TEACHING WITH THE BRAIN IN MIND Edition ( PDFDrive )

["42 Teaching with the Brain in Mind \u2022 Show students how to create a graphic orga- that actually inhibit higher speeds of processing. nizer. Variations include students working on their Learning involves multiple stages of processing via own, students working with partners using flip- these structures and systems, and each one serves as chart paper, or students creating a mind map and a \u201cgating\u201d device. Considered as a whole, these passing it around for additions from others. structures act as a \u201csurge protector\u201d for the brain. Let\u2019s look at how the activities in some of these \u2022 Ask students in groups of three or four to structures affect learning. summarize a key point in a rhyming one-line review. You might even ask them to add a little Frontal lobes (short-term memory limita- choreography and to present it to the class. tions). The frontal lobes are where much of our short-term visual memory is located. Researchers Input Quantity have found that we can take in only three to seven chunks of information before we simply Educators are under considerable pressure to overload and begin to miss new incoming data teach more and more content during the school (Linden et al., 2003). year. However, expanding content through increased exposure benefits only one subject\u2014 Figure 3.6 language acquisition. To learn a new language, The Hippocampus as \u201cSurge Protector\u201d one ought to listen, speak, and read it as much as possible. Such processes as \u201csuperlearning\u201d and The hippocampus is a small C-shaped structure buried deep \u201caccelerated learning\u201d work well for exposure to in the temporal lobes (we have one on each side). It learns language. Reading more often is better than read- fast, but has limited capacity. ing less often. But in every other subject, more is not necessarily better. In the face of mandates from legislators and policymakers who add more to teachers\u2019 plates each year, somebody needs to stand up and say, \u201cYou can teach more and faster, but students will simply forget more and faster.\u201d In-depth (as opposed to superficial) learning requires time for organizing, integrating, and stor- ing new information. Even visual images require rest time for processing (Stickgold, James, & Hob- son, 2000). It\u2019s clear that although humans have an enormous lifetime capacity for learning, on a daily or \u201cper task\u201d basis, that capacity is limited by the processing time that brain systems require. And fur- thermore, the brain has several systems and struc- tures, such as the hippocampus (see Figure 3.6),","Rules We Learn By 43 Synaptic gap (formation time at each neuron). too rapidly, virtually guarantees that little will be The physical process of building connections for learned or retained. In fact, many teachers who explicit learning begins within 15 minutes of expo- complain of having to do so much \u201creteaching\u201d are sure to new information, and the synaptic connec- the same ones trying to cram too much content tions continue to strengthen during the next hour. into too little time. The brain is not built for con- It takes up to six hours to complete formation of tinuous focused input (Mednick et al., 2002). the synaptic connection for implicit learning Learning can be far more effective when external (Goda & Davis, 2003). The new learning must stimuli are shut down and the brain can pause to \u201cimprint.\u201d As McGill University\u2019s Peter Milner, link new information to earlier associations, uses, one of the giants in the study of learning and and procedures. \u201cThis association and consolidation memory, has observed, if the synapse is disturbed process can only occur during down time,\u201d says Allan before it can be set in this way, the memory is lost Hobson of Harvard University (1994, p. 115). One (1999). (See Figure 3.7.) study conducted with medical students (Russell, Hendricson, & Herbert, 1984) showed that those Neurons (protein recycling time). The brain must recycle proteins in the neurons that are cru- Figure 3.7 cial to long-term memory formation. To help Time Schedule for Complex Learning accomplish this, an incubation or settling time is necessary after new learning takes place (Schroth, Strength of Learning 3\u201330 days 1992). This means that learning improves with short sessions and rest intervals versus constant 24\u201372 hrs. exposure to new material. It is also dependent on frequent sleep for recycling of the learning (Bodizs, 60 4 Bekesy, Szucs, Barsi, & Halasz, 2002). 15 min. min. Hippocampus (capacity and consolidation 1 2 3 limitations). The hippocampus learns fast but has a very small memory capacity (Kelso, 1997). The Time Elapsed organization and distribution of memory in the 1. Initial connection is made. Synapses are formed or hippocampus takes time, and much of this work occurs while we sleep (Piegneux, Laureys, modified within first 15 minutes. Delbeuck, & Maquet, 2001). The process of turn- 2. Most explicit learning is held for evaluation by the ing electrical and chemical input into a memory is known as consolidation. This physical process also hippocampus. Synaptic adhesion strengthens. requires time. It\u2019s just one more limitation on the 3. At night, new learning is organized and codified.The speed of the learning process. hippocampus distributes it to the cortex through neu- Given what the research shows, it should be ral repetition for long-term storage. apparent that presenting more content per minute, 4. Integration into related networks may occur with or moving from one piece of learning to the next appropriate stimulation. Source: Based on data from Goda & Davis (2003) and Sejnowski (2002).","44 Teaching with the Brain in Mind who encountered the fewest new concepts or the \u2022 K\u20132. Use a nap, lunch, or rest period as set- least amount of additional detail per lecture tling time. retained more of the basic information than those who encountered more new concepts and more \u2022 Grades 1\u201312. Assign classroom chores or use detail. The bottom line is that learning connec- recess, a walk, paired time, reflection, lunch, listen- tions require time and maintenance (Sanes & ing to quiet instrumental music, or quiet \u201cchoice Lichtman, 2001). Remember: Less is more. Too time\u201d lasting 5 to 10 minutes as ways to get stu- much, too fast, it won\u2019t last. dents to wind down. Many schools have a curriculum that is too \u2022 Adults. Organize the presentation so that wide and too shallow. We need to make some hard students get occasional breaks. choices about what to offer, and policymakers and others need to stop their endless demands to add Keep in mind that writing in journals or discuss- more content. If anything, a more brain-based ing new learning in small groups is a great way to approach would focus on critical-thinking skills, elaborate on learning, but is not settling time for the strategic decision making, learn-to-learn skills, brain. The primary ingredient in settling time is \u201cno cooperative alliance making, and strengthening of new learning.\u201d If a teacher uses this time for seatwork emotional intelligence. or deadline-centered projects, the brain is not resting. Practical Suggestions How much settling time is required depends on two variables: the material and the learner. If the I asked world-renowned neuroscientist Terry material is both complex and novel, it requires much Sejnowski what he would suggest for an approach more elaboration and settling time. If the back- to learning. His advice? \u201cLearn, discuss, then take a ground of the learner is high and the content is walk.\u201d The essential point is that teachers must familiar, much less settling time is needed. Teaching encourage \u201cpersonal processing time\u201d or \u201csettling heavy, new content to novice learners may require 2 time\u201d after new learning so that material can solid- to 5 minutes of processing for every 10 to 15 min- ify. Students can be taught how to do this. Parents utes of instruction. But a review of familiar material who are uncomfortable with the notion\u2014or mis- to well-rehearsed learners should require less settling takenly see it as \u201cloafing\u201d\u2014need some background time. The learners will tell you what they can take. information about it. Personally, I believe the Consider the complexity of the content or skill, its phrase \u201csettling time\u201d better reflects what\u2019s needed novelty to the learners, and their emotional state. by the brain than the word \u201crest,\u201d which implies the brain is doing nothing. As we have learned, Coherence those synapses take time to form! For simple learning (realizing that a stove is hot Here are some suggestions for students at after putting your hand on it, or learning the def- various levels: inition of a single word), no \u201cstrategic content packaging\u201d may be needed. There\u2019s no complex- ity to baffle the senses, nor is there a need for a","Rules We Learn By 45 particular order. Accurate learning occurs almost books, I\u2019m going to focus on just two of the more every time. However, most other learning is dif- important elements that contribute to meaning ferent. It does matter to the learner how things making and coherence. Both are powerful brain are \u201cpackaged,\u201d and there are countless variations, concepts that are driven by the activation of indi- including the following: vidual connections and the power of neural net- works. Each supports our ability to teach the \u2022 Global versus sequential. understanding of difficult material. These concepts \u2022 Emotional versus bland. often go together, and the best teachers use them \u2022 Abstract versus concrete. successfully. The first is the power of activating the \u2022 Reflective versus active. familiar before the unfamiliar\u2014the value of prior \u2022 In text versus in context (field-dependent). knowledge. The second is the power of examples \u2022 Novel versus familiar. and the extrapolation of mental rules or models. \u2022 Examples versus generalizations (rules). The Value of Prior Knowledge There are data that support each of those choices under certain conditions and with certain subjects. Have you ever done a word association? If I say a Many of these variables, such as a sequence, we word\u2014let\u2019s pick a random one, like \u201cbrain\u201d\u2014what adjust to automatically while learning, if we are other words come to mind? Every word you choose is motivated to do so (Nissen & Bullemer, 1987). But an example of your prior knowledge. Now imagine we still have individual preferences. In other words, this: every other word, picture, or sound in your brain brain research does not offer guidance in creating a has some knowledge (detailed or scattered) attached to it. specific teaching template. Still, research does tell us We\u2019ve all heard of the importance of prior knowl- that content is more likely to get our attention if it is edge, but I\u2019d like you to elevate its importance. Whatever you thought about its value before, mul- \u2022 Emotional (not bland). tiply that by 10. Here are some considerations: \u2022 Specific (not general). \u2022 Novel (not familiar). \u2022 All students will have some prior knowledge, even if it\u2019s just random or unconscious learning. The next time you\u2019re in the supermarket, look at the headlines of the tabloids. They follow that \u2022 Prior knowledge is not a mythical concoc- formula relentlessly. Furthermore, brain research tion. It consists of real, physical brain matter (syn- supports the conclusion that content is more apses, neurons, and related, connected networks). likely to become meaningful to us if we can \u2022 Prior knowledge fundamentally influences \u2022 Relate it to familiar, prior information. whether and how a student will gain an accurate or \u2022 Be both active and reflective with it. deep understanding of the topic. \u2022 Learn it in context. \u2022 Prior knowledge is personal, complex, and Because many of these characteristics are cov- highly resistant to change. ered elsewhere either in this book or in other \u2022 The best way to teach is to understand, respect, and build on the student\u2019s prior knowledge.","46 Teaching with the Brain in Mind One way to think about the prior knowledge will erase faulty, incomplete, or incoherent sets of that students have is to visualize a tumbleweed\u2014 prior connections. The greater the complexity of the those spherical brown weeds, often two to three idea, task, or association, the greater the number of feet in diameter. An ant can crawl from any part of connected neurons. A single association of prior this weed to any other part of the weed; some knowledge may have as many as 10,000 connec- paths are just quicker than others. Inside our brain, tions. As you\u2019ll soon see, these connections are so we have massive, bushy, tumbleweed-like clusters stubborn, you have to work with what students of neurons. They connect and overlap extensively have, not try to erase or fix them. but are separated by their functionality. The Power of Mental Models These clusters can also be thought of as \u201cknowl- edge trees\u201d made up of neurons connected Mental models are coherent structures for under- through prior associations accumulated over standing things. Lambert and Walker (1995) define a time. Consider what the following words have in mental model as common: oatmeal, ballroom, ozone, Calcutta, space shuttle, and Inuit. In my mind, they aren\u2019t an individual\u2019s existing understanding and connected at all. The funny thing is, a creative interpretation of a given concept, which is mind could connect them all, either in a fabri- formed and reformed on the basis of experi- cated story or as a result of having a very adven- ences, beliefs, values, sociocultural histories, turous life! In theory, any bit of prior knowledge and prior perceptions. It typically refers to can become connected to any other bit, so these internalized representations of a device or idea clusters of neurons can become extraordinarily held in the mind of one or more persons. (p. 1) complex and messy. You can \u201chear\u201d some of the best manifestations of neural connections in an The term mental model has been applied to improvisation by Robin Williams. You can \u201csee\u201d quite a wide range of representations, sometimes them in action when students write out what functional models\u2014the conception of how some- they know in graphic patterns called clusters, thing works\u2014and other times, structural models\u2014 webs, or mind maps. an understanding of where all the parts of some- thing are and what is connected to what. Our Prior knowledge fundamentally influences all mental models (or schemas) affect how we inter- learning (Altmann, 2002). One common reason\u2014 pret new concepts and events. They play a power- and there are many\u2014that students might not ful role in the learning of both children and adults. understand a concept is that they have competing, conflicting, or unreliable prior knowledge that The term is also a way of simplifying and dooms their thinking. The knowledge trees are trig- understanding the relevant processes involved in a gered each time a student thinks of just part of the more detailed concept. From a physiological stand- tree. Each mental tree is firmly in place and will not point, mental models could be described as simpli- be removed by what a teacher says. No F on a test, fied neuronal networks (Zull, 2002). They can be no disappointed look, and no gentle verbal correction created in an hour after a learning experience, or they may develop over years. When you require","Rules We Learn By 47 students to make their own models, you\u2019re helping as well as to describe and organize knowledge more them reach a deep understanding rarely achievable effectively. In other words, they need to know how by more traditional lecture. to purposely, consciously create their own models. You may assume that either your students know Frederick Reif is a professor at the Center something or they do not. But the understanding of for Innovation in Learning and the Departments how mental models function, supported by many of Physics and Psychology at Carnegie-Mellon cognitive scholars, suggests otherwise. The organiza- University. His work explores how to design tion of prior learning can be contradictory, messy, or instruction so that students can better learn coherent. Redish (2004) provides an example of thinking skills and can acquire both flexible and \u201cmessy\u201d organization when he describes the frag- usable scientific knowledge for complex mented nature of students\u2019 acquired scientific domains like higher mathematics or science. knowledge, noting that it consists of separate pieces Reif (1987) asserts mental models are funda- of information that often cannot be inferred from mental to teaching. He has plenty of support, one another or from other knowledge. including from Howard Gardner (1991), who believes mental models are critical and just as When we describe mental models as \u201ccoherent important as, if not more important than, the structures for understanding things,\u201d it\u2019s impor- theory of multiple intelligences. tant to note that coherent to one learner does not mean coherent to another. Nor does coherent Trying to organize a significant body of knowl- mean accurate. Most learners begin with highly edge is a challenge. It is reasonably easy to learn na\u00efve preexisting notions. They often build their something that matches or extends an existing prior knowledge into thinking models that may be mental model, but if it does not match, learning is both incorrect and inconsistent (Pine & Messer, very difficult. Finding out what students already 1998)\u2014and remarkably resistant to change. Here know and asking them to make connections to are some examples of poorly formed models: another, more accurate model is how the real learn- ing process begins. Even complex, higher-level sci- \u2022 \u201cThey were poor when they were young, so ence and math courses can be effectively taught to they didn\u2019t learn much.