Articles on Basic Design Theory

Articles on BasicDesign Theoryby Simon Hope



When all right-thinking human beings arestruggling to remember that other men andwomen are free to be different, and free tobecome more different still, how can onehonestly write a rulebook?…Surely typogra-phers, like others, ought to be at liberty tofollow or to blaze the trails they choose. Robert Bringhurst, The Elements of Typographic Style (2015)



Articles on BasicDesign Theoryby Simon Hope

HOPE DESIGN PUBLICATIONSEssays written in the UK between 2014 and 2016Published in Hope Design Publications 2017Copyright © Simon Hope, 2017Excerpt from The Elements of Typographic Style (p. 9). Copyright © 2015by Robert Bringhurst. No permission sought from Hartley & Marks,Publishers.Printed in EnglandTypeset in FreightThis is book is designed in view of practice only, and is not intended foractual print or publication. 0-9776421-7-2All rights reserved: no part of this book may be reproduced in any form,by print, photocopy, or any other means, without written permissionfrom the publisher.

ContentsCounter-hegemonic design: 7Creative freedom or simulacrum?Were the Ideals of Jan Tschichold 30Transient or Durable in Relation toTypographical Form?Deconstruction & Structuralism: 46Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,or Symbiotic Coexistence?Can Graphic Novels Ever Be 70Considered Works of Art?Is a Traditional Typographical 86Proficiency Still Essential?Further Reading 130

Counter-HegemonicDesign: CreativeFreedom orSimulacrum?

The following text will explore theMarxist theories of hegemony and coun-ter-hegemony, and explore how thesetheories can be applied to graphicdesign. Further, through exploring theworks of Gramsci, Chomsky and Baudril-lard, it will explore whether certaincounter-hegemonic concepts are, in fact,opposed to hegemony or are just anothermethod for controlling the populous.Through examining the punk andAdbusters movements, it will endeavourto decipher how effective and successfulcounter-hegemony has been. On top ofthis, it will inspect the concept of simu-lation and simulacra and whether or notcounter-hegemony achieves its goals of

Counter-Hegemonic Design: opposing hegemonic powers. Finally, it Creative Freedom or Simulacrum?will be investigated whether an abolish- ment of hegemonic powers would be an effective outcome for counter-hegemony. To begin; hegemony is the phenomenon of one social class ruling over anoth- er/others as theorised by Antonio Gram- sci, albeit, not fully realised before his death in 1937. Considered one of the most important thoughts of twenti- eth-century Marxism, it is fragmented and difficult to re-assemble, still, the essential premise is clear. It pictures the world as ruled, not merely by force, but by ideas, ideas that always come from the ruling class of that era. ¹ These ideas are then communicated to the popula- tion through mass media and popular culture. In relation to this, the only way that hegemony holds any power is through use of the class system. Chom-8

sky ² suggests that this is maintained ‘...the aim of Newspeakthrough an exploitation of Hume’s is to narrow the rangeparadox and by assuring ‘...that the of thought. In the endterminology of political discourse is so we shall makedebased it’s hard to find any words at all. [political unorthodoxy]That’s part of the point—to make it impos- literally impossible,sible to talk.’ (p. 60) Orwell ³ illustrates because there will bethis second concept in his novel Nineteen no words in which toEighty-Four when he envisions a neo-lan- express it.’guage developed in a world where theupper class holds complete hegemonic (Orwell 1989 p.60)control over everything. An example ofthis in the contemporary Western world Gramsci and the Theory of Hegemony Journal of the History of Ideas Vol The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many Hegemony or Survival Penguin Bookswould be the social prohibition of the University of Pennsylvania Pressword “class”. By causing this word to America’s Quest for Global Domination Chomsky N Nineteen Eighty Four Penguin Booksbecome taboo, making it difficult to talkabout the subject itself, it passes out of Bates T Chomsky N Orwell Gthe public consciousness and so causes Nothe belief that there is no class system,the belief that we are all equal andeveryone lives and works in a perfect,harmonious coexistence. ² 9

