21ODMMT652-Research Methods and Statistics II

MASTER OF PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER-II RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS II MAP611 1 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Chairman Prof. (Dr.) Parag Diwan Vice Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director – IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director – CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Coordinator – Dr. Rupali Arora Coordinator – Dr. Simran Jewandah Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Coordinator – Dr. Raju Kumar Coordinator – Dr. Manisha Malhotra Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Coordinator – Dr. Aman Jindal Coordinator – Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel &Tourism Management) Coordinator – Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Coordinator – Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Coordinator – Dr. Ashita Chadha Coordinator – Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) R. M. Bhagat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Executive Director – Sciences Registrar Prof. (Dr.) Abhishek Prof. (Dr.) Inderpreet Kaur Executive Director – Management Director – IDOL Prof. (Dr.) Manaswini Acharya Executive Director – Liberal Arts © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: SCHOOLGURU EDUSERVE PVT LTD B-903, Western Edge II, Western Express Highway, Borivali (E), Mumbai - 400066 Call Us: +91 22 4896 8005 Mail Us: [email protected] For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning 2 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

First Published in 2020 All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from Chandigarh University. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this book may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This book is meant for educational and learning purpose. The authors of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the eventthat the Authors has/ have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. 3 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENT Unit 1 Research: Ethics In Research .................................................................................. 5 Unit 2 Mixed Method Approach....................................................................................... 19 Unit 3 Research Design ..................................................................................................... 39 Unit 4 Spss: An Introduction ............................................................................................ 57 Unit 5 Spss: Analysis And Interpretation Of Results ...................................................... 72 Unit 6 Descriptive Statistics .............................................................................................. 78 Unit 7 Measures Of Variability ........................................................................................ 90 Unit 8 Correlation ........................................................................................................... 103 Unit 9 Regression ............................................................................................................ 117 Unit 10 Use Of Tools For Research ................................................................................ 131 Unit 11 Report Writing ................................................................................................... 144 4 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 1 RESEARCH: ETHICS IN RESEARCH Structure 1.0. Learning Objectives 1.1. Introduction 1.2. What do we mean by Scientific Research? 1.3. Characteristics of Research 1.4. Ethics in Research 1.5. Ethical Code in Research 1.6. Summary 1.7. Key Words/ Abbreviations 1.8. Learning Activity 1.9. Unit End Questions 1.10. Suggested Readings 1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  State the concepts of research  Explain ethical practices in research 1.1 INTRODUCTION When people think of research, many will think immediately of the collection of quantitative or qualitative data through interviewing, questionnaires or other methods. Whilst such primary data collection is an important part of many research projects, there is much more involved, and it is generally more appropriate to consider data collection as part of a wider process involving important stages both before and after those of data collection. This chapter introduces this concept of the 'research process', describes the elements within the process, and the relationships between the elements. It is important that you understand all elements of the research process before commencing your research project so that you have an idea of the 'big picture'. Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.” 5 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slazenger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. 1.2 WHAT DO WE MEAN BY SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH? Research is defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a concern or a problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.” Research in simplified terms means searching for the facts searching for the replies to the various queries and for the solutions to the various problems. Research is an inquiry or an investigation with a specific purpose to fulfil, it helps in clearing the various doubtful concepts and tries to solve or explain the various unexplained procedures or phenomena. According to the encyclopaedia of social science, research can be explained as ‘the manipulation of generalizing to extend, connect or verify knowledge.’ Research is defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a concern or a problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.” Inductive research methods are used to analyse the observed phenomenon whereas, deductive methods are used to verify the observed phenomenon. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative research. One of the most important aspects of research is the statistics associated with it, conclusion or result. It is about the “thought” that goes behind the research. Research is conducted with a purpose to understand: 6 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?  What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?  What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?  What is the evidence that will be required that people believe in the idea or concept? 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH 1. A systematic approach is followed in research. Rules and procedures are an integral part of research that set the objective of a research process. Researchers need to practice ethics and code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions. 2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods. 3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual observations in the natural settings. 4. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research so that there are no anomalies associated with it. 5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. More research opportunity can be generated from existing research. 6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference. 7. Accuracy is one of the important characters of research, the information that is obtained while conducting the research should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, research conducted in a controlled environment like a laboratory. Here accuracy is measured of instruments used, calibrations, and the result of the experiment. 1.4 ETHICS IN RESEARCH Most research involving human beings is directed towards advancing human welfare, knowledge and understanding, and/or towards the study of social or cultural dynamics. Such work is undertaken for many reasons, for example: to alleviate human suffering, to validate social or scientific theories, to dispel ignorance, to analyse or evaluate policy, and to understand human behaviour and the evolving human condition. Research that involves human subjects or participants raises unique and complex ethical, legal, social and political issues. Research ethics is specifically interested in the analysis of ethical issues that are raised when people are involved as participants in research. There are three objectives in research ethics. The first and broadest objective is to protect human participants. The second objective is to ensure that research is conducted in a way that serves 7 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