\u201d novices with the use of developed mental models (McLachlan, 2003). \u2022 \u201cTornadoes form because it\u2019s the season when it gets really windy in this part of the country.\u201d One study involving 6-year-old children looked at whether providing them with diverse \u2022 \u201cI can\u2019t learn that subject because I don\u2019t information\u2014information about more than one have any background in it.\u201d element of a mental model\u2014could promote change in their mental models about the shape \u2022 \u201cIf a metal ball falls off this table, it will fall of the earth. The study randomly allocated 132 faster than a plastic ball.\u201d children to a control group or to one of two train- ing groups. Some children received instruction that Any effective instruction must first deal with challenged their beliefs concerning (1) why the bogus mental models. Students need skills to prop- erly interpret new relevant concepts and principles,","48 Teaching with the Brain in Mind earth appears flat and (2) the role of gravity. \u2022 Allow individual students to voluntarily Others received instruction that repeatedly chal- explain what they know to the whole class. Learn lenged only one of these beliefs (Coley, Hayes, from as many of your students as possible. It\u2019s Lawson, & Moloney, 2004). The researchers often good to ask them privately to volunteer and interviewed the children before and after get permission to call on them. instruction to determine the children\u2019s mental models of the earth. They found that both \u2022 Help students learn by teaching them how instruction methods resulted in increases in fac- to organize information in a hierarchical (tree- tual knowledge, but only children receiving shaped) form. instruction about two core beliefs showed an increased rate of acceptance of a spherical earth \u2022 Link new learning to students\u2019 prior knowl- model. The findings show that instruction that edge. Make frequent use of analogies. challenges diverse aspects of children\u2019s na\u00efve scien- tific beliefs is more likely to produce conceptual \u2022 Recognize that students will learn better by change (Hayes, Goodhew, Heit, & Gillan, 2003). doing than by only watching something being done. In short, instead of avoiding what students know and what they construct in their mental models, be \u2022 Allow time for students to physically create proactive. The odds are in your favor. written mental models on paper or to build them, if appropriate (typically in science and math). Practical Suggestions \u2022 Practice, practice, practice. Students must Presenting knowledge in well-organized form actively practice using well-organized knowledge. is useful, but it\u2019s also inadequate. It\u2019s far more Give them opportunities to exploit their personal important\u2014and a requirement for good teach- organization to help them remember and retrieve ing\u2014to ensure that the knowledge in the student\u2019s pertinent information. brain is well organized. Students are pretty good at understanding a simple example, but without sup- \u2022 Let students test their models to find out if port, they may not form an effective mental these models work well for new information. If model. Once you discover false beliefs, it\u2019s also not, give them time to revise. Students can then important to challenge them. Here are some strate- accurately learn how to analyze problems, con- gies to help you accomplish this: struct solutions, and check their solutions for con- sistency against known facts. \u2022 Start with what students know. Let them write it out before they share it with others. Timing \u2022 Allow students to roughly cluster the infor- The brain and body have many different mation. Then insist they structure it more formally rhythms\u2014patterns they fall into on a daily, according to the way they think they understand it. monthly, and seasonal basis. You\u2019ve probably noticed that you have periods of high and low energy throughout the day, and these shifts seem to either heighten or decrease your attention, interest, and learning. These fluctuations are","Rules We Learn By 49 known as ultradian rhythms, one of the brain\u2019s and breathing that affects learning (Shannahoff- many different cycles. They last about 90 to 110 Khalsa, 1993). The brain becomes alternately more minutes, so there are about 12 to 16 cycles over a efficient in processing either verbal or spatial infor- 24-hour period (see Figure 3.8). If you have a mation. One study (Gordon, Stoffer, & Lee, 1995) peak at 9 a.m., your low will occur about 45 min- tested subjects\u2019 performance on cognitive tasks over utes later. Your next peak of energy will occur at a period of eight hours. The verbal task of written about 10:50 to 11:00 a.m. Keep in mind that word production cycled at 80 minutes; the spatial many things can override these high-low cycles, task of locating points in space cycled at 96 min- such as exercise, novelty, caffeine, or emergencies. utes. Remember, these are just averages; individu- But the timing of the schedule is stable in our als\u2019 cycles will vary. These ultradian rhythms of the brain, shifting a little each day to keep pace with right and left brain also affect tactile learning. For the daily changes in summer to winter lighting or example, the sensory pathways from each hand ter- changes in time zones. The brain\u2019s rhythms play a minates in the contralateral (opposite) hemisphere key role in understanding and influencing cogni- of the brain. There\u2019s an increase in the skill of the tive performance, memory processes, visual per- right or left hand during every two-to-three-hour ception, levels of arousal, performance, mood, shift as our brain\u2019s chemicals change throughout and behavior (both individual and even social). the day (Meier-Koll, 1999). It\u2019s odd that although we are familiar with and Hormones and Cognition accept the notion of \u201clight\u201d and \u201cdeep\u201d sleep, we rarely connect this with typical high- and low- Hormones play a key role in the brain\u2019s arousal cycles during the day. These periods of rhythms. It is not a myth; hormones can and do alternating efficiency correlate with a known body alter how we learn. Various hormones are associ- rhythm, \u201cthe basic rest\u2013activity cycle.\u201d Some stu- ated with various kinds of learning tasks, and the dents who are consistently drowsy in your class hormones fluctuate according to different cycles. may simply be at the bottom of their attentional cycle. The daily low, or \u201cdown,\u201d parts of the 90- to Figure 3.8 110-minute cycle reflect a \u201ctake it easy\u201d message High and Low Daily Energy Cycles from the brain. These low-energy times strongly affect adolescent moods (Barber, Jacobson, Miller, Levels Awake & Petersen, 1998). of Asleep Ultradian Rhythms and Cognition Arousal Day Moods and energy levels are not the only Night things affected by ultradian rhythms. The brain also shifts its cognitive abilities on those high and low cycles. There\u2019s literally a change in blood flow","50 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Although you have little direct control over your activity. Findings suggest that higher estrogen may own hormones, you have some options in how you facilitate the automatic activation of verbal repre- handle the hormonal variations in your students. sentations in memory (Maki, Rich, & Rosenbaum, 2002). Studies have also found that the menstrual We know that the brain hemispheres are not cycle affects performance of spatial, verbal, and the same. As we learned in Chapter 1, the left even mental arithmetic tasks (Kasamatsu et al., hemisphere is generally associated with verbal 2002). In males, low to moderate levels of testos- skills, and the right hemisphere with spatial skills. terone result in better performance on spatial tasks; We also know that males and females tend to differ high levels undermine task performance (Neave, in their ability to perform certain skills\u2014so-called Menaged, & Weightman, 1999). Females also have \u201csexually dimorphic\u201d skills, such as fine-motor testosterone, but what are considered \u201chigh\u201d levels coordination, verbal fluency, and the ability to in a female are actually about the same as \u201clow\u201d mentally \u201crotate\u201d shapes. Studies have found that levels in a male. Women with high testosterone the hemispheres function at different levels of effi- scored higher on these same measures of spatial ciency that change systematically across both the ability than women with low testosterone did. menstrual cycle and the male\u2019s testosterone cycle. However, the results depend on the specific task, Research also indicates that left-hemisphere perfor- which suggests that other learning variables may be mance increases as testosterone levels decline, involved (Gouchie & Kimura, 1991). whereas right-hemisphere performance increases as estrogen levels decline (Sanders, Sjodin, & de Practical Suggestions Chastelaine, 2002). These findings suggest that as the levels of these hormones shift and affect the The most challenging aspect of these phenom- performance in each hemisphere, skills related to ena is that each learner has a different brain, differ- language and spatial tasks also fluctuate. Figure 3.9 ent hormones, and a unique body clock. Some shows variations in task performance related to tes- educators may simply throw their arms up in the tosterone levels in both males and females. air and say, \u201cSo we\u2019re all different; what\u2019s new?\u201d But there\u2019s more to it than that. At any given time, A growing body of research suggests that hor- nearly half your class will be experiencing a \u201clow\u201d mones (such as insulin, estrogen, and testosterone) in energy, but a hundred minutes later, that half and peptides (such as oxytocin and vasopressin) will likely have higher energy. At any given point, may have a greater influence on learning than was some will be better at spatial tasks, others stronger once believed. This discovery has gender-difference at verbal tasks. Instead of being frustrated by these researchers scrambling to design experiments to variations, now you know why they occur. So it\u2019s find out whether the differences between males up to you either to develop a curriculum that takes and females are perceptual, cognitive, emotional, account of the low-energy times or to take charge or motor. Some findings are now emerging. The (without judgment) and meet it head on with differences across same-sex populations are moder- some of the ideas below. ate and consistent. Hormonal fluctuations within the menstrual cycle influence females\u2019 brain","Rules We Learn By 51 Tolerance. Expect students to vary in perfor- will do better when their brain is processing in a mance. Expect them to get frustrated occasionally way that uses more left-hemisphere activations. If because they can\u2019t do what they\u2019d like to do. You you teach reading at 10:00 a.m. every day, start can simply tell younger children that some days alternating the times. Teach reading at 10:00 a.m. we\u2019re better at some things than other days. With three days a week and at 11:40 a.m. two days a older students, remind them that bodies and brains week. You\u2019ll find that some students will do better, have varying levels of chemicals that can lead to because changing the time of instruction opens the varying levels of performance. Do not offer these window of \u201ccognitive efficiency\u201d wider. Approach explanations as an excuse, but rather as one more math the same way. factor that we all have to either accommodate or adjust to daily. Movement. Physical movement such as stand- ing, stretching, walking, or marching can increase Activity shifts. Although most classroom activ- brain amine levels, which can help improve ities use both hemispheres rather than being attentional focus. As a general policy, if students hemisphere-dominant, some are more specifically feel drowsy, they should be allowed to stand at the verbal or spatial. Reading, for example, is verbal back of the room for up to two minutes and and sequential. Some students who struggle with it stretch on their own, provided they do so without attracting attention to themselves. Cross-lateral Figure 3.9Performance High movements (crossing over a right arm or leg to Effect of Testosterone your left side and vice versa) are especially helpful on Task Performance in activating contralateral blood flow in both hemispheres. (For more about the importance of Spatial Tasks movement, see Chapter 4.) + Scheduling. Brain cycles make a good case for the use of block scheduling at the secondary level. Low With a longer block of time, the teacher can include break activities without feeling pressured to 0 teach content every minute. Teachers can also offer different types of activities to reach different learn- High ers with varied internal clocks. Physical and mental breaks may be especially helpful for students who \u2013 Low get too little sleep at home. Several breaks, from 5 to 20 minutes each, several times a day will Reasoning Tasks increase productivity. + Testing. The oscillation in brain activity sug- gests that certain students will get lower scores on Performance 0 High Low tests if we test them at the wrong time\u2014a particu- High larly troubling situation if grades are based largely on Low \u2013 Testosterone levels Testosterone levels in females in males Source: Based on data from Gouchie & Kimura (1991).","52 Teaching with the Brain in Mind the results of one or two tests. This understanding \u2022 We get a massive amount of sensory expo- makes a case for allowing students some choice in sure every day. Typically, we don\u2019t pay much atten- the assessment process. Portfolios, which are com- tion to new material. Because we\u2019re not yet sold on piled over time, are more inclusive and accurate its importance, we let it go. than a \u201csnapshot\u201d test, because they may account for students\u2019 \u201chighs\u201d and \u201clows\u201d better, producing a \u2022 Often the new material exceeds our short- more reliable average indicator of performance. term memory capacity, so it fades quickly. Error Correction \u2022 Our capacity to process information is often overloaded in the hippocampus. After an hour-long As we know, learning comes in many forms. lecture in a college classroom, students are lucky to Stimulus\u2013response learning and classical condi- remember the title of it, much less any of the 10,000 tioning are quite simple. Do a task, hear a bell, and to 15,000 words that were spoken so eloquently. we associate one variable with another. The two get \u201cpaired\u201d in the brain. (Does the name Pavlov The rule that \u201ctrial and error is ideal\u201d does not ring a bell?) This is also the \u201chand on the hot mean that teachers should forgo direct instruction stove\u201d effect. But for the most part, we\u2019re interested entirely. Direct instruction is appropriate for cer- in deeper, more complex learning, and nervous tain knowledge bases, particularly when students systems facing complex environments have to bal- must learn core, rules-based strategies under a time ance two serious requirements. First, they must limit. According to Carnegie Mellon psychologist quickly and reliably extract and use salient features David Klahr, direct instruction may be the best from sensory inputs. Second, they must generate way to teach young children about science, because coherent perceptual and cognitive action states, teachers don\u2019t have the time to elicit all the possi- which are fast moving and task specific. In other bilities through discovery learning. What\u2019s more, words, our nervous system must figure out what\u2019s there is no guarantee that the students will uncover going on and then do something about it. the complete picture or gain an accurate under- standing through trial and error alone. Many cog- The rule of error correction, or trial-and-error nitive process skills must be taught directly; they\u2019re learning, is based on two simple truths about the not something that most children acquire natu- brain: (1) the brain rarely gets it right the first rally, even if they have a lot of exposure to discov- time, and (2) making mistakes is key to developing ery learning experiences (Chen & Klahr, 1999). intelligence. The exceptions to the first truism Klahr suggests using specific, concrete examples would occur in cases of very simple learning and and plenty of hands-on tasks. This guidance helps exposure to trauma. Because we don\u2019t get complex ensure that students will grasp the underlying logic learning right the first time, trial-and-error learning and will be able to apply the new principle in a is needed to sort out those mistakes. But why do broad way. we have a brain that doesn\u2019t get it right the first time? Here are three reasons: Note that this science-based methodology con- trasts with the traditional concept of direct instruc- tion model: tell students what you are going to tell","Rules We Learn By 53 them, then tell them, and then tell them what you stronger by usage. Combine the two and you get a told them. I don\u2019t mean to suggest that all lecture smarter learner (see Figure 3.10). is bad. But if you lecture, you must remember that you have no idea whether your students have As you might have surmised by now, nature acquired the information correctly until you use prefers trial-and-error learning. When we say, another strategy to check their understanding. \u201cThat kid hasn\u2019t got a drop of common sense in Here\u2019s where we see the value of group discussions, him,\u201d we are usually referring to someone who case studies, self-scoring, game simulations, writing hasn\u2019t learned from his mistakes. Why all of us assignments, student rubrics, and a host of other don\u2019t learn from our mistakes is a bit complex, but high-feedback activities. They are what trial-and- three reasons are most common. First, often the error learning is all about. neural structures have been misguided, impaired, or damaged. This problem is common with cases Trial-and-error learning is also valuable because of fetal alcohol exposure, brain injury, and autism. it\u2019s intuitively