviors, less delinquency, fewer legal problems, intelligence and thinking skills: field trips, voca- improved graduation rates, and less welfare tional education, performance arts, after-school dependency. programs, lab classes, music instruction, competi- tions, visual arts, project-based learning, and a host An economically deprived or stressful home of other positive programs. It\u2019s time to stand up for environment can \u201cundo\u201d the positive benefits of a more of what\u2019s good and what\u2019s positive in school thinking-skills program for some children. This offerings. From a neurobiological standpoint, there finding suggests that we should adopt a \u201cwhole- is no longer a question as to whether we can child approach\u201d and influence as many variables change brains for the better. We can! And we have (such as home, community, nutrition, siblings, and an ethical obligation to do so. after-school programs) as we can.","10 Memory and Recall Key Concepts Memory and recall are critical ele- Q Links between memory ments in the learning process for and survival very practical reasons. The only way we know that students have learned something Q Ways that the brain is if they demonstrate recall of it. But why is it encodes and maintains that just minutes or hours after learning some- memory thing, many students seem to forget it? Why do they appear to experience a \u201cfaulty\u201d memory? Q The different kinds of memory In general, we have only three \u201cchances\u201d to help students in learning: (1) the original Q Ways to enhance memory encoding, (2) the maintenance of that memory, retrieval and (3) the retrieval of the learning. Each stage gives us opportunities to influence the learning. Taken as a whole, the latest discoveries about the brain provide a powerful framework for understanding and boosting memory and recall, and they reveal some good reasons underlying the near-universal phenomenon of forgetting. The biggest message of this chapter is straightforward: memories are malleable. Knowing that memories are malleable won\u2019t instantly give us all perfect recall, but it may illuminate some potential strategies for chang- ing instructional approaches. In fact, children today probably learn a great deal more than they demonstrate, and the ways we ask for recall are part of the problem of \u201cforgetful students.\u201d 125","126 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Perspective In fact, we are very good at certain types of mem- ory. For instanse, we tend to remember anything Before we discuss what current research tells us related to survival (see Figure 10.1). If you get about memory and recall, it may be helpful to food poisoning as a result of eating at a particular address a common misconception that emerged restaurant, do you remember to avoid that restau- from the work of Canadian neurosurgeon Wilder rant? Do you remember the names of your chil- Penfield in the 1930s and 1940s. Penfield dren, your parents, and your spouse? When was reported that during surgery, an electrical stimu- the last time you forgot your way home? Have lation of the temporal lobe produced episodes of you ever forgotten how to eat? When someone is recall, almost like seeing movie clips. Many con- rude to you, do you remember it? If someone did cluded that the brain \u201cvideotaped\u201d life, and to you a favor, do you remember him or her? These remember things, our memories simply needed to questions may seem laughable, but a second look be prompted. But these episodes of recall at the kinds of things you consistently recall is occurred in less than 5 percent of Penfield\u2019s quite revealing. We are very good at the following patients. In addition, these were seizure patients, types of memories: not healthy, random individuals. Some psycholo- gists have since dismissed the supposed recall he \u2022 Locations of food, housing, employment. reported as \u201cprompted\u201d (Fisher, 1990), and the \u2022 How to cook, eat, walk, talk, drive, and work. results have not been replicated by other sur- \u2022 Bad foods, strong aromas. geons. Still, somehow, the erroneous but popular \u2022 The names and personal preferences of concept of a brain that records or videotapes life friends and family members. like a CD or DVD player has persisted. But the \u2022 People who treat us well and people who reality is very different. have hurt our feelings. Current neuroscience describes memories as Figure 10.1 \u201cdynamic\u201d and not fixed. Among the many factors Memory: Organized Around Survival found to be important are background context, date of encoding, emotions, hormones, neurogenesis, \u2022 Locations (of food, housing, and specific signaling stimuli (Nadel & Land, social contacts) 2000). Using what we now know, we can define memory as the creation of a persistent change in \u2022 How to do things (locomotion, the brain by a transient stimulus. defense, tool making, child care) Survival-Based Memories \u2022 Emotional events (pain and pleasure) Because of occasional forgetfulness, many of us think our capabilities for memory are not good. \u2022 Conditional response But the situation is not as bad as we might think. (aroma, taste)","Memory and Recall 127 Locations. First, we remember how to find criticized?). In general, these memories get essential things. You are unlikely to forget where strengthened through repetition, and good you live or where the grocery store and local hospi- teachers know that repetition\u2014as long as it\u2019s tal are. The brain has \u201cwhere\u201d pathways that con- sprinkled with novelty\u2014is a good idea. stantly map locations that are important to us. We call this form of memory spatial or \u201cepisodic\u201d Did you notice what was not on the list? In memory. As you\u2019ll soon see, there are ways to take general, we are not very good at recalling words, advantage of this unique type of storage. names, equations, or facts: much of what\u2019s taught in school. Of all the kinds of memories we could form, Procedures. Second, we remember how to do semantic or word-based memories are least related to essential things. Countless skills, including child survival. Do