Counter-Hegemonic Design: As regards to the exploitation of The Design of Counter-HegemonyHume’s paradox, this works on the concept of “divided they fall, united they stand”. Hume states that in any society the population holds the power, but they always submit to a ruling body. Yet still, no matter the power of the said body, the control remains with the people. The paradox occurs here: even if the people are unhappy they will not band together in revolution, despite being the ones who could make the difference. Chomsky ¹ explains that the individual has to make a choice between “pandering” to the boss and putting oneself above other employees to gain favour, or joining forces with co-workers and striking up protests to get what is deserved. The issue with the second choice is that the participants will only gain if they work in unison. As soon as one person at- tempts to maximise their own gains the10

group loses. Much of the mindset of thisera is that of personal gain, ensuring thefurthering of one’s own prospectsregardless of the impact on others, amindset promoted by aforementionedruling bodies. This being so, how dothese themes relate to contemporarygraphic design?1.2 The Design of Counter-HegemonyIn the consumerist climate of 2016, thewestern world is ruled by capitalism, andits control is held through design. Arthas become a commodity, it is no longerused to develop the artist, or expresshis/her emotions, but has become in-verted, become a means to sustainoneself, become a labour. Of course,aspects of this existed in the pre-capital-ist eras but since the proliferation of the 11

Counter-Hegemonic Design: market, art has become alienated, de- The Design of Counter-Hegemonytached from its original intention of expression. Quite opposed to its origins, art’s channel from creator to patron is no longer one of shared interests and aes- thetic taste, but one of marketing and of the transposition of concepts, concocted by capitalists in distant offices, designed to persuade the patron to the manner of reasoning that they rule as right. The artist does not work to improve them- selves for his/her own joy but to beat the competitors and make more money. ¹ Now that the ruling hegemonic powers own art, they use it to control the populous. It was Baudrillard’s theory that in the postmodern capitalist climate ‘...simulation rules. In the society of simula- tion, identities are constructed by the appropriation of images, and codes and models determine how individuals perceive themselves and relate to other people.’ ²12

(p. 52) This is what much of the commer- Marxism and Modernism An Historical Study of Lukács Brecht Benjamin and Adorno Berkeley University of California Press Jean Baudrillard in Postmodernism The Key Figures Bertens H Notoli J eds Blackwell Publisherscial market is based on, convincing thecustomer that their product will give Lunn E Kellner Dthem better/different status, that byowning their product you are better.Thus by owning and distributing allimagery, the ruling hegemonic powershold control over all society, dictatinghow people should think, what lifechoices are acceptable and how theyshould view the world. Therefore, thiscould be equally used to fight hegemonicpowers, but with the best medium withwhich to fight capitalism essentiallybeing owned by capitalists, how can it beused against them? How better to inverttheir messages than by using their ownlanguage against them? ‘The apathy and indifference of themasses to the appeals of the revolutionariesexpressed for Gramsci the fact of their 13

Counter-Hegemonic Design: subordination, not only to the force of the The Design of Counter-Hegemonystate but also to the world view of the ruling class. To achieve a revolutionary perspec- tive, the worker must first be freed of the ideological fetters imposed on him by the cultural organizations of the ruling class.’ (Bates 1975 p. 360) This is certainly the belief of the Adbusters movement. Predominantly a not-for-profit magazine, Adbusters are ‘fighting back against the hostile takeover of our psychological, physical and cultural environments by commercial forces.’ ² attempting to free the masses from their “imposed fetters”, revealing the deceit behind commercial forces, sparking campaigns and cultural “jamming”. For them, this means taking the visual art of the corporations that are, in some way, controlling the populous and using it to undermine said corporations.14