simple. And mistakes, not correct Second, our own prior learning and mental models answers, make us smarter. While we could never memorize all the right answers needed to thrive in Figure 3.10 the future, we can eliminate some of the more The Value of Trial-and-Error Learning costly mistakes (by learning, for example, to \u201clook both ways before crossing\u201d). Of course, most expo- Sensory Activation sure to new learning comes at us so fast that we rarely get a chance to try it out and make mistakes Entry-level with it. The brain has a specific structure that is Neurons automatically activated when there\u2019s a discrepancy between what was expected and what actually hap- (receiving input) pened. It\u2019s located in the upper, front middle of the brain and known as the anterior cingulate. This Middle-level area seems to be designed by nature to help us take neurons advantage of trial-and-error learning (Kopp & Wolff, 2000). (repeatedly processing input Inside the brain, neural networks become more through trial and efficient when a learner tries out several possible options and eliminates the ones that don\u2019t work. error) Feedback-driven learning makes more accurate and complex connections. It\u2019s no different from trying Output-level out several routes in the drive home from work; after neurons a while, you find the most expedient route and stick with it. The neural connections are made more effi- (speaking, writing, cient by feedback-driven learning. They are made demonstrating) Output","54 Teaching with the Brain in Mind of what we think and know are surprisingly resis- leads to quicker learning. Active learning gives tant to change. And third, there may have been no teachers the opportunity to more quickly find out reflection or debriefing to create a clear under- what students know and don\u2019t know. Active learn- standing or mental model of what just happened ing also makes the learning more fun for the stu- so corrections could be made. dents and helps the class time go by faster. Now for the caveat: we must make mistakes and On the biological side, active learning has get enough appropriate feedback from them to learn. some additional advantages. First, because it Let\u2019s say a student makes a mistake and then covers it involves motion, it requires and brings more neural up when no one\u2019s looking. If the student gets away resources to the moment. This means an increase with it, the feedback is that mistakes are fine as long in attention, focus, and thinking skills. Second, as you can hide the negative results. Obviously, trial human beings are designed to recall better what we and error alone is not enough. The following closely do actively than what we do passively. Active learn- related components are also required: ing may involve more senses, motor learning, or varied spatial locations. Also, active learning allows \u2022 Consistent activities in which students can us to have a greater variety of unique mental, emo- test hypotheses and make mistakes. tional, and physical states, which are essential to learning (Sporns, Tononi, & Edelman, 2000). \u2022 Opportunities to make mistakes that they Each of these states mobilizes additional neurons can get immediate feedback about. in far different, more lasting, and more complex ways than semantic (word-based) learning. \u2022 Feedback that allows students to evaluate, reflect, and change their behavior. Finally, learning from trial and error activates more emotional structures in the brain, both posi- Most learners will tell you they\u2019d rather be tive and negative. The area of the brain involved active than passive. Unfortunately, many students with error correction and doing the right thing is have been conditioned to be passive for so many the anterior cingulate. It\u2019s in the top back of the years that by the time they\u2019re in secondary school frontal lobe near the corpus callosum. (Curiously, or college, active learning can feel strange. In one this structure is also activated by pain.) Neural sense, the biggest difference between the two is activity across the whole brain arises from the spe- that with active learning, feedback may be built in cific predictions that we make, which are culled to the activity. Examples of active learning include from prior learning and our expectations about call\u2013response, discussion, games, answering ques- future learning (Schultz & Dickinson, 2000). In tions, problem solving, building, and debating. other words, prediction\u2014and subsequent feel- ing\u2014is driving the learning process. Trial-and- On the practical side, active learning might error activities also activate more of the pleasure involve opportunities to make mistakes and learn structures in the brain than do simple memoriza- from them, which can eliminate wrong choices tion tasks (Poldrack et al., 2001), increasing their faster. If students are building a model instead of appeal and the odds of learners\u2019 continued reading about how to build it, they\u2019ll get feedback on the success or failure of the steps quickly\u2014which","Rules We Learn By 55 engagement. In short, it\u2019s not just what we think; \u2022 Model building. it\u2019s where, when, with whom, and how we feel \u2022 Peer editing. about it that matters. \u2022 Doing a gallery walk. \u2022 Pair-sharing. Practical Suggestions \u2022 Using spell-check functions. \u2022 Conducting student presentations with Thousands of studies support the role of feed- audience feedback. back in the learning process. Getting enough good- \u2022 Playing competitive games. quality, accurate feedback may be the single greatest \u2022 Using a video, audiotape, or mirror. variable for improving learning (Hattie, 1992). The \u2022 Doing author\u2019s chair or fishbowl processes. feedback must be corrective and positive enough to \u2022 Using a checklist or rubric to evaluate tell the student what the desired change must be. It performance. also must be timely. For most students, \u201ctimely\u201d means immediately following the learning or testing Your first reaction to these activities might be (Bangert-Downs, Kulick, Kulick, & Morgan, 1991), \u201cHow simple! I already do these things in my class- but for students with high reactivity or with chronic room.\u201d If so, that\u2019s great. Still, take some time to anxiety and stress, it\u2019s often preferable to provide reflect on the qualities of each of the activities additional time between the learning event and the listed. Notice that they all allow learners to make feedback on their performance. The element of mistakes and to get feedback that will allow them to choice is also key. When learners can choose the learn from those mistakes. And remember that type and timing of the feedback, they are more active learning does not necessarily include feed- likely to internalize and act on that feedback and back. As an example, a student doing a writing improve their subsequent performance. assignment is engaged in active learning, but some- thing like peer editing at the first-draft stage would Students tend to make more mistakes in the be necessary to add the valuable feedback element early stages of any new learning. Prompt feedback otherwise missing. What doesn\u2019t make sense is con- at this time is essential to prevent them from get- stant one-way learning. Our brain is designed to ting too far off course. As students\u2019 experience learn from mistakes. We need to give it a chance to deepens, their error rate drops, and feedback can do just that! be more measured, infrequent, and deliberate. But how do you offer good, timely feedback in a busy, Emotional States differentiated classroom? The answer is feedback- driven activities that involve less of the teacher and Learning happens in many complex layers. more of the student. Most of these activities are Retrieval of some learning seems to require spe- simple, quick, and easy to do. Most of them you\u2019ve cific physiological states, suggesting the role of either participated in or actually used with stu- emotions in memory. In fact, emotion turns out dents. And finally, they are activities you could use to be one of the most important regulators of at least once in every class you teach, every single day. Here are some examples:","56 Teaching with the Brain in Mind learning and memory. The more intense the emo- Honk et al., 2003). Other studies have concluded tional state, the more likely we are to remember that heightened cortisol levels seem to enhance mem- the event (see Figure 3.11). Whether we get ory for material with an emotional aspect (Abercrom- scared out of our wits or experience an ecstatic bie, Kalin, Thurow, Rosenkranz, & Davidson, 2003). love fest, nature wants us to remember the inci- dent that caused that reaction. We explore emo- The relationship among stress, glucocorticoids, tion in depth in Chapter 5. Here, we\u2019ll consider and memory is complex (Sauro, Jorgensen, & just some of what research has uncovered about Pedlow, 2003). As an example, researchers have found learning and emotions. that males show higher cortisol levels than females in response to stress. With too much cortisol, semantic Negative Emotions memory is impaired. But adding just the right amount of norepinephrine results in a stronger mem- Negative emotions are well known for influenc- ory (Cahill, Prins, Weber, & McGaugh, 1994). Nega- ing brain function. We know, for example, that a tive emotional events, as you might expect, weigh stressful event leads to the secretion of glucocorticoid heavily on the brain. They seem to \u201cdrag down\u201d more hormones, including cortisol, which influence cogni- of the brain\u2019s other circuits (Ito, Larsen, Smith, & tive performance (Roozendaal, 2003). Researchers Cacioppo, 2001). We recall negative emotional events have found that, in general, moderate (not high) lev- longer, and they affect more brain circuits. els of cortisol are an ally in encoding learning, but not in retrieving it (Cahill, Gorski, & Le, 2003; Van Fear has been studied more than any other negative emotion because it is relatively easy to Figure 3.11 produce and measure in a controlled environment. Emotions and Memory How does the brain deal with fear? It goes through a three-stage process of recognition, priming, and 100 action. First, the brain recognizes what\u2019s urgent, risky, exciting, scary, or uncertain and immediately 90 gives it preferential processing treatment. The input senses (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory) 80 send the messages to the thalamus, an oval-shaped processing structure in the center of the brain. Strength of 70 Emotions are initiated by a series of mid- and Memory 60 lower-brain structures. Simultaneously, the com- 50 bined emotional valence and significance are evalu- (% likelihood 40 ated by a circuit below the cortex that involves the of recall) amygdala (see Figure 3.12). As we learned earlier, the amygdala (there are actually two, one in each 30 temporal lobe) is the brain\u2019s \u201cuncertainty detector.\u201d With any hint of change in conditions, fears, 20 threats, or danger, it wins the competition for 10 Intensity of emotion Correlation is .90 between how vivid the memory is and how emotional the original event was.","Rules We Learn By 57 access to selective attention and subsequent reac- make it difficult to gauge the brain\u2019s mechanisms tion. This initial recognition of uncertainty causes for recalling positive events. Dopamine is a neuro- the amygdala to send a message to the hypothala- transmitter that is linked to pleasure and our per- mus to begin the chemical message to release ception of positive experiences. It plays a role in glucocorticoids (like cortisol). The peripheral nerve the brain\u2019s \u201creward system,\u201d which controls our endings\u2019 amines (like noradrenaline) then prepare ability to predict and enjoy perceived rewards you for the event, and the frontal lobes monitor (Schultz, 2000). the event (Kilpatrick & Cahill, 2003). Other evidence links dopamine to positive Now the amygdala is primed for other new cognitive functioning, suggesting that it may stimuli. We are in a better learning state because of enhance attentional systems to improve event or this priming effect. The brain is alert, sensitive, and semantic memory (Denenberg, Kim, & Palmiter, hypertuned to the most subtle environmental cue 2004; Tanaka, 2002). Dopamine also controls fun- for further potential action. This process involves damental operations related to spatial memory. bottom-up inputs from the amygdala, as well as Pleasurable events enhance the production of top-down influences from frontal-lobe regions involved in goal setting and maintaining represen- Figure 3.12 tations in working memory (Compton, 2003). The Amygdala Finally, a class of chemicals known as neuro- modulators modulates activity at the synapses, where they can enhance the formation of mem- ory. These neuromodulators may be hormones, peptides, neurotransmitters, or combinations of all three. Hormones include the stress-related glucocorticoids (cortisol is the best known) and the sex hormones known as androgens. Peptides may include oxytocin or vasopressin, both known to be closely related to stress and sex hormones. Neurotransmitters may include epinephrine and norepinephrine. Cortisol affects multiple cogni- tive domains including attention, perception, memory, and emotional processing. Positive Emotions Recessed deep in the temporal lobe, at the base of the hippo- campus, this structure mediates uncertainty, danger, and Positive emotional events also get priority for intense emotions. memory. But how they do it is a bit more complex than with negative emotions, and human variations","58 Teaching with the Brain in Mind dopamine. Positive smells can work, too. Do you Risk. Many situations involve risk. They have a favorite? It might be freshly baked bread or include activities that involve a potential loss of chocolate chip cookies, or the fragrance of a favor- social status among peers or even perceived danger. ite flower. Neurobiological evidence indicates that But what\u2019s risky for one may be blah to another. the emotional experience of odor-evoked memory Suggestions for activities with an element of risk also activates the amygdala during recall and influ- include public speaking, pair-sharing, having to ences the organization of memory (Herz, Eliassen, role-model something, or meeting new people. Beland, & Souza, 2004). Excitement. For most students, excitement is Do males and females experience emotions dif- halfway between something that\u2019s fun and some- ferently? It appears that they do. The right-side thing that\u2019s scary. So any activity you use in this amygdala modulates right-hemispheric processing of category may be exciting for 80 percent of your global or central aspects of a situation, and this effect students, but either so-so or scary for the other is more pronounced in males. In contrast, the left-side 20 percent. This does not mean that you should amygdala modulates left-hemispheric processing of avoid these activities. But it does mean you should more local or fine-detail aspects of a situation, and monitor them closely, use plenty of variation, and this effect is more pronounced in females. Females\u2019 avoid overusing them. Activities that create excite- emotionally influenced memories are more detailed, ment include a public performance, a science fair, a whereas those of males are more global or general debate, a field trip, or a series of relay races. (Cahill et al., 2003). This finding supports the hypothesis that the left and right amygdalae serve dif- Urgency. This one seems straightforward, but it\u2019s ferent functions in emotion processing: the left may a bit tricky. To evoke the stress hormones, an activity respond to a specific stimulus, whereas the right may needs more than a deadline. The students need to respond to any stimulus (Glascher & Adolphs, 2003). (1) perceive that the task or goal is worth accomplish- ing, (2) have the resources to make it happen, and Practical Suggestions (3) have a reasonable deadline. Otherwise, you risk what is known as \u201clearned helplessness.\u201d One strat- Do you have any influence over the chemicals egy is to start the activity with less time than is that can strengthen your students\u2019 memory capa- needed and add \u201cbonus minutes\u201d if necessary. bilities? It turns out that you do have some influ- ence. As we have learned, the brain chemicals that Pleasure. When we think of pleasure, we support improved memory include cortisol, might fixate on hot fudge sundaes, pampering norepinephrine, and dopamine. These are pro- massages, or time with our loved ones. But life is duced and released in the brain under reasonably filled with pleasures that students can look forward predictable conditions, including risk, excitement, to in class. Examples include finishing on time, urgency, and pleasure. In the past, you may have getting less than the expected amount of home- created activities that purposely evoke emotions. work, taking home something built in class, being Now you have one more good reason to do those able to sit with a friend, or having other privileges. activities\u2014they enhance memory. Pleasure can be found in the simple things.","Rules We Learn By 59 Summary just as powerful: You\u2019ve already been influenc- ing your students by using the rules without Although it\u2019s clear that these rules for learning necessarily knowing them. Now you can be far are built into our natural learning systems, more purposeful about how you use them. The experience also affects how they play out in the chapters to come will explore other principles brain. Part of the theme of this chapter was and strategies. For now, though, let\u2019s take a that you have much, much more to do with break (interval learning is best) before heading how your students turn out than you previ- on to the next chapter. ously thought. But a corollary to that theme is","4 Movement and Key Concepts Learning Q The mind\u2013body link It\u2019s truly astonishing that the dominant Q How exercise affects model for formal learning is still \u201csit and git.