you really need to know the names of care, eating, walking, driving, and putting on clothes the world\u2019s seven longest rivers? Assuming you\u2019re are remembered effortlessly and are unlikely to ever not an international consultant on river hydrology be forgotten. And although these may not seem like or preparing for a College Bowl geography quiz, notable feats, they involve a form of memory that is you probably don\u2019t. The message is simple: Some both reliable and lasting. This memory type has types of memories we are \u201cautomatically\u201d good at many practical classroom applications. and some we are not. Emotional experiences. Third, we are very Understanding where our strengths are is criti- good at remembering events that affected us emo- cal to succeeding in the classroom. Let\u2019s start with a tionally. Car accidents, robberies, or natural very fundamental question. How do we actually disasters\u2014these are not things that we forget. We remember anything? also do not forget significant life events, from get- ting married to having a baby to getting divorced. Making Memory We remember well the people who are our parents, those who are good to us, and those who hurt us. In the simplest terms, memories are the probabil- We remember celebrations and reunions. These ity of a particular neural firing pattern in a net- memories rarely need review and often last for a work of cells (see Figure 10.2). Typically, lifetime. In a school setting, the goal is to use more thousands of neurons are activated to retrieve a of these lasting pathways. memory. More complex memories require the activation of specific networks involving millions Conditioned responses. Finally, we are good of neurons. These networks have varying levels of at things that involve a conditioned response, that stability and flexibility depending on the type of is, retaining certain patterns of behavior in encoding and the person\u2019s life exposure. response to specific stimuli. We may respond in a certain way to how our spouse says our name How does the brain create these firing patterns? when he or she is angry (or seductive). We may Researchers are still not 100 percent sure; decipher- respond in a predictable way to the offer of a ing the complete code to all of the various separate particular food (chocolate, anyone?) or to a rep- (yet related) memory processes is a challenge. The rimand (how do you feel when your driving is current understanding includes the following steps:","128 Teaching with the Brain in Mind 1. An electrical impulse travels down the axon influence the efficacy of this connection, includ- of a neuron and triggers the release of chemicals ing chemicals known as neuromodulators (i.e., known as neurotransmitters. Included with these stress hormones). Learning is the result of the chemicals are messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs). strengthening of the connection between two These are the molecules that carry information. neurons. Typically, a single memory will involve Simultaneously, a process known as synaptic adhe- thousands of neurons. sion takes place that uses protein \u201cstrings\u201d to help bind the two neurons at the synapse. Figure 10.3 is a highly simplified illustration of the process of creating memory. 2. The mRNAs and the other neurotrans- mitters dock into receptor sites on the surface of The details of the process have been a baffling the receiving dendrite. intellectual labyrinth, and researchers have had to deal with exceptions to the rules, myths exposed, 3. When the electrochemical threshold is and continual discovery. Nevertheless, the research reached, an event known as long-term potentiation has uncovered some critical principles about (LTP) is created. That\u2019s simply a use-dependent encoding, maintenance, and retrieval of memories. alteration in the strength of the synaptic connections. Encoding. Memory-making is well distributed in multiple pathways. Different types of memories 4. The LTP reaction stimulates new electri- form at different speeds. Multiple factors can cal activity in the dendrite, sending it toward the enhance encoding. cell body of the receiving neuron. Many factors Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3 The Neural Network of Memory The Creation of Memory","Memory and Recall 129 Maintenance. Memories are malleable. Acti- The Distribution of Memory vating memories helps maintain them. Implicit mem- ories are more fixed; explicit memories are less fixed. There is no single, all-purpose \u201cresting\u201d location for all our memories. Our best learning and recall Retrieval. Not all memories can be retrieved. involves multiple memory locations and systems Multiple factors enhance retrieval. We are good at (Schacter, 1992) (see Figure 10.4). However, most retrieving survival-based memories. encoding, regardless of its location in the brain, is Figure 10.4 Locations of Memory Activations Amygdala This structure mediates intense emotional events. Hippocampus Cortex This structure Temporal lobes are mediates semantic the site of semantic and episodic retrieval. memory. Prefrontal cortex Parietal lobes Body memories Working memory but no Lateral intraparietal lobes Some memories may be long-term memory is activate short-term memory. stored in peptide present here. molecules that circulate throughout the body via the bloodstream. Cerebellum Procedural learning, re\ufb02exive learning, and conditioned responses are activated here.","130 Teaching with the Brain in Mind enhanced by a good night\u2019s sleep. And the more the fragmented \u201cHumpty-Dumpty\u201d memory complex the learning, the more helpful sleep is pieces (Shimamura, 2002) and make sense of (Piegneux et al., 2001). them. An area of the inner brain, the hippocam- pus, is quite active in forming and eliciting spatial In general, memories seem to be encoded in the and other explicit memories, such as memory for areas of the brain that originally processed them speaking, reading, and even recalling an emotional (Moscovitch, 1995). Hence, visual memories are event. As we learned earlier, the hippocampus is a stored in the occipital lobe, language memories in small, C-shaped