This can be expressed concisely Gramsci and the Theory of Hegemony Journal of the History of Ideas Vol Adbusters n d Adbusters Home Page webpage Available at https //www adbusters org Absolut Book The Absolut Vodka Advertising Story Tuttle Publishingthrough Absolut Vodka. Over the course University of Pennsylvania Press Accessed / /of several years, Absolut, a Swedishvodka, ran an advertising campaign Bates T Lewis Rduring a time when buying vodka from Noanywhere but Russia was ‘like crossing theriver for water’, ³ and yet, due to a phe-nomenally successful advertising cam-paign it managed to make a standagainst its competitors. Since its incep-tion in 1979 over a 1,000 different post-ers have been created, all using thesimilar style and language [left over-leaf], a style that has become indicativewith Absolut. It was for this reason that,when Adbusters released their anti-Abso-lut posters, [right overleaf] there wassuch an impact. By using the same visualstyle as Absolut it not only attracted theattention of their customers but furthergave the impression that the companywas undermining their own product. 15

16 Absolut Vodka Absolut Perfection advert online Available at http //adsoftheworld com/media/print/absolut_perfection Accessed / /

Adbusters Absolut Impotence advert online Available at http //www adbusters org/spoofads/absolut craze/ Accessed / /17

Counter-Hegemonic Design: The statement created was perceived to The Simulacrum of Counter-Hegemonybe all the truer because it came from the source itself. Adbusters work as one of the “loudest”, and more efficient, coun- ter-hegemonic forces due to their keen attention to, and understanding of, visual language and could, therefore, be considered a legitimate threat to the bourgeois. Their range of anti-corpora- tion poster designs range from oil companies to fast food establishments; there are many companies that use these kinds of advertising campaigns to make their products appear alluring, when they are in fact catastrophic to the environment or human body, Adbusters attempt to undermine these and present the “true” nature of these products.18

1.3 The Simulacrum ofCounter-HegemonyHowever, as with all subcultural phe-nomena, there is the risk of counter-he-gemonic movements being absorbed bypopular culture and thus, becomesomething less. This can be demon-strated through the punk movement.The rebellious, anti-design lifestyle ofthe youth of the 1970s was formed out ofan irritation with the ‘normal’ way oflife. Their music, clothes and art were allrough, unprofessional and home madeand, in many cases, crude and/or offen-sive. It was that generation’s way offighting back against the ruling hegem-onic powers. Nonetheless, as the stylegained momentum, an ever expandingcircle of characters began associatingthemselves with punk. This continueduntil eventually, the bourgeois found a 19

Counter-Hegemonic Design: way to take control of this highly ex- The Simulacrum of Counter-Hegemonypressive medium, turning punk music from a passion into a commodity, in the same fashion that it had previously taken art. Once the punks were being paid for by the higher class, it became near impossible for the unsponsored bands to make their mark. True coun- ter-hegemonic punk bands died out and pop-punk took over. ¹ In addition, one can consider Baudrillard, ² who writes about simula- cra and simulations. He suggests that there are four phases to any idea. Taking punk as an example. First ‘It is the reflection of basic reality.’ ² One rebels against the rule and expectations of the time, disrupting the bourgeois. This incites others into taking a stand and rise up. Then ‘It masks and perverts a basic reality.’ ² One begins to become popular, still making music out of20

dissent but also because one enjoys the No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism Laurence King Publishing Simulacra and Simulations pdf Available at https //epk home xs all nl/spectacles/Simulation/Baudrillard_Simulacra% and% Simulations pdf Jean Baudrillard Postmodernism The Key Figures Bertens H Notoli J Blackwell Publishersfame that one is gaining. Punk is moreabout popularity than rebellion. Next ‘It Poynor R Baudrillard J Accessed / / Kellner D edsmasks the absence of reality.’ ² One contin-ues to create the same style of music,which sounds rebellious but is in factsponsored by the bourgeois. There is norebellion. Finally ‘It bears no relation toany reality whatever: it is its own puresimulacrum.’ ² One plays music writtenby the bourgeois and so simulatesrebellion whilst this is in no way thetruth. Punk is now about making moneyfor those who it once rebelled against. So, applying this theory to contem-porary counter-hegemonic design, itshould be asked is creativity; freedom, orsimulacrum? Kellner ³ (p. 53) suggeststhat ‘In the postmodern world, individualsflee from the “desert of the real” for theecstasies of hyperreality’. With mass socialmedia readily available through smart 21