\u201d It\u2019s not just astonishing; it\u2019s embar- cognition rassing. Why do we persist when the evidence Q The importance of play, that lecture alone does not cut it is so strong (Dolcourt, 2000; Slavin, 1994)? recess, and physical education The reason for the dissonance between what we know and what we do may be traced back a hundred years. For decades, the educa- tional and scientific communities seemed to believe that thinking was thinking and move- ment was movement, and each was as separate as could be. Maverick scientists envisioned links between thinking and movement, but their ideas gained little public support. Today we know better. This chapter discusses the strong connections between physical educa- tion, movement, breaks, recess, energizing activities, and improved cognition. It demon- strates that movement can be an effective cognitive strategy to (1) strengthen learning, (2) improve memory and retrieval, and (3) enhance learner motivation and morale. In times of diminishing financial resources, educators must make hard choices. Do dance, 60","Movement and Learning 61 theater, recess, and physical education belong in the brain. In fact, it has some 40 million nerve fibers\u2014 curriculum? Can we afford to keep them in the bud- 40 times more than even the highly complex opti- get? Are they frills or fundamentals? What does cal tract. Those fibers feed information from the brain research tell us about the relationship between cortex to the cerebellum, and they feed data back body and mind? If movement and learning are con- to the cortex. In fact, most of the neural circuits nected, we should expect evidence to support the from the cerebellum are \u201coutbound,\u201d influencing idea. In fact, there is plenty of evidence. the rest of the brain (Middleton & Strick, 1994). Peter Strick at the Veteran Affairs Medical Center Why is all this important? One of the funda- of Syracuse, New York, has documented another mental tenets of this book is that we have to teach link. His staff has traced a pathway from the cere- with the brain in mind. Because movement is a nat- bellum back to parts of the brain involved in mem- ural part of the school day, that movement will ory, attention, and spatial perception. Amazingly, influence the brains of students. It is essential that the part of the brain that processes movement is we explore the ways we are shaping students\u2019 the same part of the brain that processes learning brains. To do so, let\u2019s look at some anatomical, (see Figure 4.1). imaging, cognitive, and functional studies that sug- gest we ought to be supporting more movement in Figure 4.1 the learning process, not less. Links Between the Cerebellum and Other Parts of the Brain Evidence of Mind\u2013Body Links The first evidence of a linkage between mind and body was scattered in various proposals over the past century (Schmahmann, 1997). Today, the evidence has become a groundswell, and most neuroscientists agree that movement and cogni- tion are powerfully connected. Anatomical Evidence Cerebellum Information travels to and from the cerebellum, the brain\u2019s The area of the brain most associated with center of motor control, and other parts of the brain involved motor control is the cerebellum. It\u2019s located in the in learning, but most of the neural circuits are outbound. back of the brain, just under the occipital lobe, and is about the size of a small fist. The cerebellum takes up just one-tenth of the brain by volume, but it contains nearly half of all its neurons (Ivry & Fiez, 2000). This structure, densely packed with neurons, may be the most complex part of the","62 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Evidence from Imaging Techniques activity) system is the first sensory system to mature. In this system, the inner ear\u2019s semicircular canals and New data, primarily from studies using func- the vestibular nuclei are an information-gathering tional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), have pro- and feedback source for movements. Impulses travel vided support for parallel roles of cognitive structures through nerve tracts back and forth from the cere- and movement structures such as the cerebellum. We bellum to the rest of the brain, including the visual learn to predict (think about) our movements before system and the sensory cortex. The vestibular nuclei we execute them (move) so that we control them are closely modulated by the cerebellum and also better (Flanagan, Vetter, Johansson, & Wolpert, activate the reticular activating system, near the top 2003). This ability suggests that all motor activity of the brain stem. This area is critical to our is preceded by quick thought processes that set attentional system, because it regulates incoming goals, analyze variables, predict outcomes, and exe- sensory data. This interaction helps us keep our cute movements. Pulling this off requires wide- balance, turn thoughts into actions, and coordinate spread connections to all sensory areas. movements. That\u2019s why there\u2019s value in playground activities that stimulate inner-ear motion, like Various studies support the relationship between swinging, rolling, and jumping. A complete rou- movement and the visual system (Shulman et al., tine might include spinning, crawling, rolling, 1997), movement and the language systems (Kim, rocking, tumbling, and pointing. As noted in Ugirbil, & Strick, 1994), movement and memory Chapter 2, Lyelle Palmer of Winona State Univer- (Desmond, Gabrielli, Wagner, Ginier, & Glover, sity has documented significant gains in attention 1997), and movement and attention (Courchesne and reading from these stimulating activities & Allen, 1997). These studies do not suggest that (Palmer, 2003). there is movement in those functions. But they suggest a relationship with the cerebellum in such Functional Evidence mental processes as predicting, sequencing, order- ing, timing, and practicing or rehearsing a task Currently, the MEDLINE database shows before carrying it out. The cerebellum can make more than 33,000 scientific articles on the topic of predictive and corrective actions regardless of exercise, and the vast majority of them confirm its whether it\u2019s dealing with a gross-motor task sequence value. One study showed that people who exercise or a mentally rehearsed task sequence. In fact, the have far more cortical mass than those who don\u2019t harder the task you ask of students, the greater the (Anderson, Eckburg, & Relucio, 2002). Simple cerebellar activity (Ivry, 1997). Taken as a whole, a biology supports an obvious link between move- solid body of evidence shows a strong relationship ment and learning. Oxygen is essential for brain between motor and cognitive processes. function, and enhanced blood flow increases the amount of oxygen transported to the brain. Physi- Cognitive Evidence cal activity is a reliable way to increase blood flow, and hence oxygen, to the brain. Just how important is movement to learning? The vestibular (inner ear) and cerebellar (motor","Movement and Learning 63 In William Greenough\u2019s experiments at the Uni- number of connections between neurons. Most versity of Illinois, rats that exercised in enriched astonishingly, exercise is known to increase the base- environments had a greater number of connections line of new neuron growth. Rats grow more brain among neurons than those that didn\u2019t. They also cells when they exercise than when they don\u2019t exer- had more capillaries around the brain\u2019s neurons than cise (Van Praag et al., 1999). In addition, studies sedentary rats (Greenough & Anderson, 1991). link this increased neurogenesis to increased cogni- Solid evidence suggests that even going for brisk tion, better memory, and reduced likelihood of walks can elicit this state of arousal\u2014meaning an depression (Kempermann, 2002). increase in heart rate, EEG activity, and more excitatory active brain chemicals (Saklofske & Imagine that: Exercise may grow a better brain! It Kelly, 1992). In fact, if you haven\u2019t yet taken a suggests both a huge opportunity and the liability suf- break from reading this riveting chapter, you might fered by students who don\u2019t get enough exercise. We stand and stretch for a moment. Why? Standing can may not be overstating the case to say that it\u2019s educa- raise heart rate (hence, blood flow) by as much as 5 tional malpractice when only about a third of K\u201312 to 8 percent in just seconds (Krock & Hartung, students take part in a daily physical education class. 1992). And finally, here\u2019s a powerful research find- ing: evidence from animal studies indicates that vol- Support for Recess, Play, untary exercise influences gene expression to and Physical Education improve learning and memory (Tong, Shen, Perreau, Balazs, & Cotman, 2001). This improved Researcher Terrence Dwyer is one of many who pattern of gene expression enhances many factors have conducted multiple studies suggesting that that support the encoding and transfer of data, exercise supports success in school. His research synaptic structure, and the activity and plasticity of found that exercise improves classroom behavior and neurons. All of these processes facilitate learning. academic performance (Dwyer, Sallis, Blizzard, Laz- arus, & Dean, 2001) and that even when an experi- School Applications mental group got four times more exercise per week than a control group of their peers (375 minutes An astonishingly high 68 percent of high school versus 90 minutes), their \u201closs\u201d in studying time did students in the United States do not participate in not translate into lower academic scores (Dwyer, a daily physical education program (Grunbaum et Blizzard, & Dean, 1996). His research further al., 2002). Why should we be concerned? Because revealed that social skills improved in the groups in the same way that exercise shapes up the muscles, who exercised more. Other research (Donevan & heart, lungs, and bones, it also strengthens the basal Andrew, 1986) has found that students who are ganglia, cerebellum, and corpus callosum\u2014all key engaged in daily physical education programs con- areas of the brain. We know exercise fuels the brain sistently show not just superior motor fitness, but with oxygen, but it also feeds it neurotropins (high- better academic performance and a better attitude nutrient chemical \u201cpackages\u201d) to increase the toward school than their students who do not par- ticipate in daily P.E.","64 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Human play has been studied quite rigorously. \u2022 Group noncompetitive activities (dance, Some studies suggest that students will boost aca- drama). demic learning from games and other so-called \u201cplay\u201d activities (Silverman, 1993). There are sev- \u2022 Walking excursions (outdoors, indoors). eral theories about why all mammals (including humans) play. But there is no controversy around Play, recess, and physical education are essen- the notion that we do play, and that it is generally tial for many brain-based (biological) reasons. Here good for us. Many early cognitive researchers are just some of the benefits of exercise: ignored play, assuming it had nothing to do with intellectual growth. They were dead wrong. Many \u2022 It allows learners to make mistakes without play-oriented movements have the capacity to \u201clethal\u201d consequences (with far less embarrassment improve cognition, including the following: and more fun than in a traditional classroom situation). \u2022 Exercise play (aerobics, running, chasing, dance routines). \u2022 It enhances learning (Fordyce & Wehner, 1993). \u2022 Rough-and-tumble play (soccer, football, wrestling). \u2022 It improves the ability to handle stress by \u201ctraining\u201d the body to recover faster from the quick \u2022 Solitary play (doing puzzles, object surges of adrenaline associated with demanding manipulation). physical activity . . . and classroom environments. \u2022 Outdoor learning activities (digging, \u2022 It triggers the release of BDNF, brain- observing insects). derived neurotrophic factor (Kesslak, Patrick, So, Cotman, & Gomez-Pinilla, 1998). This natural \u2022 Stand and stretch activities (tai chi, Simon substance enhances cognition by boosting the neu- Says). rons\u2019 ability to communicate with one another. \u2022 Group or team competitive games and \u2022 It can enhance social skills, emotional intel- activities (relays, cheerleading). ligence, and conflict resolution ability. \u2022 Constructive play (building with blocks, \u2022 Exercise may increase catecholamines (brain model building). chemicals such as norepinephrine and dopamine), which typically serve to energize and elevate mood \u2022 Exploratory play (hide and seek, scavenger (Chaouloff, 1989). hunts, make-believe). The case for children doing something physi- \u2022 Functional play (purposeful play, such as cal every day is growing. Jenny Seham of the practicing a new skill). National Dance Institute (NDI) in New York City says she has observed for years the measurable aca- \u2022 Group noncompetitive games (earth ball). demic and social results of schoolchildren who \u2022 Individual competitive games (marbles, study dance. She notes the positive changes in self- track and field, hopscotch). discipline, grades, and sense of purpose in life that \u2022 Adventure or confidence play (ropes her students demonstrate. She\u2019s now in the process courses, trust walks).","Movement and Learning 65 of quantifying the results of more than 1,500 kids movement program. Those in the intervention group who dance weekly at NDI. showed significantly greater improvement in dexterity, reading, verbal fluency, and semantic fluency than Although many educators know about the did the control group. The exercising group also connection between learning and movement, made substantial gains on national standardized nearly as many dismiss the connection once chil- tests of reading, writing, and comprehension in dren get beyond 1st or 2nd grade. Yet the relation- comparison with students in the previous year. ship between movement and learning is so strong that it pervades all of life\u2014and emotions are inter- Figure 4.2 twined into the mix as well. Educators generally Old and New Understandings of the consign movement, emotion, and thinking to sep- Mind-Body Relationship arate \u201ccompartments.\u201d Students may feel awkward if they want to express emotions or move around Cognition Emotions Movement when teachers want them to be still and think. Teachers need to realize that what the students are E=mc2 experiencing is simply a healthy integration of mind and body (see Figure 4.2). Additional Benefits for Old, Compartmentalized Paradigm Special-Needs Learners Emotions Many teachers have found that programs that include movement help learners with special needs. Cognition Several hypotheses may explain this phenomenon. Many special-needs learners are stuck in counter- E=mc2 productive mental states, and movement is a quick way to change them. Second, movements, such as Movement those involved in playing active games, will activate the brain across a wide variety of areas. It may be New, Integrated Paradigm the stimulation of those neural networks that helps trigger some learning. For other students, it may be the rise in energy, the increased blood flow, and the amines that put them in a better mood to think and recall. Some routines that call for slower movement can do the reverse, calming down students who are overactive, hence supporting a state of concentration. A study by Reynolds and colleagues (2003) found that children with dyslexia were helped by a","66 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Practical Suggestions You can invent other questions or ask students to create some of their own. Some of the smartest things teachers can do are the simplest. When we keep students active, we Drama and role-plays. Get your class used to keep their energy levels up and provide their brains daily or at least weekly role-plays. Have students with the oxygen-rich blood needed for highest per- play charades to review main ideas. Students can formance. Teachers who insist that students remain do an extemporaneous pantomime to dramatize a seated during the entire class period are not pro- key point. Do one-minute commercials adapted moting optimal conditions for learning. from television to advertise upcoming content or to review past content. Educators should purposefully integrate move- ment activities into everyday learning: not just Energizers. Energizer activities can (1) raise hands-on classroom activities, but also daily stretch- blood pressure and epinephrine levels among ing, walks, dance, drama, seat-changing, energizers, drowsy learners, (2) reduce restlessness among and physical education. The whole notion of using antsy learners, and (3) reinforce content. Use the only logical thinking in, for example, a mathematics body to measure things around the room and class flies in the face of current brain research. In report the results. For example, \u201cThis cabinet is 99 fact, Larry Abraham in the Department of knuckles long.\u201d Play a Simon Says game with Kinesiology at the University of Texas\u2013Austin says, built-in content: \u201cSimon says point to the south. \u201cClassroom teachers should have kids move for the Simon says point to five different sources of infor- same reason that P.E. teachers have had kids count\u201d mation in this room.\u201d Do team jigsaw puzzles with (personal communication, 1997). huge, poster-sized mind maps. Have young stu- dents get up and move around the room, touching Brain-compatible learning means that educators seven colors on seven different objects in a particu- should weave math, geography, social skills, role-play, lar order. Teach a move-around system using mem- science, and physical education together, along with ory cue words. For example, \u201cStand in the place in movement, drama, and the arts. Don\u2019t wait for a spe- the room where we first learned about . . .