structure located in the medial the temporal lobe, and spatial memories in the temporal lobe (there\u2019s one in each side of the parietal lobe. Learned skills involve both the cere- brain). At the end of the hippocampus is the bellum and the striatum (Doyon, Owen, Petrides, amygdala\u2014small, almond-shaped, and exquisitely Szliklas, & Evans, 1996). Think of the striatum, a designed to activate and remember emotional small structure located in the top of the mid-brain events (Whalen, 2003). These include experiences area, as an automated habit-preserver; it\u2019s the part characterized by feelings of fear, disappointment, of your brain that, for example, allows you to walk and horror, but also of joy and celebration. The across a room with a full cup of coffee\u2014and not more locations in the brain that are engaged in spill it\u2014without looking constantly at the cup. learning and memory, the better the learning and The basal ganglia (mid-brain) structures may also the sharper the recall (Schacter, 1992). Having dif- be linked to intention, nonverbal information, and ferent memory systems may explain why a student social references (Lieberman, 2000). The more spa- can have great recall for sports statistics and poor tial, episodic memories are stored in the right recall for other things. medial temporal lobe (Shimamura, 2002). The parietal and frontal areas of the brain help us deter- The fact that our memories are distributed is mine whether a memory is new or old (Wheeler & both a blessing and a curse. It means that narrow Buckner, 2003). Many \u201cclassroom facts\u201d (vocabu- subsets of memories may be easily impaired while lary, terms, textbook data) are stored in parts of the larger classes may be preserved. Over one million prefrontal cortex and the temporal lobes (Wagner, children a year experience a fall, a kick, or a thump 2003). Some \u201cnumber sense\u201d is activated in an area on the head that leads to a brain injury (boys ages of the left parietal lobe (Cohen & Dehaene, 1996), 3 to 17 are at highest risk). The brain injury means whereas higher math skills will likely create activity it may be possible for a student to retrieve, for in both the parietal and temporal lobes. example, common nouns but not proper nouns. Understandably, this can lead to very uneven aca- The fact that memory resides in so many differ- demic performance . . . and to frustrated teachers. ent locations in the brain means that a single event, And younger children generally have no way to such as teaching a class, will activate multiple path- express the problem because their vocabulary or ways: What someone saw will be stored in one area life history may not be developed enough to do so. of the brain, what was said and heard will be stored When children have unusual or specific memory in a different area of the brain, and so on. When patterns, it\u2019s wise to refer them to a specialist. we recall memories, our brain has to reconstruct","Memory and Recall 131 Memories\u2019 Multiple Pathways each with particular encoding and retrieval characteristics, strengths and weaknesses, and Because different kinds of life experiences encode locations in the brain. differently (Fuster, 1995), each has a different likelihood of being recalled. It\u2019s important to Generally, the two broadest categories for have realistic expectations about what can and memories are \u201cexplicit\u201d and \u201cimplicit,\u201d also known what should be recalled and to appreciate the as \u201cdeclarative\u201d and \u201cnondeclarative.\u201d Explicit differences among learners and their preferred learning may be either semantic (words and pic- style of learning. Here\u2019s another important thing tures) or more episodic (autobiographical, or a per- to keep in mind: Encoding and strengthening sonal rendition of the memory versus learning multiple pathways gives your students a far better about it second or third hand). Implicit memories chance of retrieving a classroom memory. Research- include so-called reflexive memories and proce- ers have described various memory processes, dural, or motor, memories (see Figure 10.5). Figure 10.5 Memory Pathways All of our learning and life experiences are stored in multiple pathways (for example, music could be in semantic, episodic, and reflexive pathways). Explicit Implicit Includes both Priming short-term perceptual, subperceptual, (5\u201320 seconds) nonassociative and working memory (3\u20134 items) Procedural Conditioning, skills and habits automated bicycle riding, learning body learning, manipulatives, \u201chands-on\u201d learning Sensory ABC re\ufb02exive ! \u201chot stove effect,\u201d Semantic Episodic favorite object or words, symbols, locations, triggered Simple responses abstractions, events, video, textbooks, circumstances, cognitive Emotional intensity computers, Where were re\ufb02exes trauma, written stories you when...? \ufb02ash cards or many repetitions pleasure","132 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Semantic Memories unrelated ideas. George Miller\u2019s often-cited study (1956) suggests that working memory can hold Semantic memory, one of the kinds of explicit seven items, plus or minus two. This outdated memory, is also known as declarative, factual, notion has persisted despite contrary everyday taxon, or linguistic memory. It includes the names, experiences in which we are lucky to recall more facts, figures, and textbook information that seem than one or two ideas at a time. The reality is that to frustrate us the most. It may develop when we for most items, students under age 12 can handle are taught, spoken to, or observe something (such one item at a time. On a good day, those older as pictures or movies). Semantic memories com- than 12 can hold two or three things at a time. monly consist of the kinds of information we pick up from conversations, lectures, DVDs, reading, Practical suggestions. The time limitations of and visual aids. Teachers who use most of their semantic memory suggest that students will remem- class time lecturing are hoping this style of learning ber very little past a few seconds of input. When you sticks\u2014but it