Counter-Hegemonic Design: phones and wireless technology, Baudril- The Simulacrum of Counter-Hegemonylard 1 believes that the populous exists in a world where it is near impossible to tell simulation from reality. With so much exposure to literally everything, the populous is forced to experience any- thing that the ruling hegemonic powers feel it is prudent to show them. Instead of working hard to discover truly coun- ter-hegemonic material, the proletariat is given instant access to resources that the bourgeois tell them is sub-cultural. They have the ability to escape into a hyperreal topography of faux sub-cul- ture, giving them all the benefits of feeling against the mainstream without actually putting up any resistance against the ruling bodies. This sates the proletariat’s need for rebellion whilst simultaneously keeping them subdued and inactive, exactly the state that benefits the bourgeois.22

Returning to the example of punk, Simulacra and Simulations pdf Available at https //epk home xs all nl/spectacles/Simulation/Baudrillard_Simulacra% and% Simulations pdfwhen listening to music, created throughcapitalist means and with corporate Baudrillard J Accessed / /goals, but which speaks of rebellionagainst corporation, is one rebellingagainst corporation or merely simulatingrebellion? It could be conceived as rebel-lion because of the language and style ofthe song, but alternately it is directlysponsoring that which it is “rebelling”against. ‘It can be seen that the iconoclasts,who are often accused of despising anddenying images, were, in fact, the ones whoaccorded them their actual worth,’ ¹ Whatthis means, in this situation, is thatalthough the punk may be inherentlyagainst everything that corporationsstand for, they are the ones that areactually allowing said corporations tomake profit, and further they commodifyand enrich the punk style itself, openingit up to the mainstream market. 23

‘The youth allow 1.4 The Futility of Counter-Hegemony themselves to be culturally attracted by Even so, some believe that counter-he- the workers, and right gemony, in any aspect, is futile. Bates away they ... try to take suggests that there is a cycle of revolu- control of them (in tion, in that every time one class rises up their “unconscious” against an “unfair” power to take con- desire to impose the trol, it soon becomes that which it was hegemony of their own originally fighting against. Gramsci class on the people)’ suggests that this is an “unconscious” (Bates 1975 p. 361) desire passed on through their forebears. Following the work of Michels he asserts Counter-Hegemonic Design: that without this bourgeois intelligence, The Futility of Counter-Hegemony transposed onto the proletariat cause, there would be little development around the thought of revolution. He also makes it clear that he is unsure of their motives and reasoning behind such notions. ¹ If it is the case that every power that abolishes hegemony, simply instates a new hegemony, could it be true that counter-hegemony truly is futile?24

Orwell ² (p. 255) describes this well Journal of the History of Ideas Vol‘...[the High] are then overthrown by theMiddle, who enlist the Low on their side by Gramsci and the Theory of Hegemonypretending to them that they are fighting for University of Pennsylvania Pressliberty and justice. As soon as they havereached their objective, the Middle thrust Nineteen Eighty Four Penguin Booksthe Low back into their old position ofservitude, and themselves become the High.’ Bates THe describes how the three predominant Noclasses are distinguished by their objec- Orwell Gtives: the High aim to remain in power,to keep their hegemonic control overpopulous. The Middle wish to overthrowthe High, this can be for a variety ofreasons whether it is for personal gain oron behalf of the Low. The Low often donot have a goal due to the overwhelmingstruggle of daily life, but when they dothey want to abolish all distinction ofclass. Orwell continues that history hasshown a pattern where the High remainin power for long periods of time, how- 25