\u201d cial event. Here are examples of easy-to-use strategies. Quick games. Use ball-toss games for review, Goal setting on the move. Start class with an vocabulary building, storytelling, or self-disclosure. activity in which everyone pairs up. Students can Have students rewrite lyrics to familiar songs in mime their goals or convey them by playing cha- pairs or as a team. The new words to the song can rades with a partner, or the pairs can go for a short provide a content review. Then have the students walk while setting goals. Ask students to answer perform the song with choreography. Get physical three focusing questions, such as these: in other ways, too. Play a tug-of-war game in which everyone chooses a partner and a topic from \u2022 What are my goals for today and this year? a list of topics that every student has been learning \u2022 What do I need to do today and this week about. Each person forms an opinion about his or in this class to reach my goals? her topic. The goal is for each student to convince \u2022 Why is it important for me to reach my a partner in 30 seconds why his or her topic is goals today?","Movement and Learning 67 more important. After the verbal debate, the pairs time! Breaks can include fast walking, running, or form two teams for a giant tug of war for a physical high-energy play (McNaughten & Gabbard, challenge. All partners are on opposite sides. 1993). The breaks must last for 30 or 40 minutes to maximize the cognitive effects (Gabbard & Cross-laterals. Learn and use arm and leg Shea, 1979). For breaks of that length, it may crossover activities that can force both brain hemi- make sense to alternate highly challenging activities spheres to \u201ctalk\u201d to each other better. \u201cPat your with more relaxing ones. A short recess arouses stu- head and rub your belly\u201d is an example of a cross- dents and may leave them \u201chyper\u201d and less able to over activity. Other examples include marching in concentrate. A longer break engages high energy, place while patting opposite knees, patting yourself but it cannot be sustained. Thus, a more calm, on the opposite shoulder, and touching opposite restful state of relaxation should follow. This pat- elbows or heels. Several books highlight these activ- tern allows the students to focus better on the task ities, including Sensorcises by Laurie Glazner and at hand. Breaks at midday and early afternoon pro- Smart Moves and The Dominance Factor by Carla vide a greater benefit to the students than an early Hannaford. morning recess (McNaughten & Gabbard, 1993). Because longer breaks are more valuable than Stretching. To open class, or anytime that you shorter ones, timing may dictate that the midday and your students need more oxygen, get everyone break also be used for lunch. up to do some slow stretching. Ask students to lead the whole group, or let teams do their own stretch- Summary ing. Allow learners more mobility in the classroom during specific times. Give them errands to do, Strong evidence supports the connection between make a jump rope available, or simply let them movement and learning. Evidence from imaging walk around the back of the classroom as long as sources, anatomical studies, and clinical data shows they do not disturb other students. that moderate exercise enhances cognitive process- ing. It also increases the number of brain cells. And Physical education and recess. Budget cuts as a bonus, it can reduce childhood obesity. Schools often target physical education as \u201ca frill.\u201d That\u2019s a that do not implement a solid physical activity pro- shame, because, as we have seen, good evidence gram are shortchanging student brains and their indicates that these activities make school interest- potential for academic performance. Movement ing to many students, and they can help boost aca- activities should become as important as so-called demic performance. We\u2019re not talking about going \u201cbook work.\u201d We need to better allocate resources to overboard with exercises. Thirty minutes a day, harness the hidden power of movement, activities, three to five days a week will do the job and sports. This attitude has become more and (Tomporowski, 2003). Any school that has prob- more prevalent among scientists who study the lems at recess or with physical education should fix brain. It\u2019s time for educators to catch on. the problems, not throw out an important asset. Teachers should also ensure that breaks include some movement\u2014no standing around at recess","5 Emotional States Key Concepts W here do we put this \u201cslippery Q Why emotions are now variable\u201d\u2014emotional states\u2014in \u201cmainstream\u201d the discussion about learning and teaching? How do we talk about something Q How emotions are that is pervasive but so tough to categorize, processed in the brain understand, and compete with? Other chapters in this book have touched on the role of emo- Q The power of emotional tions in learning, but now it\u2019s time to focus states more closely on the topic. Q How to influence emo- For much of educational history, critics tional states have dismissed the role of emotions in learning. The stable, dependable, so-called \u201cscientific\u201d path has been that of reason and logic. But our current understanding of the brain shows that these critics are out of step with reality. Today\u2019s neuroscientists are breaking new ground in helping us understand why emotion is an important learning variable, and how the affective side of learning is the critical interplay between how we feel, act, and think. Mind and emotions are not separate; emotions, thinking, and learning are all linked. What we feel is what\u2019s real\u2014even if only to us and no one else. Emotions organize and create our reality. The classroom and the school provide opportunities for endless emotional experi- ences, and students\u2019 brains will be altered by 68","Emotional States 69 those experiences. This chapter makes the case that learning than that! Child development expert emotions have an important and rightful place in Jerome Kagan says, \u201cThe rationalists who are con- learning and in schools. vinced that feelings interfere with the most adap- tive choices have the matter completely backwards. It addresses three major topics: A reliance on logic alone, without the capacity to feel . . . would lead most people to do many, many \u2022 Distribution. Emotions involve many brain more foolish things\u201d (1994, p. 39). The old way of areas, including areas also involved in cognitive thinking about the brain envisions a separateness functions. of mind, body, and emotions. That idea is history. Antonio Damasio reminds us: \u201cThe body may \u2022 Potency. Emotional states influence all life constitute the indispensable frame of reference functions. for . . . the mind\u201d (1994, p. xvi); in fact, \u201creduction in emotion may constitute an equally important \u2022 Opportunity. We can influence emotional source of irrational behavior\u201d (p. 53). We can now states in learners. safely say that emotions Before we explore these three ideas further, let\u2019s \u2022 Constitute the passion for learning. look at the context for the study of emotions. \u2022 Help orchestrate our attentional priorities. \u2022 Support either persistence or retreat. Emotions Go Mainstream \u2022 Are sources of information about the out- side world. For a long time, brain researchers avoided the study \u2022 Evoke necessary empathy, support, or fear. of emotion. It was considered professional suicide. \u2022 Associate our learning with either pain or In recent years, though, several highly respected pleasure. neuroscientists\u2014among them Joseph LeDoux of \u2022 Help us make meaning out of our learning, New York University, Candace Pert of Georgetown work, and lives. University Medical Center, Jerome Kagan of Har- \u2022 Push the pursuit of rewarded behavior. vard Univeristy, and Antonio Damasio and Hanna \u2022 Improve social problem solving. Damasio of the University of Iowa\u2014have emerged \u2022 Provide incentives for desired social with important research that has helped change the behavior. way we think about emotions. Emotions are now \u2022 Allow us to enjoy and even celebrate our on the cognitive map\u2014something to be taken seri- learning success. ously. The publication of The Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion (Lane & Nadel, 2000) formalized this The popularity of Daniel Goleman\u2019s bestsell- burgeoning field and showed how chemistry influ- ing book Emotional Intelligence (1995) clearly ences our emotions. tapped into the strong intuitive understanding many people have of emotions. Some are now Here\u2019s what we know: Emotions drive atten- calling the study of emotions an entirely new tion, create meaning, and have their own memory pathways (LeDoux, 1994). They regulate behav- iors, and they help us organize the world around us (Damasio, 1994). You can\u2019t get more related to","70 Teaching with the Brain in Mind discipline in neuroscience (Davidson & Sutton, The Distribution of Emotion 1995). You never would have found this kind of scientific support for the role of emotions 10 Emotions are not located in a single \u201cemotion cen- years ago. ter,\u201d but are instead distributed throughout the brain (Heilman, 2000; Kolb & Taylor, 2000). For Today, when we say emotions are present, we example, the frustration or pain of getting negative have a vast array of highly specific and scientific feedback activates the anterior cingulate, the plea- ways to measure precisely what is happening. sure of a drug-induced high activates the nucleus Changes can be measured in skin responses, heart accumbens, and the terror of fear activates the rate, blood pressure, and EEG activity. In addi- amygdala. The amygdala then becomes part of the tion, we know emotions have \u201coccurred\u201d by decision-making process (Bechara, Damasio, & charting differences in neurochemistry, stress lev- Damasio, 2003). The processing of emotive facial els, motility, immune systems, somatic markers, cues may activate the orbitofrontal cortex. But muscle patterns, expressive language, reflex mod- none of these areas functions independently. As a ulation, and direct actions (Bradley & Lang, generalization, emotions, feelings, and sensations 2000). In short, one cannot claim that emotions have an effect on many areas of the brain, even if are either ethereal or simply not happening. Emo- they originate in only one area (see Figure 5.1). tions are real. What makes this issue even more complex is the presence not of the highways, but of the \u201cmessen- Neuroscientists often separate the \u201cbuilt-in\u201d gers\u201d on the highways. biologically based emotions\u2014joy, fear, surprise, disgust, anger, and sadness\u2014from the more Although it\u2019s true we have a blood\u2013brain barrier casual, fleeting, second by second, life experience that many chemicals cannot cross, the brain\u2019s overall called \u201cstates.\u201d All states are not emotional, but all exposure to chemicals is amazing (Damasio, 1999). emotions are states. For example, we experience physical states: soreness, fatigue, and pain. We Figure 5.1 also experience feeling states: curiosity, craziness, Areas of the Brain Activated by supportiveness, love, or optimism. And then there Both Emotions and Learning are \u201cemotional states,\u201d which are our experience of joy, fear, surprise, disgust, anger, and sadness (Izard, 1998)\u2014emotions that are generated from universal, cross-cultural, biological pathways. States in general help prepare an organism to deal with important events. In some way, all states can be linked to survival. We feel disgust when some- thing is poisonous, gross, or socially unaccept- able; when we express it, the message conveyed may prevent another person from doing some- thing unsafe.","Emotional States 71 Brain chemicals not only are transmitted from the countless receptor sites on it for receiving informa- commonly cited axon\u2013synapse\u2013dendrite reaction tion from other areas of the body. In fact, the but also are dispersed to wide areas of the brain. The bloodstream is the body\u2019s second nervous system! person who is depressed is often treated with Prozac, Ligands (the peptide messenger molecules) fit into a medication that modulates serotonin levels. Caf- receptor sites, transfer their information, and a new feine boosts amine levels, which increase alertness. cell behavior begins. Multiply that by millions of When you experience a \u201cgut feeling,\u201d it\u2019s because the cells, and a person simply feels different overall. same peptides that are released in your brain are also lining your gastrointestinal tract. Memory is regu- The Potency of Emotional States lated by levels of acetylcholine, adrenaline, and sero- tonin. These active chemicals are pushed out from All emotional events receive preferential processing areas such as the medulla and the pons (located in in the brain (Christianson, 1992), and the brain is the brain stem), the kidneys, and the adrenal glands typically overstimulated when strong emotions are (located on top of the kidneys). These chemicals of present. Because emotions give us a more activated emotion influence most of our behaviors. They lin- and chemically stimulated brain, they help us recall ger in and often dominate our system. Figure 5.2 things better and form more explicit memories. The shows the variety of chemicals that influence our more intense the arousal of the amygdala, the stron- emotional states, and Figure 5.3 (see page 72) ger the memory imprint (Cahill et al., 1994). shows the functions of four of them. Figure 5.2 This widespread dispersal of chemicals helps Chemicals That Influence Emotions explain why, once an emotion occurs, it is hard for the cortex to simply shut it off. The old paradigm was that our brain was managed by the physical connections made at the site of the synapse. But the newer, emerging understanding is that the mes- senger molecules known as peptides not only are distributed throughout the brain and body, but also exert a far greater influence on our behaviors than previously thought. Miles Herkenham of the National Institute of Mental Health says that 98 percent of all communication within the brain may be through these peptide messengers (Pert, 1997). This view implies a far greater role for the understanding and integration of emotions in learning. Emotional states are powerful because they are produced and modulated throughout the body. Every cell (we have over a trillion) has","72 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Figure 5.3 Major Emotion Chemicals and Their Functions Name Type Function How to Remember It (Semantic Memory Tool) Cortisol Hormone Supplies energy Dopamine Neurotransmitter Produces pleasure \u201cUh-Oh . . .\u201d Serotonin Neurotransmitter Induces calm \u201cYahoo!\u201d Epinephrine Hormone Alerts all systems \u201cAhhhh . . .\u201d \u201cYikes!\u201d There\u2019s a reason nature helps us remember arous- together more for the sake of simplicity, conve- ing events, good or bad: These are the events that nience, and practicality than for neurological are more likely to have future value for us. An accuracy. Let\u2019s explore each of these in typical encounter with a playground bully (or predator) learning situations. and the rejection of a classmate (or future mate) are highly salient to our survival instincts. Fear\/Threat As teachers, we see and hear the effect of students\u2019 Fear usually arises from some sort of threat emotions. It\u2019s common for students to remember the perception. The brain has three choices when con- death of a friend, a field trip, or a hands-on science fronted with overwhelming threat: We can fight, experiment far longer than they remember most lec- try to escape, or freeze. In nature, animals will tures. Good learning does not avoid emotions; it freeze when confronted if (1) they perceive there is embraces them, recognizing emotional states as fast- no escape, or (2) they are unlikely to win a fight. changing, specific neural networks that incorporate It\u2019s no different in the classroom. Students who feel multiple areas of the brain (see Figure 5.4). threatened will fight back if they feel they can get away with it. Or they might just sit there and \u201ctake A thorough exploration of the potency of emo- it\u201d while stewing about it. Generally, they don\u2019t feel tions in the learner\u2019s brain would take volumes. they can escape. But make no mistake; if there\u2019s a Here we\u2019ll focus on just four emotional states. Each threat, the student\u2019s brain is going in high gear. is likely to occur in a typical classroom, though not all are recommended. They are In an emergency, prolonged evaluation may cost you your life. Any life-or-death situation needs \u2022 Fear\/threat. immediate resources, not reflection and contempla- \u2022 Joy\/pleasure. tion. Although some feeling-states travel a circu- \u2022 Sadness\/disappointment. itous, slower route throughout the body, threats \u2022 Anticipation\/curiosity. always take the brain\u2019s \u201csuperhighway\u201d (see Figure 5.5, page 74). In the midbrain area, there is a bundle of Each of these is a combination of two very similar but distinctive emotional states. I bundle them","Emotional States 73 Figure 5.4 The cerebellum Brain Areas Involved in the Regulation of States manages movement. First-order Second-order autoregulatory regulation mechanisms are occurs at located in the the cingulate dorsal pons. and the medial Decision to parietal lobe. change states is made in the prefrontal cortex. Third-order regulation Motor area occurs at the and sensory orbitofrontal lobes. cortex are also involved. Memories activated can elicit states. neurons that lead directly from the thalamus to the Researchers at Arne Ohman\u2019s lab at the amygdala, which is designed to respond to threat Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, (Armony & LeDoux, 2000). The amygdala exerts showed that certain threat stimuli\u2014namely, facial a tremendous influence on the cortex: More inputs displays\u2014are highly effective in engaging attention travel from the amygdala into the cortex than the (Ohman, Flykt, & Lundqvist, 2000). Consider reverse. Any experience that evokes threat activates this classroom example. A student who\u2019s getting specific neurons that respond only to these events. threatening looks from another student may