rarely does. Students retain little of ask students to read a chapter, insist that they stop what is said. In one study, college students who lis- after each page and take some notes. Use a variety of tened to lectures knew only 8 percent more than activities that engage partners, such as having one those who skipped class (Rickard, Rogers, Ellis, & student read while the other maps out the content. Beidleman, 1988). This is, as you might guess, the If you are lecturing, after just a few minutes let stu- weakest of our retrieval systems. dents pair up and reteach. If they struggle, add a larger-group activity that lets students correct errors Semantic memory has limitations in both time and consolidate information; a group discussion and capacity. These limitations are expressed in with a prompting handout is one possibility. descriptions of our short-term or \u201cworking\u201d mem- ory, a time-sensitive process referring to the online Figure 10.6 maintenance and manipulation of information. The Limits of Semantic Memory Working memory is a critical contributor to cogni- tion and intelligence (Jonides, 1995). An item in \u2022 Explicit learning is held in the frontal lobes for 5\u201330 working memory usually lasts for 5 to 30 seconds seconds unless processed for meaning before either disappearing or being reactivated (see Figure 10.6). For example, we meet someone at a \u2022 Working memory capacity social gathering and forget the person\u2019s name mere (3\u20137 items) depends on seconds after an introduction. Or the mind goes \u2013 rate blank after reading a single page of a book, and we \u2013 meaning recall nothing. \u2013 strategy \u2013 novelty The capacity limitations of semantic memory \u2013 primacy are influenced by both the strength of associations \u2013 recency and the sheer quantity of items. We remember \u2013 age of learner information better in chunks than in the form of random, single thoughts, words, ideas, or groups of \u2022 Conclusion: Frontal lobes Chunk it down!","Memory and Recall 133 Capacity limitations should also be an impor- encode their word-based semantic system include tant consideration. For a 2- or 3-year-old with a asking them to healthy brain, the normal limitation is about one chunk of information (\u201cPut your shoes away, \u2022 Compare and contrast the material. please.\u201d). For a 5- to 12-year-old, the limit is usu- \u2022 Summarize what was learned. ally one or two bits of data. But as a practical mat- \u2022 Make a rhyme out of key ideas and teach it ter, many students have poor short-term memory to a classmate. because of conditions such as attention deficit dis- \u2022 Turn the learning into a nonlinguistic repre- order, learning delays, and auditory-processing def- sentation\u2014a drawing, a comic strip, and so on. icits, and it\u2019s better to stick with one piece of \u2022 Analyze and critique the material. information for all students. In a classroom, give \u2022 Consider the material from different points directions just one at a time: of view. \u2022 Group and regroup the material into differ- 1. \u201cBoys and girls, please stand up.\u201d (pause) ent categories. 2. \u201cNow, slide your chairs in gently.\u201d (pause) 3. \u201cIn 10 seconds, when I say \u2018go,\u2019 please line Episodic Memory up at the door.\u201d 4. \u201cIs everyone prepared?\u201d (pause, check for Episodic memory is another kind of explicit understanding) memory. The system of episodic memory path- 5. \u201cReady, get set, go!\u201d ways is also known as the autobiographical, loci, spatial, event-related, or contextual recall process. Teachers who require moderate to large It\u2019s a thematic map of (or \u201ca place in space\u201d for) amounts of recall from texts are, at best, devel- your daily experiences. In this case, learning and oping self-discipline in the learners. At worst, memory are prompted by the particular location or they are creating discouraged learners who feel circumstance\u2014with one caveat: You must have been unnecessarily incompetent. Should we throw there personally. Consider this example. Reading out traditional \u201cbook learning\u201d? No. Students about a safari in Africa is far different from actually still need facts, directions, references, and safety experiencing one. I personally knew plenty about information. They still need to read poetry, elephants before I went on an African safari. But, novels, letters, and textbooks. However, if you trust me, until you stand just 25 feet from an agi- ask students what they have learned that was tated African bull elephant with no fence, no pro- interesting in the past year, little of it will be tection, or defense, you have no idea what wild semantic. This type of memory requires strong elephants are really like (or how much adrenaline intrinsic motivation\u2014something that\u2019s usually you have!). Now, that\u2019s a very different memory missing from learning that\u2019s based on textbooks (it\u2019s episodic) than the memory created as a result and handouts. Ways to help students better of reading about elephants. Episodic memory for- mation involves the hippocampus and the medial","134 Teaching with the Brain in Mind temporal lobe. Curiosity, novelty, and expectations that comes with the same learning location: same motivate it, and it\u2019s enhanced by intensified sensory desk, same seating arrangement, same classroom. input, such as sights, sounds, smells, taste, and touch. Some options include using stand-up reviews, learning stations, labs, or regrouping; going out- The episodic memory process has unlimited side; trading rooms with another teacher; and capacity, is effortless, and is used naturally by allowing students to stand or lean against a far wall everyone. Ask a content question like \u201cWhat did or desk. you have for dinner last night?\u201d and most people first ask themselves, \u201cWhere was I?\u201d The location Reflexive Memory and the fact of being there trigger the content recall. A common example of this focus on loca- Reflexive memory is one kind of implicit tion is the question \u201cWhere were you when 9\/11 memory. Some of our responses in life are reflexive happened?