‘Suppose you have two ever, there always comes a moment where runners who start at they lose their efficiency. It is at this point exactly the same where the Middle enlist the Low and position, have the same remove the High from their position, sneakers, and so on. subsequently taking their place as the One finishes first and New High and subjugating the Low back gets everything he to their original position. Out of this, a wants; the other New Middle extricates itself from one (or finishes second and both) of either the New High or the Low starves to death.’ and the cycle of struggle begins again. (Chomsky 1998 p. 211) On the other hand, Chomsky ¹ (p. 211) asserts that even in an equal society there Counter-Hegemonic Design: would always be a sense of inequality. He The Futility of Counter-Hegemony writes of the problems with attempting to achieve said equality: one can be provided with exactly the same provisions as another and yet still end up in a lesser position than one’s counterpart. Using this point of view it can be argued that there is no point to counter-hegemony, in any situation there will still be an element of inequality in one sense or another.26

Through examining Marxist theories of The Common Good in Hegemony or Survival America’s Quest for Global Penguin Bookshegemony and counter-hegemony, andexploring how these theories are applied Chomsky N Domination Chomsky Nto graphic design, it has been deducedthat the role of the artist has been veryimportant to the cause of over-turninghigher powers. It is the artist who incitesthe emotion needed to spur revolution,and thus, it is for this reason that theruling hegemonic powers strive to takecontrol of such forces. As previouslydemonstrated, whenever revolutionignites the bourgeois find a way oftransmuting passion into a commodity,using it to instead, service themselves.Therefore, through exploring the worksof Gramsci, Chomsky and Baudrillard, itappears that certain counter-hegemonicconcepts are in fact opposed to hegem-ony until they are eventually distorted,by the powers they oppose, into othermethods for controlling the populous. 27

Counter-Hegemonic Design: Through examining the punk and The Futility of Counter-HegemonyAdbusters movements, it has been discovered that previous counter-he- gemonic movements have been effective and successful, but they often become encompassed by commercialisation. On top of this, through inspecting the concept of simulation and simulacra, and whether or not counter-hegemony achieves its goals of opposing hegemonic powers, it has been discovered that the line between simulation and simulacra is fine and hegemonic powers use this to their advantage. By keeping this line obscure the bourgeois allows the popu- lous to feel revolutionary and rebellions whilst keeping them in control and continuing to make money out of their “rebellion”. Finally, the concept of an abolishment of hegemonic powers as an effective outcome for counter-hegemony was investigated, with strong evidence28

to suggest that any party that attemptsto remove a hegemonic power wouldsimply instate their own new power.Moreover, it has also been suggestedthat if attempts were made to remove allclass, the sought after equality wouldstill not be a realistic reality. Overall, hegemony and counter-he-gemony must be dealt with carefully, itis unclear whether a society truly devoidof hegemonic power could, or should,exist but there will always be those whofight for what they believe is the naturalorder of their world. 29

Were the Ideals ofJan TschicholdTransient or Durablein Relation toTypographical Form?

This text looks at the ideas of NewTypography and whether it still has aplace in the modern world, and whetherit is transient or durable. Did the grungedesigners of the nineties kill it? Shouldthey have killed it? Why did the creatorof the style break the rules he himselfset? This text discusses a range ofopinions aiming to explore these issuescovering what New Typography was,why it existed and how (or if) it fell fromgrace. Postmodernism’s influence overthe design industry is also consideredthrough looking at reasonings from JanTschichold against David Carson as towhy they design like they do.