strike But information does flow both ways. The design back at the perceived threat before even thinking of these feedback circuits ensures that the effect of about it. The teacher\u2019s \u201cbehavior improvement lec- emotions will usually be greater than that of other ture\u201d after the event usually does little to change the kinds of input. Emotion adds weight to all our next \u201cautomatic\u201d occurrence of hitting. For some thoughts, biases, ideas, and arguments. students, the perceived threat needs to be dealt","74 Teaching with the Brain in Mind with as a survival issue. Common \u201cthreat\u201d-linked violence affects test scores, absenteeism, tardiness, experiences that students encounter in school and attention span (Hoffman, 1996). In a study of include peer pressure; serious deadlines with signif- 4th and 5th graders, Nettles, Mucherah, and Jones icant consequences if they are missed; and being (2000) found that students who perceived their forced to stay after school, make reparations, or environment to be violent performed significantly give public apologies. lower on standardized exams of reading and math- ematics compared with students who did not have Violence adds another, powerful dimension to a perceived exposure to violence. threat. Recent studies suggest that the threat of vio- lence in the learning environment, whether real or A corollary of fear is stress. Occasional or mod- perceived, can have a negative impact on learning. erate stress is, for the most part, a healthy state. In Under violently threatening circumstances, blood fact, many studies (Shors, Weiss, & Thompson, flow decreases in various parts of the brain that are 1992) show that a brief period of stress enhances linked to cognition (Fischer, Andersson, Furmark, hippocampal learning (the source of our explicit & Fredrikson, 2000). In animal studies, it\u2019s clear memories). In addition, children exposed to con- that threat impairs the hippocampus and derails new sistent moderate stressors over which they have learning (Diamond, Park, Hemen, & Rose, 1999). some control usually turn out to be highly resilient. There\u2019s no question that school stress associated with However, very high levels of stress over time\u2014typi- cally called distress\u2014are damaging and can impair Figure 5.5 cognition (see Figure 5.6). How the Brain Responds to Threat To be labeled distress, an emotional state must include the following three factors: (1) heightened excitability or arousal, (2) the perception of the event as aversive, and (3) the loss of controllability (Kim & Diamond, 2002). Distress has been shown to kill brain cells (Sapolsky, 1992), to reduce the number of new brain cells produced (Gould, McEwen, Tanapat, Galea, & Fuchs, 1997), and to damage the hippocampus. It is also linked with mood disorders (Brown, Rush, & McEwen, 1999). At Rockefeller University, neuroscientists have shown that chronic exposure to stress can cause atrophy of the dendrites\u2014certainly a negative fac- tor for cognition (Sousa, Lukoyanov, Madeira, Almeida, & Paula-Barbosa, 2000). Chronic stress also impairs a student\u2019s ability to sort out what\u2019s important and what\u2019s not (Gazzaniga, 1988). Corticosteroids\u2014one of the many kinds of chemicals","Emotional States 75 involved in stress situations\u2014reduce blood flow in known as the ventral tegmental area. From there the top of the frontal lobes, an area activated in \u201con the \u201cpleasure chemical\u201d dopamine pushes outward your feet\u201d thinking. As a result, although stress is toward the front of the brain and concentrates in less likely to impair long-term memories, it does the nucleus accumbens. This state is absolutely impair verbal and working memory (Lupien, essential for all learning. On the one hand, if stu- Gillin, & Hauger, 1999) and episodic memory dents experience fear, hopelessness, distress, chaos, (Sapolsky, 1990). Figure 5.7 (see page 76) illus- and disappointment during their learning, the trates how the body reacts to stress. association is made. Their brains will pair up nega- tive emotions with each new learning experience. Our baseline level for stress\u2014what we would In a short time, the student may simply quit; it\u2019s call a normal degree of stress\u2014is not set for life. It\u2019s too painful! On the other hand (or perhaps I a myth that once an intensely stressful episode is should say \u201cthe other hemisphere,\u201d as positive over, we return to \u201cthe way we were.\u201d Life experi- emotions are typically left-hemisphere activations), ences can and do reset our brain\u2019s \u201cstress thermostat\u201d positive emotions during the learning experience at a higher level, so that we may see chronically create a great association in the brain. higher levels of stress reactivity if we\u2019ve been exposed to repeated stressors within a short time A positive emotional state is valuable for sev- frame or have undergone a particularly traumatic eral reasons. First, an increased positive affect leads experience. Unfortunately, both scenarios seem to to improved flexibility in behavior and judgment be more common than ever, suggesting that we\u2019ll (Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999). Furthermore, high continue to see students who are in chronic states levels of dopamine are associated with greater flexi- of helplessness and alarm. bility in the brain\u2019s executive attentional system But students are only part of the equation. Figure 5.6 What about the teachers? Under stress, females (who Stress and Cognition make up the majority of elementary teachers) tend to increase nurturing behavior, whereas males (who are more likely to work at the secondary level) show withdrawal and sarcasm (Repetti & Wood, 1997). Staff stress is likely to increase as accountability rises, control and resources diminish, and the school year proceeds. Schools would do well to support stress- reduction programs for all staff members because teachers\u2019 stress levels will clearly affect students. Joy\/Pleasure Source: Based on data from McEwen & Lasley (2002). The joy and pleasure areas of the brain actually form a pathway from an area near the brain stem","76 Teaching with the Brain in Mind (Aspinwall & Richter, 1999). This frontal lobe sys- tem contributes heavily to school success, because Figure 5.7 it is associated with working memory, decision The Body\u2019s Response to Stress making, and judgment functions. In many stu- dents, too much internal focus can promote feel- ings of negativity; however, dopamine promotes an external focus (Sedikides, 1992) that encourages greater feature recognition. This recognition capac- ity enables students not only to recognize the salient physical features (say, the aspects of an over- head presentation that are relevant to their learning goals), but also to suppress other features that are irrelevant at the moment (everything else in the cluttered classroom). And finally, from a practical point of view, students who experience positive feelings at school will associate these positive feel- ings with learning, teachers, and school in general. That may help strengthen attendance and, ulti- mately, boost graduation rates. Sadness\/Disappointment Generally, feelings of sadness are experienced in the lower half of the brain. This system is medi- ated by our stress hormones (like cortisol and norepinephrine) and originates in the temporal lobes, specifically in the amygdaloid complex (McGaugh, Roozendaal, & Cahill, 2000). This state sounds negative, and for the most part, it is. For some biological reason, our brain systems are set up to experience pain and sadness longer than joy. Bio- logically, sadness may be more instructive for the long haul. Researchers investigated and contrasted the effects of laughing and weeping on humans. The study subjects experienced each emotion via watch- ing comedy and tragedy videos while their own mood was monitored. The results suggest that","Emotional States 77 laughing has strong but transient effects on the mental appetite. They are highly motivating states autonomic nervous system, whereas weeping or that drive hungry organisms toward their goals; in feeling sad has more moderate but sustained effects this case, the goal is to feed their hunger by learn- on it (Sakuragi, Sugiyama, & Takeuchi, 2002). ing more (Bradley & Lang, 2000). Strong evidence shows that positive expectancy robustly and consis- However, there is good news about this state. tently influences the formation of new knowledge. We are more likely to remember an experience That is to say, when we anticipate and are curious with a negative bias than one with a positive bias about a subject matter, our learner response goes (Ito et al., 2001). If we remember it better, we may up (Kirsch, 1999). Good teachers capitalize on this be less likely to repeat the behaviors or actions that state often. They know that it\u2019s the anticipation of contributed to the experience. So it\u2019s okay for stu- positive events that drives up the pleasure in the dents to know they\u2019ve disappointed you or them- brain even more than the reward itself (Schultz, selves. It\u2019s okay for them to be sad about a poor Dayan, & Montague, 2002). effort if they can become mobilized by the emo- tion. Michael Jordan has hinted more than once The Opportunity: How to that getting cut from the high school basketball Influence Emotional States team was a huge emotional crush for him. But, as Jordan\u2019s case illustrates, negative events have a ten- Emotions affect student behavior because they cre- dency to result in greater mobilization of a system\u2019s ate distinct mind\u2013body states. A state is a moment resources (Taylor, 1991). Jordan never wanted to feel composed of a specific posture, breathing rate, that bad again (being left out or feeling like a loser), and chemical balance in the body. The presence and he used his feelings as a motivation to excel. or absence of norepinephrine, vasopressin, testos- terone, serotonin, progesterone, dopamine, and Anticipation\/Curiosity dozens of other chemicals dramatically alters a person\u2019s frame of mind and body. Teachers who help Anticipation and curiosity create a positive their students feel good about learning through state of hope and vigilance. This state causes classroom success, friendships, and celebrations increases in the activity of the attentional areas of are doing the very things the student brain craves. the brain, including the frontal lobes, the Here are the most important things every educa- thalamus, the reticular activating system, and the tor should know about emotional states: pulvinar nucleus. Visual attentional prompts acti- vate the sensory areas of the occipital cortex, the \u2022 They are ubiquitous. Emotional states run entire visual system, and the lateral geniculate our lives, including how we think, feel, remember, nucleus, which is the brain\u2019s visual \u201cswitchboard.\u201d act, and dream. Everything we do is state Auditory stimuli trigger extra activity in the audi- dependent. tory cortex. \u2022 They are connected. All behaviors must come Curiosity and anticipation are known as from an appropriate emotional state, and we each \u201cappetitive\u201d states because they stimulate the","78 Teaching with the Brain in Mind have a \u201cpool\u201d of states that dictates our possible \u201cCan I influence these states?\u201d The answer is a behaviors. For example, when I\u2019m depressed, I resounding yes. And you already have influenced won\u2019t be celebrating anything soon. This means them. Although almost anything can change a stu- that if a student is not in an appropriate state for dent\u2019s emotional state (chocolate, for example), the behavior you want, the behavior won\u2019t happen some strategies are more reliable than others. until the state is changed. A student who is not in a state to read won\u2019t read. Practical Suggestions \u2022 They are not who we are. Emotional states Triggering emotions randomly is counterpro- are something we experience; we are not our states, ductive. In addition, extremes of emotion are gen- although if you\u2019re in a certain state too often, oth- erally counterproductive to school goals, and a ers may generalize and label you (\u201cShe\u2019s a lot of lack of emotion is just as dangerous as uncontrol- fun\u201d or \u201cShe\u2019s a downer\u201d). There is no such thing lable emotion. The old adage was, \u201cFirst, get con- as an unmotivated student, but there are students trol of the student; then do the teaching.\u201d Today, in unmotivated states. Never label a student unless neuroscientists might recommend engaging emo- it\u2019s a positive label. tions as a part of the learning, not as an add-on. There are many appropriate ways to include \u2022 They are transient. All emotional states are emotions in the classroom. mobile, in process. It takes considerable skill or unusual circumstances to maintain the same state Compelling questions. If the questions you for long. States typically lead to other states. Stu- ask students do not change their state from reflec- dents need help in managing this flow. tive to eager, change the questions. Here\u2019s an exam- ple of a weak question: \u201cWhat do you think about \u2022 Stable emotional states can be a problem. Winston Churchill\u2019s role in military intelligence Anyone in a particular state for too long, too often during World War II?\u201d Try this instead: \u201cIf you runs the risk of stabilizing that state in the nervous were the leader of Britain during the war, and you system. A student who shows up in a state of defi- knew one of your cities was going to get bombed ance is not a problem. What is a problem is your that night (this actually happened), under what allowing that state to persist. The longer it persists, circumstances would you not warn the citizens in the more familiar and comfortable that state advance?\u201d (Churchill knew and did not warn the becomes to the nervous system of that student. It citizens\u2014for a very good reason.) becomes \u201chome,\u201d and the student will seek that state out of comfort. Do not allow negative student Role-modeling. Teachers should model the states to persist. They only get harder to change love of learning, and they should show enthusiasm over time. about their job. Build suspense, smile, tell a true emotional story, show off a new CD, read a book, By now you\u2019re sold (I hope!) on the idea that or bring an animal to class. Get involved in com- emotional states have a pervasive influence on munity work, whether it\u2019s for a holiday, disaster student learning. And by now you may have relief, or ongoing service. Let students know what already asked yourself the million-dollar question,","Emotional States 79 excites you. We\u2019ve all heard of infectious enthusi- sides for a tug of war outside. As mentioned earlier, asm; it works! research indicates that when emotions are engaged right after a learning experience, the memories are Celebrations. Smart schools have pep rallies, much more likely to be recalled and accuracy goes guest speakers, poetry readings, community service up (Cahill et al., 1994). The debate could be efforts, storytelling sessions, debates, club activities, among pairs of students, or it could be turned into sports, and dramatic performances. Teachers use an academic decathlon or game show. Theater and acknowledgments, parties, high-fives, food, music, drama can create strong emotions: the bigger the and fun. A celebration can show off student work production and the higher the stakes, the more the in different ways. For example, when students are emotions are engaged. For example, having your finished mind-mapping something, ask them to class volunteer to put on a play for the entire get up and show their poster-sized mind map to school involves stress, fun, anxiety, anticipation, eight other pairs of students. The goal is to gather suspense, excitement, and relief. at least two favorable comments about a specific element of the mind map. Playing celebratory Purposeful physical rituals. Rituals in your music can help everyone have a good time. Ideally, class can instantly engage learners. Examples celebrations will become \u201cinstitutional,\u201d so stu- include clapping patterns, cheers, chants, move- dents will celebrate without a teacher prompt ments, or a song. Use these to announce arrival, every time. departure, a celebration, and getting started on a project. Make the ritual fun and quick, and change Physical activity. You may have already used it weekly to prevent boredom. Each time teams music, games, drama, or storytelling to engage complete their tasks, they could give a team cheer. emotions. Our body releases dopamine and Or they could have a special cheer for each mem- norepinephrine during movement and fun activi- ber upon arrival and another for the close of the ties, as we learned in Chapter 4. Human studies day. Obviously, rituals should be age appropriate. show that these chemicals enhance long-term memory when administered either before or after Getting personal. The use of journals, discus- learning (Soetens, Caesar, D\u2019Hoodge, & Hueting, sion, sharing, stories, and reflection about things, 1995). Create some positive emotions! It\u2019s better to people, and issues engages students personally. If have students remember the positives from school there is a disaster in the news, ask students to write than the negatives. Use more standing than sitting, or talk about it. Current events or personal dramas more walking than standing, and more organized work well too. If appropriate, students can share activities than walking. their thoughts with neighbors or peer groups. Help students make personal connections to the work Engineered controversy. Setting up a contro- they do in class. For example, if students are writing versy could involve a debate, a dialogue, or an journals, have them read the letters to the editor in argument. Any time you\u2019ve got two sides, a vested the local newspaper and then discuss or even cri- interest, and the means to express opinions, you\u2019ll tique them. Students can choose an issue they are get action! Have students prioritize a list by con- passionate about and