\u201d (see Figure 10.7). You jerk your leg when a doctor taps your knee, you cover your ears at the sound of How does the episodic memory process work? a blaring siren, and you blink to protect your eyes Surprisingly, our visual system has both \u201cwhat\u201d from a thrown object. (Those actions are instinc- (content) and \u201cwhere\u201d (location) pathways (Kosslyn, tive as well as reflexive.) What we learn can become 1992). Many researchers believe this information is reflexive, too. processed by the hippocampus in a visual fabric, or \u201cweave of mental space.\u201d We possess a backup mem- Figure 10.7 ory system based on locational cues because every Reflexive Memory life experience has to be, in some way, contextually embedded. All learning provides contextual cues as Messages travel through long as \u201cyou were there.\u201d the spinal cord along nerve pathways Episodic processing does have a major draw- to the muscles. back: contamination, which can take place when you have too many event memories embedded in Memories are stored the same location memories (say, months of read- in the parietal lobe, ing a textbook in the same seat in the same class- frontal lobe, room in the same school). Contamination is like and cerebellum. when a virus renames all the files in your com- puter with the same file name\u2014the information Muscles are is there, but because you can\u2019t distinguish it, it\u2019s activated by an nearly useless. This often happens to students electrical impulse. who really do know their material but lack the specific \u201chooks\u201d or mental \u201cfile names\u201d to retrieve all their learning. Practical suggestions. Use teaching strategies that incorporate mobility to remove the staleness","Memory and Recall 135 The pathway for reflexive memory can be sub- around 90 percent (Christianson & Loftus, 1990). divided into emotional memories (such as a favor- Several scientists at the Center for the Neurobiology ite song from high school, a first kiss, a car of Learning and Memory at the University of accident) and nonemotional associative memories. California\u2013Irvine have tested the effects of emo- There are only two ways that new learning can tions on memory. Norepinephrine (also known as become reflexive: either through intense sensory noradrenaline) is a hormone released from the input (the kind experienced through trauma, cele- peripheral nerve endings of the sympathetic nerves. brations, and other emotion-laden events) or Typically it\u2019s released in an emergency, but on a through repetition. broader level, increased risk, excitement, and urgency will prompt its release. Amazingly, it acts Practical suggestions. In the classroom, reflex- as a memory fixative, locking up memories of ive retrieval can happen with flashcard repetition or exciting or traumatic events (Cahill et al., 1994). other forms of \u201cover learning,\u201d which may explain Students who get a standing ovation or a harsh why a student who struggles to retain information rebuke from a teacher\u2014or who enjoy and cele- read in a textbook can often excel with content- brate the completion of a project\u2014are likely to laden raps. The raps trigger the implicit reflexive recall that moment for years. memories of stored material and engage a different part of the brain than reading, note taking, or essay Practical suggestions. Teachers can and should writing would. The automatic nature of a rap orchestrate emotions in the classroom. Ways to do means that it can also trigger implicit memories this may include introducing unusual aromas through both the physical motions and the audi- (from freshly baked cookies or bread, for example); tory cues. The blank on a fill-in-the-blank test can emphasizing happy occasions, such as celebrations, be the prompt for semantic or reflexive retrieval, positive rituals, and acknowledgments; incorporat- depending on how the student learned the material ing \u201cgross\u201d things, such as wet, bubbly, slippery, and how much review was done. The more prac- gooey science displays; and mixing in storytelling tice and the more \u201cautomated\u201d the learning, the and other experiences where suspense or surprise more likely it will become reflexive. Celebrations may be a feature. Emotional responses triggered and other events with an emotional component are during or immediately after the learning will help another way to encourage reflexive memory. embed the memories. Emotions and Memory Procedural Memory We\u2019ve discussed the importance of emotions in Procedural memory is another kind of implicit several other chapters, so it should come as no sur- memory. It is often known as motor memory, body prise that emotions get privileged treatment in the learning, or habit memory. (Riding a bike is one brain\u2019s memory system. The correlation between the example. Even if you haven\u2019t ridden for years, you strength of the original emotional event and the likeli- can usually do it again without practice.) Proce- hood of retrieval of that event is astonishingly high, dural memory is expressed by student responses,","136 Teaching with the Brain in Mind actions, or behaviors. It\u2019s activated by physical (with puppets, charades, or manipulatives) can do movements, sports, dance, games, theater, and it. You can the use the whole body (dance, move- role-play. Procedural memory appears to have ment, theater, drama) to get a strong effect. Activ- unlimited storage, requires minimal review, and ities that promote procedural memory can occur needs little intrinsic motivation. outdoors (during recess, physical education, sports) or indoors (games, visual arts, music, puzzles, Memories of learned skills involve the learning stations). Learning that involves any of striatum, the pons, the globus pallidus (located these strategies is likely to be remembered for a near the lower middle area of the brain), and the long time, which suggests that you should allow cerebellum (Duyon & Ungerleider, 2002). To students to have time for error correction and add the brain, the body is not a separate, isolated a celebration at the end to enhance the \u201cright\u201d entity. Body and brain