‘The method of New After World War Two Tschichold, after Typography is based observing the travesties of war wished to on a clear realization unite the world through the use of uni- of purpose and the versal typographical form. New Typogra- best method of phy was about clarity, and function achieving it. No before form. In “Old Typography” cen- modern typography, be tral alignment was often used which it ever so “beautiful”, provided a central focal point, as with is “new” if it sacrifices most art, this, however, is not how the purpose to form.’ eye reads (at least in Western culture). For this reason, Tschichold did away with (Tschichold 1930 p. 37) this in favour of left alignment allowing for much easier comprehension. This is Were the Ideals of Jan Tschichold especially important in some situations. Transient of Durable in Relation Misinterpreted medical notes or contract to Typographical Form? text can make an enormous difference. ¹ This was a significant aspect of the modernist movement. During the early twentieth century, society was looking toward the future, discarding the past in favour of innovation. More specifically New Typography is an evolution of32

Bauhaus ideals, a school and movement Graphic Design Theory Readings From The Field New York Princeton The New Typography A Handbook For Modern Designers Translated from German by R McLean University of California Pressthat believed that the beauty of some-thing came from being perfect for the Armstrong H edt Tschichold Juse it was made for. ‘most people see only Architectural Pressthe superficial forms of technology, theyadmire their “beauty”—of aeroplanes, cars,or ships—instead of recognizing that theirperfection of appearance is due to the preciseand economic expression of their function.’ ²(p. 65) This was just the beginning of thenew ideas Tschichold posed.Prior to World War Two, each nationwould have its own style which Tsch-ichold believed caused division, the useof a single, universal style meant an air ofanonymity which, in theory, all nationscould relate to. Although this may havebeen rather far fetched it requires consid-eration. Tschichold believed that warshappened through miscommunicationbetween the nations. A clearer form of 33

Were the Ideals of Jan Tschicholdpassing information would help advocate Transient of Durable in Relationa unity throughout the world and, to Typographical Form? possibly, leading to peace. ¹ However, this clarity meant discarding the past in favour of the future. Achievements ‘can only become “classic” if they are unhis- toric.’ ¹ (p. 65) His ideals are bound tightly to the concept of “form follows function”. This is an idea prevalent in the natural world, form is not independ- ent but rather grows from function. This beauty can be seen in the tiger’s bodily structure, or the falcon’s streamline shape, therefore, Tschichold argues, that it makes sense to relate this notion to graphic design. ‘Both nature and technol- ogy teach us that “form” is not independ- ent, but grows out of function (purpose).’ ¹ (p. 65) Nature has created perfection via evolution and with the number of images one comes into contact with daily, perfection is necessary to design.34

Moreover, clarity must be assured in ‘Modern man has toall areas of the graphic design industry. absorb every day a mass‘As a rule, we no longer read quietly line by of printed matter which,line, but glance quickly over the whole, and whether he has asked foronly if our interest is awakened do we it or not, is deliveredstudy it in detail.’ ¹ (p. 64) The more through his letter-box orclutter that fills the page the harder it confronts him every-becomes to convey the information it where out of doors.’was built for. The details may even bemisunderstood. Helen Armstrong ² (Tschichold 1987 p. 64)further suggests that the purpose of JanTschichold’s ideas are to create a style The New Typography A Handbook For Modern Designers Translated from German by R McLean University of California Press Graphic Design Theory Readings From The Field New York Princetonwith no personality so that the observerof the image understands what the Tschichold J Armstrong H edtdesigner is saying without having to Architectural Pressinterpret. Designs could not be misun-derstood. ‘The typographer must take thegreatest care to study how his work is readand ought to be read.’ ² (p. 37)During the latter part of the twentiethcentury, many artists began to move 35