submit letters to be printed. sensus, and you\u2019ll get emotions. Afterward, split up","80 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Summary is particularly important because although today\u2019s students have no saber-toothed tigers to fight off, Although all of us acknowledge that we have emo- they have equivalent threats: fear of embarrass- tions, few of us realize that they are not the cards at ment, fear of failing in front of their peers, fear of the game table but the table itself. Everything we getting bullied in the hallway. Their brains have experience has an emotional tone to it, from calm adapted to treat those emotional, psychological, to rage, from pain to pleasure, and from relaxation and physical threats as if they are life-threatening. to a state of feeling threatened. And because emo- tions mediate meaning, our emotions are, in fact, Good learning engages feelings. Far from an the framework for our day. Even if you use a logic- add-on, emotions are a form of learning. They are driven rubric to evaluate every student\u2019s project, the genetically refined result of lifetimes of wis- emotions still rule. On a bad day, your feelings dom. We have learned what to love, when and how about certain students or particular rating criteria to care, and whom to trust. We have felt the pain will lead you to rate one project as more creative, of losing esteem, the exhilaration of success, the joy another as less organized. We remember that of discovery, and the fear of failure. This learning is which is most emotionally laden. just as critical as any other part of education. Research supports the value of engaging appropri- Students need to be taught emotional intelli- ate emotions. They are an integral and invaluable gence skills in a repetitive way that makes positive part of every child\u2019s education. behaviors as automatic as negative ones. This point","6 Physical Environments Key Concepts for Learning Q Neuroscience\u2019s new How important are the effects of interest in physical physical environments on students? environments You may be surprised at how seri- ously neuroscientists are taking this issue. At a Q How seating, temperature, recent national convention for 18,000 mem- lighting, noise, and bers of the American Institute of Architects in building design affect San Diego, California, the keynote speaker was learning not an architect. He was internationally known, award-winning neuroscientist Fred Q Factors to consider when Gage, from the Salk Institute of Biological designing smarter schools Studies in La Jolla, California. Gage provoked the audience with this statement and question: \u201cOur environments are having an effect on our brains. To what extent are architects taking this into consideration when they design build- ings?\u201d Out of this intellectual ground breaking, a new academy, the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, was launched. \u201cWe\u2019re looking at this as a whole new discipline,\u201d says academy founder John Eberhard (Whitelaw, 2003, p. 4). Was the creation of the academy an anom- aly or the wave of the future? The scene shifts from San Diego to Woods Hole, Massachu- setts. Recently the National Academy of Sci- ences held a workshop on Neuroscience and 81","82 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Health Care Facilities Design. The speaker at the \u2022 Physical environments influence how we opening session called for architects and neuro- feel, hear, and see. Those factors, in turn, influence scientists to begin using \u201cevidence-based design.\u201d cognitive and affective performance. Another speaker, Terry Sejnowski, also of the Salk Institute, said we now have enough evidence to show \u2022 Some variables exert a much greater influ- how environments affect brain function. ence on student achievement than others. Sejnowski\u2019s and Gage\u2019s workplace, the Salk \u2022 Better awareness, smarter planning, and Institute, is one of the most admired buildings in simple changes can be made in every environment the United States. Not coincidentally, the productiv- to improve learning. ity of its staff is legendary, with Salk ranking among the top scientific research facilities in the world, Because the environment is a variable that can according to the number of times other scientists be easily enhanced, it makes good sense for teach- cited works published by Salk faculty over a two- ers to do what they can to make it most conducive decade period (\u201cTwenty years of citation superstars,\u201d to learning. It\u2019s the ethical thing to do. In this 2003). Co-created by architect Louis Kahn and chapter, we focus on five variables in the physical Nobel laureate Jonas Salk, the Salk Institute\u2019s building environment that have the greatest effect on aca- was literally designed with the brain in mind. Some of demic success: seating, temperature, lighting, the issues considered in the design were stress, safety, noise, and building design. privacy, mobility, lighting, humidity, temperature, convenience, aromas, collegiality, and productivity. Seating In London, a recent symposium titled \u201cBuilding Bridges of Knowledge\u201d brought together architects, Student seating can affect student success in sev- climatologists, information technology experts, eral ways. First, the location of students\u2019 seating and neuroscientists to understand how these variables within a classroom influences stress levels. Stu- interact. A new discipline is beginning, linking neuro- dents care about whom they sit next to (friends? science with the design and building industries. enemies?) and where in the room they are (up front, near the teacher? \u201csafely\u201d positioned in One of the first things students do when they third or fourth row?). The stress that students walk onto a school campus is look around. They also may feel as a result of where they sit influences listen, breathe in the air, and form judgments about their cognition. Second, seating location influ- the environment. Students then decide whether their ences access to resources\u2014materials, lighting, surroundings feel familiar, safe, and friendly\u2014or not. teachers, music, heat, bathrooms, and quiet. This automatic filtering of environmental cues is an These, too, can affect student stress levels. ongoing process that occurs every minute of every waking hour. It is so much a part of being human The actual design of students\u2019 desks and chairs that most of us don\u2019t give it a second thought. But also plays a role in their cognition. For example, in the research about learning and the physical tilted desks provide a better angle for reading, environment, three points stand out: according to Galen Cranz, a professor of architec- ture at the University of California\u2013Berkeley.","Physical Environments for Learning 83 Cranz (1998) calls for a more pragmatic and should be avoided in the classroom, researchers posture-friendly approach to the way we design emphasize. On the contrary, the integration of and use chairs. The traditional classroom chair group activities with traditional learning tasks (part of an attached desk-and-chair combination) has been found to have a significant positive effect pushes the sitter\u2019s weight straight down, increasing on learning. pressure on the lower back and forcing the student to sit on the chair rather than in it. Warning against Previous research by Hastings (1995) produced equating cushiness with comfort, Cranz proposes similar findings: group seating around tables with that a good classroom chair should keep the shoul- four or more makes learning more difficult for the ders back and the chin up, as well as provide arm most distractible pupils. One portion of the study rests to minimize strain on the upper body. It should found that on-task time dramatically increased be as adjustable as possible and easy to modify. The when row seating was instituted, but group seating seat should not be so long that it digs into the back was more conducive to genuinely cooperative of the student\u2019s legs, nor should it be so high that learning. The impact of group seating on team the student\u2019s feet don\u2019t touch the floor. learning was also borne out in a study by Marx, Fuhrer, and Hartig (1999), who found that 4th Research suggests that a well-designed chair graders tended to ask more questions when seated in can be a crucial factor in preventing health and a semicircle than in rows. This finding supports cognitive problems. Conversely, chairs that don\u2019t earlier studies and bears out the benefit of cluster provide good support can hamper blood supply to seating for group discussions and interactive learning the nervous system and the disks in the vertebral tasks. The key, therefore, is to match the appropriate area, causing fatigue and eventually back pain or seating arrangement to the activity\u2014for example, discomfort, both which impede cognition (Linton, use a cluster arrangement when collaboration is the Hellsing, Halme, & Akerstedt, 1994). Linton\u2019s 1994 goal or row seating when concentrated independent study involving three classes of 4th graders found learning is the goal. that the introduction of ergonomically designed school furniture resulted in a significant reduction in Practical Suggestions musculoskeletal symptoms among students. Here are some practical ways to apply research Finally, how students\u2019 seating is arranged can findings related to student seating: matter, too. Although group seating can foster important social and peer interaction among stu- \u2022 Provide unattached chairs and movable desks. dents, such arrangements often lead to an increase These are best for maximum comfort and flexibility. in chatting and other disturbances that discourage deep concentration (Bennett & Blundell, 1983). \u2022 Allow students to position themselves in differ- Conversely, row seating provides a more structured ent ways. For example, allow them to lean up setting, allowing students to focus more on the task against a wall or sit on the floor while reading. Or at hand rather than on one another. This does not let them find a friend to \u201cpair-share\u201d with while imply that group- or table-seating arrangements walking (roller-derby style) around the room.","84 Teaching with the Brain in Mind \u2022 Ask students to stand occasionally for brief are. In general, cooler (but not cold) is better than learning periods. For example, you might have stu- warmer (or hot). Our body, for example, can more dents stand while you conduct a review or facilitate easily adjust to a room that is a few degrees too a partner exchange. cold than one that is a few degrees too hot. How- ever, classrooms kept between 68 and 72 degrees \u2022 Encourage learners to avoid incorrect posture Fahrenheit are most comfortable for the majority while sitting. Slumping overstretches the muscles and of students (Harner, 1974). Harner also reports ligaments and puts stress on the back. In addition, that a room temperature of approximately 70 poor posture shifts the body out of balance and degrees is ideal for most learning situations, partic- forces a few muscles and joints to do all the work. ularly those involving reading and mathematics, which require optimal focus and concentration. \u2022 Provide an inflatable exercise ball as alternative seating for certain students. Those with sensory Researchers report that higher temperatures disorders or attention deficit or your highly kines- can influence levels of neurotransmitters, especially thetic learners may find the inflatable balls easier to norepinephrine and serotonin, two chemicals asso- sit on than a chair. ciated with moods ranging from depression to relaxation (Donovan, Halperin, Newcorn, & \u2022 Group carefully. If you routinely use group Sharma, 1999; Howard, 1994; Izard, Kagan, & seating for all types of class work, place no more Zajonc, 1984). Excess levels of neurotransmitters than two or three students together at a table and can lead to aggressive behavior\u2014a persistent obsta- avoid placing friends in the same group. This cle to learning. This basic insight sheds light on the arrangement may help reduce the incidence of idle important role that temperature plays in the learn- chitchat and distractions. ing environment and how it can affect our behav- ior, thoughts, and emotions. Temperature Practical Suggestions We know that the human brain is extremely tem- perature sensitive and that temperature is a factor Here are some practical ways to apply research that significantly affects cognition. In U.S. Defense findings related to temperature: Department studies, Taylor and Orlansky (1993) reported that heat stress dramatically lowered scores \u2022 Keep temperature within the comfort zone. on both intellectual and physical tasks. Jeffrey This is generally between 68 and 72 degrees Lackney (1994) at the University of Wisconsin\u2013 Fahrenheit. Madison, has shown that reading comprehension declines when room temperature rises above 74 \u2022 Know temperature control alternatives. If you degrees Fahrenheit and that math skills decline don\u2019t have a temperature control device in your when it rises above 77 degrees Fahrenheit. classroom, try some of these options: (1) use fans; (2) keep windows or doors open; (3) point fans Up to a point, the cooler your brain is, the across a tray of water to humidify or cool the more relaxed, receptive, and cognitively sharp you room; (4) if your room gets direct sunlight, allow","Physical Environments for Learning 85 students to move around to cooler or shaded areas; deficiencies as a result of insufficient light at (5) incorporate colors that create cooling effects, school. The study, which evaluated 160,000 school such as blues and greens; (6) encourage students to children, also reported that when lighting was layer clothing for more flexibility; and (7) ensure improved, various problems were dramatically that students drink water often. reduced. Visual difficulties declined by 65 percent, nutritional deficits by 48 percent, chronic infec- \u2022 Attach a ribbon next to a window or air con- tions by 43 percent, postural problems by 26 per- ditioner. This allows students to tell at a glance if cent, and chronic fatigue by 56 percent. the air is circulating. A 1999 study conducted by the Heschong \u2022 Be mindful that very warm temperatures can Mahone Consulting Group in Fair Oaks, Califor- increase anxiety and aggressiveness. This is especially nia, involved 21,000 students from three districts important if you have students with panic disorder in three states. After reviewing school facilities, or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. In oth- architectural plans, aerial photographs, and main- ers, it induces lethargy tenance plans, the researchers assigned each class- room a code indicating the amount of sunlight it Lighting received during particular times of the day and year. Controlling for variables, the study found that Budget constraints, apathy, and a lack of aware- students with the most sunlight in their classrooms ness continues to allow the underuse of natural progressed 20 percent faster on math tests and 26 lighting in the classroom and the overuse or mis- percent faster on reading tests compared with stu- use of artificial light. In fact, some children spend dents exposed to the least lighting. These gains are six continuous hours or more in school facilities astonishing, especially considering how hard school illuminated by artificial light. But is this really a districts try to raise reading and math scores. problem? Research suggests that it is. In a follow-up study (2003), the Heschong Over the past 100 years, the amount of outdoor Mahone Group found that sources of glare have a light we are generally exposed to has declined negative effect on learning. Students in classrooms (Lieberman, 1991). Ultraviolet light, present only exposed to morning sun that is unfiltered by blinds or outdoors, activates the synthesis of vitamin D, tinted windows will underperform compared with which aids in the absorption of essential minerals students in classrooms where the windows face north. such as calcium (MacLaughlin, Anderson, & Holic, In subjects that require more vision, such as math, 1982). And insufficient mineral intake has been students did better when whiteboards were used shown to be a contributing factor in nonverbal cog- (versus overheads) because the lighting was better. nitive deficiency (Benton & Roberts, 1988). Because many bodily functions and hormones An older, but quite large, blind study (Harmon, are regulated by daily dark-light cycles, it\u2019s not sur- 1951) examined the effect of environmental factors prising that researchers have established a link on learning problems and reported that more than between seasonal mood changes and the amount of 50 percent of children developed academic or health light present during the day (Brennen, Martinussen,","86 Teaching with the Brain in Mind Hansen, & Hjemdal, 1999; Lepp\u00e4m\u00e4ki, Partonen, to read and to solve complex problems. Some research & L\u00f6nnqvist, 2002). Scientists know that limited suggests that students exposed to long periods of dim exposure to sunlight for extended periods suppresses light\u2014the kind that is typical in a darkened lecture the production of melatonin, a neurotransmitter hall\u2014are more likely to be lethargic, sleepy, and less that plays a key role in setting the body\u2019s time clock, motivated in class (Aoki, Yamada, Ozeki, Yamane, & or circadian rhythm. They also know that too little Kato, 1998). And a study involving two simulated sunlight also decreases the production of serotonin, eight-hour night shifts (Campbell & Dawson, 1990) which at reduced levels causes depression. Ulti- also found that young adults maintained significantly mately, mood, alertness, and cognitive performance higher levels of alertness and wakefulness when are compromised (Antoniadis, Ko, Ralph, & exposed to brighter ambient lighting rather than dim McDonald, 2000). ambient lighting. Chronic and intense mood changes that Not all bright lighting is created equal, however. include depression during winter months may be a Ordinary fluorescent lights have a flickering quality