are part of the same con- memory. tiguous organism, and what happens to the body happens to the brain. This dual stimulus Here\u2019s just one example of using simple move- creates a more detailed \u201cmap\u201d for the brain to ment to reinforce learning. If you have three points use for storage and retrieval (Squire, 1992). to make, begin by asking students to rise. Then ask Maybe that\u2019s why most students will tell you them to take three steps in any direction. Intro- that their most memorable classroom experi- duce the first of the three points briefly as a pre- ences were based on hands-on learning. view. Include an action that links with the topic. Ask students to walk three more steps. Introduce Physical activities, like role-playing, doing a the second point, including an action. Repeat this hands-on science experiment, or creating a project step for the third point. After you\u2019ve introduced all in an industrial arts class are highly likely to be three points, ask the students to sit down. recalled. These are, in fact, the most commonly used methods for early childhood learning. A Memory Maintenance child\u2019s life is full of actions that require standing, riding, sitting, trying out, eating, moving, playing, Why do we have to \u201cwork\u201d to maintain memories? building, or running. These activities create a The answer is simple: Memories are malleable. As wider, more complex, and overall greater source of a general rule, most of what we are exposed to we sensory input to the brain than mere cognitive don\u2019t remember. Of the things we do remember, it activity. At school, this type of learning diminishes is highly unlikely that they will remain in our each year until it\u2019s virtually absent from all but a memories intact. Memory expert Daniel Schacter physical education, industrial arts, or drama (2001) of Harvard University posits seven reasons curriculum. Yet a summary of the research tells us for why memories fail us: transience (memory ero- that this learning is robust. It is age and IQ inde- sion over time), absent-mindedness (we weren\u2019t pendent and has less variance once learned really paying attention), blocking (it\u2019s on the tip of (Reber, 1993). our tongue), misattribution (we\u2019re confused by similar memories), suggestibility (alternative Practical suggestions. A variety of approaches can engage procedural memory. The use of hands","Memory and Recall 137 thoughts unintentionally contaminate memo- of September 11, 2001? The research suggests that ries), bias (existing prejudices influence our mem- unless you lived near the sites of the attacks, you ory), and persistence (a negative memory either won\u2019t recall exactly where you were, or what becomes pervasive). Each of these reasons alone is you do recall may be wrong. Before you cry foul and enough to create problems, but all seven make insist that you would never forget, consider the results consistent, accurate retrieval a very unlikely pros- of a couple of studies. The memories of graduate stu- pect (see Figure 10.8). You might think you have dents who kept a diary after the 1986 Challenger some memories that will always be with you, but space shuttle disaster were riddled with major errors research is showing why and how even traumatic just 12 months later (Neisser & Harsch, 1992). Three memories can be altered. years after the O. J. Simpson trial verdict, less than 30 of a large group of California undergraduates had As an example, let\u2019s use the events of 9\/11 once accurate recall of where they were when the verdict again. Will you always remember where you were was announced and what happened (Schmolk, when you first became aware of the terrorist incidents Figure 10.8 Seven Primary Sources of Memory Malleability Absentmindedness Suggestibility Inattentiveness Contamination by planted thoughts, accidental or not Persistence Misattribution Traumatic or continuously False recognition, getting recurring memories that the \u201cgist\u201d\u2014but incorrectly \u201cblock\u201d or bias the formation of new memories Subject bias Blocking Distortion based on prior or Things \u201con the tip of subsequent knowledge or the tongue\u201d events, prejudice Transience Erosion of unused memories over time Source: Adapted from Schacter (2001).","138 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Buffalo, & Squire, 2000). In short, time is a serious reminding and reactivation, can then be viewed as a challenge, even with so-called \u201cunforgettable\u201d means by which specific attributes are selectively memories. strengthened, and memory as a whole made more retrievable\u201d (p. 280). Naturally, if the activation is Consider the experiments of New York Univer- accurate (the correct information is retrieved or it is sity neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux and colleagues corrected after inaccurate retrieval), it will strengthen (2003), who found that when subjects \u201crelived\u201d fear- the memory. Anderson (1995) found that reviewing ful memories, the memories reverted to a volatile, material is most beneficial when done immediately unconsolidated state, as if the fear-inducing events or soon after the initial learning. Because various has just occurred. In other words, reactivating a attributes of memories become strengthened by use, memory means it has to be reprocessed for storage greater frequency of activation will influence them. all over again. LeDoux used a protein blocker to If the information retrieved is faulty and left uncor- prevent the reconsolidation process and found that rected, the resulting \u201cfalse\u201d memory will be strength- long-time, fear-invoking memories became tame ened. In other words, we may need to make even and unemotional. This finding suggests that all greater efforts to ensure that students retrieve and memories, even traumatic ones, are subject to alter- maintain accurate memories. ation and may even be erasable Practical Suggestions That said, some memories are not as malleable as others. After Tiger Woods burst onto the golf scene From a practical standpoint, it\u2019s important to with major victories early in his career, he hit a