Were the Ideals of Jan Tschicholdaway from modernistic ideals. This was Transient of Durable in Relationthe beginning of postmodernism. Arriv- to Typographical Form? ing at a definition of postmodernism is a debatable and controversial subject, it was considered by some to be beneath critical consideration, a cultural fad, and by others to be one of the most signifi- cant developments in cultural produc- tion. It is hard to pinpoint the time or reason that designers and artists began to move towards postmodernism because unlike modernism, which was an artistic movement, it had no manifestos nor an official direction. It was a ‘cultural condi- tion’. ¹ (p. 18) It could be defined as the idea of art without the rules and constric- tions that Tschichold put in place but furthering this one could say that post- modernism departed from traditional ideas of value and meaning, which fluctu- ated and relied entirely on the observer’s point of view and circumstance. This36

allowed a blur between ‘high’ and ‘low’ No More Rules Graphic Design And Postmodernism London Laurence King Publishingculture, presenting the world as it is,rather than what we would like it to be. ¹ Poynor RDavid Carson was a strong advocate ofthis form of design and is still a leadingdesigner and art director. He suggeststhat if there is no grid, no format thedesign ends up at a more interesting placethan if he were to just apply formal designrules. ² His approach to design is suchthat essays have been written about smallmarks and obscurities in his works whenin reality they are merely printing mis-takes and rendering errors that he simplydidn’t remove before publishing. Philip Johnson is a prime example ofNew Typography’s fall from grace.Although Johnson himself was an archi-tect, he was also a devotee of the modern-ist ethos (although he was an architectrather than typographer he still followedTschichold’s principles), whose ideas 37

Were the Ideals of Jan Tschicholdpredominantly consisted of geometric Transient of Durable in Relationbuildings built for a purpose. The AT&T to Typographical Form? tower (now the Sony tower) went against all this when he placed a stylised pedi- ment at to top of the building. This, along with other elements of his work, was considered an “exercise de style”, if he saw and admired something he would, at once, include it into his own idea of ‘formal, classical completeness’ an idea shunned in the modernist climate of the time. ¹ (pp. 276-7) Johnson was not the only one to follow this path either. In later life, Tschichold ² himself became lenient with the rules. ‘It is the master who establishes the rules and not the pupil, and the master is permitted to break the rules, even his own.’ (p. 170) He even began to tolerate the central alignment which he originally so despised. He further stated that his hard-line opinion bore shocking parallels with the ap-38

proach the Nazi party had taken. There Robin ? A Letter Against Johnson’s Change Of Style letter Philip Johnson’s Life And Illus ed University of Chicago Press The New Typography A Handbook For Modern Designers Translated from German by R McLean University of California Pressis definitely a slight encouragement to“standardization” when creating designs Work Schulze F Tschichold Jin New Typography whereas postmod-ernism, art without rules, allows allpossible and impossible configurationsand decorative elements such as serifsand modified leading and tracking.The choice between New Typographyand postmodernism ultimately comesdown to where the design is placed andwhat purpose it is to serve. A “good”illustration that utilizes New Typograph-ical layout is Moholy-Nagy’s design, adouble page spread from a book prospec-tus. [overleaf] There is a clear presentgrid in play helping to define segments ofthe text as well as leading the readeracross the page. This is further enforcedby the use of a single colour. The starkcontrast allows certain elements to stand 39

Were the Ideals of Jan Tschicholdout and draw the eye helping to present a Transient of Durable in Relationhierarchy. Such use of colour suggests to Typographical Form? that the lower-left, upper-right area of the spread is of particular significance, possibly a table of contents. Another way this paragraph suggests importance is through the use of the bold version of the typeface. Overall, these pages, even though in a different language, are clear enough that they suggest information without needing to be explicit.40

A postmodern approach [overleaf] is Black and Red on White inside double spread from a book The New Typography A Handbook For Modern Designers Translated from German by R McLean University of California Press Print’s Finale Has Been Postponed Internet No Vol Eye Eye Magazine Available at http //www eyemagazine com/review/article/prints finale has been postponedrather juxtaposed. Contents Page byDavid Carson shows a complete aversion Facing Page Moholy Nagy L Tschichold Jto the modernist take on layout. Incommon practice these pages should be prospectus p Bierut M Accessed / /clear, their function; to guide a readerand present the sections of the material.Carson, however, has ignored this. Thisdesign again only uses a single colour,although instead of helping make thetext easier to read it helps make theinformation less discernible. The pur-pose of this page has been forgone inplace of appearance. Carson has sug-gested that if a design is harder to readone may spend longer studying it,therefore taking in the information moreefficiently. On occasion, he has gone asfar as to make the text impossible toread (as in his famous spread written inDingbats) so that it presents an idea orsimply makes a point. ¹ 41