sign of seasonal affective disorder (SAD). and emit a barely audible hum. These properties can Researchers estimate that 5 percent of school-age increase cortisol levels in some, which can suppress children are depressed. But exposure to bright the immune system. In addition, the humming lighting for extended periods can reduce the symp- noise emitted by fluorescent lights has a detrimental toms (Yamada, Martin-Iverson, Daimon, effect on student performance, especially in reading. Tsujimoto, & Takahashi, 1995). Other studies Statistically, its negative impact on reading scores (Schwartz, Rosenthal, & Wehr, 1998) confirm the exceeded that of construction noise, socioeconomic key roles that melatonin and serotonin play in status, and musty or moldy classroom air (Heschong SAD. As you might guess, there\u2019s evidence suggest- Mahone Group, 2003). ing that reflected sunlight enhances mood (Harmatz et al., 2000; Michalon, Eskes, & Mate- Considering the overall findings from the vari- Kole, 1997), and when we feel better, we usually ous studies on lighting, we can conclude that indi- perform better. Assuming that the outdoors pre- rect, natural sunlight is probably best for learning. sents no serious noise problems, open windows However, many schools confronted with the need should be an option for teachers; when teachers do for cost savings have introduced \u201clow-light days\u201d to not have control of their windows, student perfor- save on electrical bills. As the research clearly indi- mance is negatively affected (Heschong Mahone cates, this approach is a mistake. Students enrolled Group, 2003). in schools with above-average lighting had higher attendance and their students had higher physical Many studies have explored the effects of varying growth rates (averaging 10 millimeters), increased amounts of artificial light. Students in brightly lit concentration, and better academic performance classrooms perform better in school compared with (Lemasters, 1997). Given schools\u2019 large electricity students in dimly lit classrooms (London, 1988). Sus- requirements, installing skylights and even solar tained exposure to bright light reduces eye fatigue panels could realize real cost savings. Overall, during activities involving close work, making it easier school systems would do well to factor in research","Physical Environments for Learning 87 on lighting and student performance when consid- reverberation, and other acoustical problems, ering building designs and operations (see Figure student attention decreases and off-task behaviors 6.1). The goal should be to keep the classrooms and discipline problems increase (Berg, Blair, & bright and find other ways to cut costs. Benson, 1996); obviously, these issues take a seri- ous toll on learning. Practical Suggestions Our amazing brain typically processes up to Here are some practical ways to apply research 20,000 bits of auditory stimuli every second, findings related to lighting: which means that nearly every sound in the range of 20 to 15,000 cycles per second is fair game for \u2022 Maintain a constant, adequate level of bright processing. Getting students to hear what we want lighting in your classroom. Bright lighting helps them to hear in the classroom, therefore, can be a reduce drowsiness by suppressing the production problem. As an example, the most significant of melatonin in the brain. Figure 6.1 \u2022 Limit student exposure to darkened lecture Lighting and Learning halls and similar environments. When such expo- sure is necessary, include low-level background 30 - lighting from a hallway or a window. 25 - \u2022 Maximize student exposure to daylight. Make sure students are exposed to as much natural light as 20 - possible, especially during fall and winter months. Open classroom blinds and skylights. Take students Test on field trips and brisk walks, when possible, and Scores 15 - hold P.E. classes outdoors rather than in a gym. 10 - \u2022 Hold class outside on occasion. Not only will students be exposed to more sunlight and fresh air, 5- their brains will be stimulated by the novelty of learning in a new and different environment. 0- Baseline Math Reading \u2022 Watch for signs of trouble. If a student appears depressed during fall and winter months, One firm grouped 2,000 classrooms into a range of six lighting encourage the parents to consult with their child\u2019s conditions. Compared to students in the darkest rooms, stu- physician about the possibility of SAD. dents in the brightest rooms progressed 20 percent faster on standardized math tests and 26 percent faster on reading tests. Noise Source: Based on data from Heschong & Heschong Mahone Consulting In poorly designed classrooms that fail to Group (1999). address and reduce ambient noise, echo effects,","88 Teaching with the Brain in Mind variable in predicting reading performance (even teacher\u2019s message from background noise. These greater than being identified as a gifted student) learners may require support technology, ranging comes from a factor mentioned earlier\u2014the loud from headphones to earplugs to well-placed sup- \u201cballast hum\u201d from flourescent lighting. It has a plemental speakers. Moreover, research strongly - 19 percent influence compared to a +16 percent suggests poor acoustical conditions can lead to effect of being a gifted student (Heschong Mahone stress, impaired learning, and frustration for stu- Group, 2003). \u201cSituations that compromise student dents with normal hearing (Nelson & Soli, 2000; focus on the lessons at hand, such as reverberant Smaldino & Crandell, 2000). spaces, annoying equipment sounds or excessive noise from outside the classroom have discernable Although scientists have known for some time negative effects on learning rates\u201d (Heschong that chronic noise can have a negative effect on Mahone Group, 2003, p. 17). academic performance, they are now considering the possibility that noise may actually prevent chil- Lawrence Feth, professor of speech and hear- dren from acquiring speech recognition skills. ing science at Ohio State University, conducted an Evans and Maxwell (1997) compared children in a extensive acoustical study of classrooms. He found noisy school (in the flight path of a New York that many classrooms are acoustically unsound, international airport) with similar children in a which makes listening and learning difficult (Feth, quiet school. Unlike subjects in other noise studies, 1999). In fact, the study found that of the 32 pri- both groups of children were tested in quiet condi- mary school classrooms studied, only 2 met the tions. This method allowed the researchers to elim- acoustical standards recommended by the Ameri- inate an important variable. By testing subjects in a can Speech-Language-Hearing Association quiet room, they demonstrated that decreased (ASHA). The majority of classrooms in the study reading scores are due to chronic noise exposure\u2014 had enough background noise and echoes present not noisy episodes that might have occurred during to hamper the learning of children with even mild the testing sessions. Results indicated children hearing problems. chronically exposed to aircraft noise had significant deficits in reading. The researchers believe that Noise may have physiological implications in noise-induced reading problems may be partly due addition to cognitive ones. For example, one study to deficits in language acquisition, because the (Evans, Lercher, Meis, Ising, & Kofler, 2001) chronically exposed children also suffered from found that children in noisier areas had higher impaired speech perception. blood pressure and heart rates, plus elevated stress levels\u2014factors that aren\u2019t conducive to learning. Feth (1999) reported that the most prominent sources of background noise in classrooms (both Children for whom English is a second lan- new and old) are the heating and cooling systems. guage and children with hearing or learning defi- Many schools still opt for individual units instead cits have an especially hard time attending to the of the more quiet central air systems. In addition, a teacher in a noisy classroom. Smaldino and typical classroom\u2019s uncarpeted floors and hard- Crandell (2000) note that both hearing-impaired surfaced walls make it highly conducive to sound and at-risk children have difficulty separating the","Physical Environments for Learning 89 reverberation that can interfere with speech recog- and need to clearly hear new speech sounds for nition and understanding. The echo-y effect can be effective acquisition. In comparison, adults have a mitigated by a building design that angles walls at larger vocabulary, which helps them mentally com- least five degrees out of their original parallel plane pensate when they can\u2019t hear clearly. Beyond caus- or by positioning hard surfaces (window glass, ing an immediate stress response in the nervous blackboards, or whiteboards) opposite textured, system and the voluntary muscular reflex system uneven surfaces like doors, hanging fabrics, or (including the release of such neurotransmitters as counters. Carpeted floors and acoustical ceilings epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol), loud also reduce reverberation. Solid walls or walls with noise also increases heart rate, grimacing, and sud- sound insulation prevent exterior noise transfer. den muscle flexion. Together, these stress responses Any movable classroom walls should extend from impair learning over time. floor to ceiling. And if windows or doors must be opened for ventilation, a low-frequency sound Practical Suggestions device (a \u201cwhite noise\u201d machine) can help mask ambient sounds. Here are some practical ways to apply research findings related to noise: Excessive environmental noise\u2014including traffic sounds, aircraft noise, machinery, beepers, \u2022 Take stock of the noise level in your classroom. and even casual conversation\u2014can reduce compre- Do you notice students straining to hear you or hension and work performance, especially in the their classmates? Do you have hearing-impaired early stages of learning a new task (Berglund, students or students who speak English as a second Hassmen, & Job, 1996; Gomes, Martinho, language? These students may find it especially dif- Pimenta, & Castelo Branco, 1999). The Environ- ficult to understand speech in a noisy classroom. mental Protection Agency recommends that noise levels generally not exceed an average of 45 deci- \u2022 Do what you can to soften the noise level in bels in the daytime and 35 decibels at night. your classroom. Try hanging egg cartons, fabric, or Unfortunately, ambient or environmental noise in tapestries on the walls, which will absorb some of many urban areas often reaches 70 decibels during the sound waves. the day and more than 60 decibels at night. In comparison, a whisper is approximately 20 decibels \u2022 Take official action if noise is a serious problem. and a stereo at full blast is about 120 decibels. If your classroom has a significant problem with ambient noise, consult your school administration Researchers have reported dramatic improve- or an acoustical engineer on the most efficient way ment in students\u2019 speech discrimination after class- to eliminate the distractions. Allergy-sensitive car- rooms were refitted with sound-absorbing material peting, drapery, sound-absorbing panels, wall hang- that reduced ambient noise (Pekkarinen & ings, and commercially available sound Wiljanen, 1990). Acoustical experts know that amplification systems may be options to explore. children are especially sensitive to overly noisy classrooms because they are still learning language \u2022 Make appropriate use of soothing \u201cwhite noise\u201d or music. Some options for masking disturbing","90 Teaching with the Brain in Mind noise include fish tanks, desktop waterfalls, and \u2022 Use a warm golden-gray on carpets. classical or environmental music. A host of other variables influence the student \u2022 Schedule activities that require the most intense learning environment. Many are concepts well mental concentration when environmental noise levels supported and often used by classroom teachers. are lowest. It is especially important to maintain a Although there may not be compelling data to quiet environment when learners are taking exams support trumpeting them as \u201ckey variables,\u201d for or doing other important mental tasks. the most part, they are good to do. \u2022 Spread the word. Do your part to see that Room d\u00e9cor. Classroom walls do not need to school planners and administrators know the look like the walls in students\u2019 homes. School is research that suggests children who attend schools not like home, and furthermore, there are stu- near noisy airports, major roads, and railways may dents for whom home is not necessarily a pleasant not learn to read as well as children in quiet schools. place. Walls and ceilings ought to be full, rich, and interesting, but not distractingly cluttered. Other Environmental Use the walls for affirmations, information, inspi- Considerations ration, or sneak previews of upcoming learning and reviews of prior learning. In such a positive Teachers often ask if the color of the classroom walls setting, students unconsciously begin to acquire a affects the brain, learning, and cognition. The stud- foundation for \u201cunderstanding\u201d before they even ies are not absolutely clear on this issue, but findings know they know something\u2014in fact, even before do lean toward an answer of yes. Harry Wohlfarth, the teacher enters the room. who has pioneered dozens of studies in this field, believes wall colors do matter. His research Opportunities for mobility. Students need pri- (Wohlfarth, 1984; Wohlfarth, 1985, Wohlfarth vacy, reflection, and thinking time. We ask stu- & Schultz, 1982) suggests the following recom- dents to either suppress those needs or to reflect mendations to bring about the most consistent and think in workspaces that would strain our sen- positive effects on behavior and cognition: sibilities. The key is reasoned flexibility in seating. \u2022 Use a warm yellow on the three walls that Aromas. These ought to be kept to a mini- students face (in regular education classes). mum. Many students have an allergic sensitivity to flowers, candles, room-freshener sprays, and even \u2022 Use a light blue color on the rear wall\u2014the some natural aromas. Having said that, an occa- wall that the teacher faces. sional aroma of freshly baked cookies or bread rarely draws complaints! \u2022 Use contrasting cool colors as accents around the front of the room. Accommodating special needs. Many stu- dents, perhaps up to 6 percent depending on stu- \u2022 Use warmer colors (red and yellow) to stim- dents\u2019 age and background, have hyperactivity or ulate students and cooler colors (light blue) to calm sensory integration disorders. Of those with sen- overactive students. sory disorders, some have auditory sensitivities and","Physical Environments for Learning 91 may need exceptional quiet\u2014perhaps achievable overcrowding have a significantly negative impact only through use of earplugs. Those with visual on cognition. Such conditions are found in many sensitivity may want to seek out a darker area of U.S. schools, meaning far too many children, espe- the room to avoid the flicker in the fluorescent cially those in poor urban areas, are schooled in lights. Those with tactile sensitivities may need to dilapidated, crowded facilities. According to a sit on the floor or on a large exercise ball. Some comprehensive study (Cash, Earthman, & Hines, students may need extra mobility. In short, be pre- 1997) covering 325 public schools in three school pared to accommodate those with special needs. It districts, the adverse effect that these conditions usually costs little or nothing, and it makes a world had on academic performance was significant. of difference to the student. Cash found a positive relationship between poor building conditions and lowered academic perfor- Overall School Facilities mance, delinquent behavior, and absenteeism. His and Cognition findings also suggest that quality facilities, coupled with strong academic programs, are conditions The whole of the school environment, the \u201cges- essential to optimum student learning. talt,\u201d is another influence on student learning. Research indicates that well-planned learning Designing Smarter Schools environments stimulate learning and reduce disci- pline problems. When coupled with sound teaching School-facility design has garnered much recent strategies, brain-friendly learning environments attention. With an increased interest in student strengthen neural connections and support long- performance as well as safety, the old bricks-and- term memory, planning, and motivation (Frank mortar \u201ccheapest is best\u201d notion is dead and bur- & Greenberg, 1994). ied. \u201cInnovative school design\u201d no longer refers merely to creating facilities that have a splashy, Ayers (1999) examined the relationship interesting exterior. Today, it means schools that between high school facilities and student achieve- are socially smart, cognitively supportive, emo- ment. The researchers used the Design Appraisal tionally safe, and environmentally friendly. One Scale for High Schools (DASH-I) to measure the of the leaders in this movement is Jeffrey different design variables and to determine a total- Lackney, assistant professor at the University of quality score for each school in the study. Based Wisconsin\u2013Madison. He\u2019s been an advocate for upon the results of the analyses, school-design vari- the research on \u201csmarter\u201d school design and for ables explained approximately 6 percent of the building learner-friendly educational environ- variance in English and social studies performance, ments. Lackney has often articulated that while 3 percent in science performance, and 2 percent in we may not know all of the social and academic both mathematics and writing performance. effects of school environments, we still have enough evidence to prompt us to take corrective Schools with shattered windows, broken-down action (2001). restrooms, leaky roofs, insufficient lighting, and"]