well- realize that even with supposedly unforgettable publicized slump. To recapture his game, he under- classroom learning experiences, students\u2019 memories took a retooling of his golf swing\u2014the same swing will unravel or change. Plan on students remem- that had served him since he began golfing as a tot. bering the wrong things or completely forgetting The memories were procedural and, originally, highly some things. Why? You\u2019ll be right more often than implicit. To change them, he had to make the alter- you\u2019ll be wrong, and you\u2019ll be inspired to invest a ations explicitly, and the procedure took almost a year few minutes in daily and weekly reviews. You can to implement. This suggests to us just how robust this review via mind maps, paired sharing, group dis- memory system is. It can be changed, but even with cussions, and countless other tools. practice, the change takes time. The Impact of Activation Memory Retrieval Memories are not stored intact, and that creates Memories that are more active (that were either a problem. Because some attributes of memory may formed or accessed recently) are considered less experience different fates over time, memories are consolidated than inactive ones: more fragile and very likely to be incomplete or erroneous (Land & subject to change and harder to retrieve (Nader, Riccio, 1998). This suggests that more consolidation Schafe, & LeDoux, 2000). Interestingly, one set makes sense: \u201cReconsolidation, as a function of","Memory and Recall 139 of variables is involved in making memories and works on a very different mechanism in the brain, another set is involved in retrieving them. The the stress response system (Thompson, 1993). synaptic consolidation happens within minutes to hours after initial learning occurs. This two-part Admittedly, educators have limited influence process of making and retreiving memories is activ- over students\u2019 diets or their brain chemistry in gen- ity dependent for short-term memory, meaning that eral. The good news is that we have potentially it requires repetition.The long-term memory much more influence over many of the other fac- mechanisms that lead to encoding, transcription, tors that affect memory retrieval. Here are just a and synaptic growth are modulatory dependent, few of the strategies for doing so. meaning that they need the presence of emotions. Matching the Original Memory A host of factors influence whether and how State or Context well we recall something. One is chemical arousal within the brain. Hormones, certain kinds of food, Recall is stronger when we are in the same emo- and neurotransmitters can all enhance or inhibit tional state we were in when the memory was recall if they are present at the time of learning. For formed. What\u2019s more, learning acquired under a example, the brain uses the neurotransmitter ace- particular state (happy, sad, stressed, or relaxed) is tylcholine in long-term memory formation most easily recalled when the person is in that same (Kilgard & Merzenich, 1998; McGaugh, 1992). state (Eich, 1995). The strategy for teachers, then, is Levels of this neurotransmitter are greater at night, to try to engineer matching states when it\u2019s necessary during memory consolidation, and agents that reduce for students to recall something that they\u2019ve learned. the deterioration of acetylcholine\u2014known as acetyl- cholinesterase inhibitors\u2014are linked to improved Practical suggestions. The discrepancy recall (Woodruff-Pak, Vogel, & Wenk, 2001). between learning states and testing states is widely known among researchers as a source of perfor- Ideally, learning brains have high levels of the mance loss (Bower, 1981; Overton, 1984). There chemical choline, a key ingredient in the production are two ways to affect this phenomenon. First, we of acetylcholine. Lecithin, found in eggs, salmon, can teach students how to better manage their own and lean beef, raises choline levels; many studies emotional states at test time (for example, through have shown that lecithin intake boosts recall. Other relaxation methods or positive self-talk). Second, nutrients found to support memory function we can rehearse the learning in a variety of states to include folic acid, lipoic acid, and vitamins B, C, promote \u201crecall resiliency\u201d\u2014acclimation to the and E (Carper, 2000), which are found in spinach, range of emotions students might feel at test time. lean proteins, most vegetables, and salmon. Studies Savvy teachers use timed quizzes, public quizzes, or show that even the presence of just 100 mg\/kg of small-group presentations, and they provide struc- household sugar in the bloodstream can enhance tured practice taking timed mock tests. This memory if given after a nonemotional learning approach lets students practice in many states, one event (Mohanty & Flint, 2001). Sugar has no of which may match the testing one. effect on memories of emotional events, because it A third powerful strategy is matching loca- tions or learning contexts. Within the brain, the","140 Teaching with the Brain in Mind hippocampus makes a spatial map of where we are an Italian resturant on the way home; it wasn\u2019t and embeds the learning within that location something that registered consciously, but the visual (Rosenzweig, Redish, McNaughton, & Barnes, nevertheless triggered a memory of how much we 2003). The use of retrieval clues\u2014spatial or enjoy the spaghetti alle vongole at Nunzio\u2019s. sensory\u2014can produce astonishing results. Subjects in studies by Bahrick (1975, 1983, 1984) and This memory process is known as priming\u2014in Bahrick and Hall (1991) demonstrated remarkable this example, incidental priming. The other kind of recall for diverse content (from Spanish to mathe- priming is intentional priming, which, from an educa- matics to locations, name, and faces) when careful tional standpoint, is even more effective at supporting attention was paid to replicating learning contexts. memory than incidental priming. Intentional prim- For example, given context stimuli, even elderly ing simply means you provide cues in advance of the subjects scored 80 to 90 percent correct