Armstrong ¹ (p. 38) suggests that Beach Culture magazine page layout no pagination in Blackwell L The End Of Print The Grafik Design Of David Carson nd ed Laurence King Publishing Graphic Design Theory Readings From The Field New York Princeton No More Rules Graphic Design And Postmodernism London Laurence King Publishing‘functional design means the abolition ofthe “ornamentation” that has reigned for Facing Page Carson D Armstrong H edt Poynor Rcenturies...’. Beatrice Warde disagrees. In Architectural Pressher opinion, the classical approaches totypography are not shackles to be castaside but valuable history that shouldinform new work. ¹ (pp. 38-9) Moreover,the grunge typographers of the ninetieswould argue that postmodernism allowsan individuality and method of self-iden-tification. ² In truth, a good deal dependson context. New Typography can beseen as being clear, legible with powerfulapplication of hierarchy and high con-trasting colours making it effectivewhen used in situations where clearcommunication is essential such as legaldocuments, instructions and medicationinformation etcetera. On the other hand, designers todaycould see it as being the cause of a 43

Were the Ideals of Jan Tschicholdmonotonous standardization with no Transient of Durable in Relationpersonalization to individual designs, to Typographical Form? in which case a more exciting, more intriguing or simply more baffling postmodern outlook may be required. If artists are only allowed to inject personal style if it fits the rules, then how can design move forward. On the other hand, is it wise to ignore thou- sands of years of artistic history in favour of progress? As with many aspects of life, moderation is key. A Carson design in medicinal instruc- tions would be highly unrecomended but then in less formal situations. New Typography is a reaction to war impacting on the world a great deal. Nevertheless, as people began to forget the wars it was not needed as much allowing other styles to be formed and take its place. It is not dead, it could44

have been considered transient, losingsome of its value. However, it has re-mained durable and lasted, it has its placebut is not the only accepted style availa-ble for the modern graphic designer. 45

Deconstruction &Structuralism:Writing as a LesserForm of Speech,or SymbioticCoexistence?

A complex theory spanning across Deconstruction and Graphic Design History Meets Theory Internet Available at https //www typotheque com/articles/deconstruction_ and_graphic_design_history _meets_theory Accessed / /multiple disciplines, often misconstruedand thoroughly debated, Deconstruction Lupton E(or Post-Structuralism) is an idea that hasmany arguments both for and against.First though, the title question cannotbe considered, until what is being ana-lysed is understood. Before Post-Structuralism cameStructuralism. This theory, in relation tothe aforementioned subject, asserts thatthere is no corporeal signification in thebody of any given signifier, the contentinstead comes from the collectivesystem. ¹ This extends to state thatwriting is an inconsequential representa-tion with reference to the spoken word

Deconstruction & Structuralism:and moreover, the mental experience Writing as a Lesser Form of Speech,(thought). Much like photocopying an or Symbiotic Coexistence?item that is already the result of a previ- ous photocopy, the theory suggests that with every step away the signifier’s intimacy to the signified degenerates further until it is inconsequential. ¹ ‘With regard to this unity, writing would always be derivative, accidental, particular, exterior, doubling the signifier: phonetic. “Sign of a sign.” said Aristotle, Rousseau and Hegel.’ ¹ (p. 29) By the same token, Structuralism holds ties to Modernism in implying that type should be clear, purely functional, so as to give as clear a channel, between word and thought, as possible. This is present in the style, layout, typeface choices of the New Typography and other related move- ments of the same generation. ² In opposition, deconstruction theory refuses this, although first several48