on tests actual learning. Even patients with amnesia can usu- that measured the ability to recognize former class- ally recall something with a bit of priming (Martin mates that they had not seen for years. And Schab & Van Turenout, 2002). What\u2019s at work here is the (1990) found that if students eat chocolate (or implicit memory system: We know it, but we don\u2019t another aromatic, sensory-stimulating food, like know we know it. peppermint) while they are learning, they\u2019ll recall more of that learning if they are again given choco- Priming is a good strategy for another reason. late (or the same matched food) during the test. Memories are frozen patterns waiting for a resonat- ing signal to awaken them. They\u2019re like ripples on Research clearly demonstrate that matching a bumpy road that make no sound until a car the original learning location and circumstances drives over them. Neurobiologist William Calvin can improve the chances for recall. Many schools (1996) says the content may be embedded in have paid particular attention to this principle \u201cspatiotemporal themes\u201d that will resonate and cre- when administering state tests, ensuring that stu- ate a critical mass needed for retrieval. This theory dents take these tests in the same classroom where explains why a student trying to remember infor- they reviewed for it. The theory is that the room is mation for a test comes up with the answer a half full of invisible retrieval \u201ccues\u201d and is also emotion- hour too late. It may take that long for the \u201cinten- ally more comfortable than an unfamiliar room, tion to recall\u201d to create enough \u201cactivated thought which may arouse stress. patterns\u201d to hit critical mass. Earlier, the brain may not have been able to retrieve the information Priming because too much other competing information processing was going on. Support for this theory Memories often form while we are not paying comes from a recent study showing that different attention (Schacter & Tulving, 1994). As an exam- types of glial cells (interneurons) display memory- ple, we drive home from work, thinking about our specific firing patterns that contribute to activating day. Later on, we decide we want to go to our favor- neural networks (Klausberger et al., 2003). ite Italian restaurant. It just so happened that we saw Practical suggestions. The phenomena described by Calvin and other researchers suggests","Memory and Recall 141 the value of priming and a related strategy\u2014\u201cwait word forms a new word. For example, we remem- time.\u201d First, with regard to priming, it\u2019s important ber the names of the planets (Mercury, Venus, to realize that giving students hints about upcom- Earth, Mars . . .) by reciting, \u201cMy very energetic ing things is not cheating. I\u2019ll often give simple mother just served us nine pizzas.\u201d For years, we\u2019ve \u201cletter primes\u201d such as \u201cEarlier we talked about learned the musical notes on the lines of the G-clef memories being located in different areas of by memorizing \u201cevery good boy does fine.\u201d We our _____ (fill-in). The word starts with the letters learn the names of the Great Lakes by making one BR.\u201d The cues don\u2019t even need to be exact, just word of their first letters: HOMES (Huron, related (Schacter, 1996). Awareness of the value of Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior). priming helps us understand why students like multiple-choice tests; the format provides the To help students learn definitions, ask them to prompts that the brain needs. Forgetting occurs create action pictures that tie the two words because such cues are rarely present when the recall together. To remember the word semantic, we is needed. With regard to \u201cwait time,\u201d remember could picture a \u201csea man, with ticks on his face\u201d that students\u2019 brains are busy with many things (se-man-tic) holding up a long list of words to and need time for activation. If you\u2019re not going to memorize. That effectively unifies the two con- \u201cprime\u201d students, at least give them time to think cepts in memory. over ideas or retrieve memories. Analysis. Studies (Matthews, 1977) show that it Other Suggestions for Improving Memory is the analysis of the material that aids in the recall of it. Many successful teachers find that mind maps or Intentional wordplay. Rhymes, visualization, other graphic organizers not only improve students\u2019 mnemonics, peg words, music, and discussion help understanding of material, but also keep learning us recall semantic information. Without such strat- fresh. The mind map has a central organizing theme egies, reading a chapter can become an all-too- (such as an author, a science topic, or a math con- forgettable event. Remind students to stop after cept). Studies show that when students organize the every quarter or half page to take notes, discuss what material (instead of the teacher doing it for them), they\u2019ve read, or reflect. Conduct oral or written they recall it better (McDaniel, Waddell, & Einstein, review, both daily and weekly. Students can pair up 1988). Students benefit from analyzing a topic from or rotate in teams to present daily reviews. Consider varying perspectives; for example, they might learn repeating key ideas within 10 minutes of the original about weather by considering it in terms of the bene- learning, again 48 hours later, and then tie it all fits of varying types of weather and from the perspec- together 7 days later. Remember, spaced learning\u2014 tive of the kinds of damage it can do. They might with pauses and intervals for reflection\u2014is valu- explore the typical weather patterns of various geo- able. Without the quiet processing time, much graphic locations, the mythology related to weather, learning is never transferred to long-term memory. and the effect that technology has had on our ability to predict weather and manage its consequences. Teach students how to use acrostics\u2014phrases or sentences in which the first letter of each key A great, analysis-focused recall strategy is to allow students to create their own visual images"]