interests of individuals, groups and/or society as a whole. Finally, the third objective is to examine specific research activities and projects for their ethical soundness, looking at issues such as the management of risk, protection of confidentiality and the process of informed consent. For the most part, research ethics has traditionally focused on issues in biomedical research. The application of research ethics to examine and evaluate biomedical research has been well developed over the last century and has influenced much of the existing statutes and guidelines for the ethical conduct of research. However in humanities and social science research, different kinds of ethical issues arise. New and emerging methods of conducting research, such as auto-ethnography and participatory action research raise important but markedly different ethical issues and obligations for researchers. Research involving vulnerable persons, which may include children, persons with developmental or cognitive disabilities, persons who are institutionalized, the homeless or those without legal status, also raises unique issues in any research context. Meaning and Definition of Ethics and Ethical Principles An ethical principle is a base philosophical stance which directly or indirectly leads to an ethical standard. The term “ethics” simply means “moral principles that govern a person's or group's behaviour.” The term “principle” simply means “a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.” Ethics usually refers to human behaviour that is considered good or proper within the context of a group - i.e. law, and usually implies or explicitly involves punishment by the group against the individual who violates the ethical standard. This is slightly contrasted with morality, which is more or less the same thing, but is not concerned with law or enforcement, but with a more general idea of right and wrong. For example, whereas lying may be considered immoral, only lying in certain circumstances, such as on a contract, would be considered unethical. An ethical principal is the foundation thought or idea that makes an ethical standard correct. It is usually the principal on which a law or set of laws is based. Research ethicists everywhere today are challenged by issues that reflect global concerns in other domains, such as the conduct of research in developing countries, the limits of research involving genetic material and the protection of privacy in light of advances in technology and Internet capabilities. 8 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Historical overview- Ethical codes Human experimentation has been conducted even before 18th century. However, the ethical attitudes of researchers drawn the interest of society only after 1940's because of human exploitation in several cases. Professional codes and laws were introduced since then in order to prevent scientific abuses of human lives. The Nazi experiments led to the Nuremberg Code (1947) which was the leading code for all subsequent codes made to protect human rights in research. This code focuses on voluntary informed consent, liberty of withdrawal from research, protection from physical and mental harm, or suffering and death. It also emphasises the risk- benefit balance. The only weak point of this code was the self-regulation of researchers which can be abused in some research studies. All declarations followed, forbade nontherapeutic research. It was only in 1964 with the declaration of Helsinki that the need for non-therapeutic research was initiated. The declaration emphasized the protection of subjects in this kind of research and strongly proclaimed that the wellbeing of individuals is more important than scientific and social interests. In terms of Nursing the first inquiry was the \"Nightingale Pledge\" (1983). Since then there has been a significant development of professional codes in conduct and research. The American Nurses' Association (ANA) Guidelines for Research, the Human Rights Guidelines for nurses in clinical and other research (1985) and the Royal College of Nursing Code for nurses in research (1977) provide a strong assistance to professional nurses as well as reassurance to patients, the public and society, of professionals’ intentions. Need for ethics in research  Ethics approval for research with human participants is needed for the following reasons:  To protect the rights and welfare of participants and minimise the risk of physical and mental discomfort, harm and/or danger from research procedures  To protect the rights of the researcher to carry out any legitimate investigation as well as the reputation of the University for Research conducted and/or sponsored by it  To minimise the likelihood of claims of negligence against individual researchers, and any collaborating persons or organizations  Because Research Funding bodies and refereed journals increasingly require a statement of ethical practices in applications for research funds and/or as a condition for publication. Major ethical issues in conducting research  Informed consent 9 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Informed consent is the major ethical issue in conducting research. According to Armiger: \"it means that a person knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently, and in a clear and manifest way, gives his consent\" Informed consent is one of the means by which a patient's right to autonomy is protected. Beauchamp and Childress define autonomy as the ability for self-determination in action according to a personal plan. Informed consent seeks to incorporate the rights of autonomous individuals through self- determination. It also seeks to prevent assaults on the integrity of the patient and protect personal liberty and veracity. Of course individuals can make informed decisions in order to participate in research voluntarily only if they have information on the possible risks and benefits of the research. Free and informed consent needs to incorporate an introduction to the study and its purpose as well as an explanation about the selection of the research subjects and the procedures that will be followed. It is essential to describe any physical harm or discomfort, any invasion of privacy and any threat to dignity as well as how the subjects will be compensated in that case. Another major ethical issue is obtaining an informed consent from groups with diminished autonomy which will be further discussed later. From what has been discussed, it becomes clear that disclosure, comprehension, competency and voluntariness are the four essential parts of consent.  Beneficence- Do not harm The ethical principle of beneficence refers to the Hippocratic \"be of benefit, do not harm\". Beauchamp and Childress, suggest that \"the principle of beneficence includes the professional mandate to do effective and significant research so as to better serve and promote the welfare of our constituents\". When a researcher tries to learn intimate details of the participants lives he has to deal with opening old wounds. Non-malificence dictates both preventing intentional harm and minimising potential harm. A researcher must consider all possible consequences of the research and balance the risks with proportionate benefit. The type, degree, and number of potential risks must be assessed as well as the patients’ value system which ranks various harms. The risk benefit ratio can only be achieved by identifying these factors. If the risks outweigh the benefits, the study should be revised.  Respect for anonymity and confidentiality The issue of confidentiality and anonymity is closely connected with the rights of beneficence, respect for the dignity and fidelity. ANA suggests anonymity is protected when the subject's identity cannot be linked with personal responses. If the researcher is not able to promise anonymity he has to address confidentiality, which is the management of private 10 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

information by the researcher in order to protect the subject's identity. Levine advocates that confidentiality means that individuals are free to give and withhold as much information as they wish to the person they choose. The researcher is responsible to \"maintain confidentiality that goes beyond ordinary loyalty\". Clarke addresses the ethical dilemma of the researcher when confidentiality must be broken because of the moral duty to protect society. According to the utilitarian theory, which focuses on the best interest of all involved, the happiness of society is of greater importance. On the other hand, the deontological theory which ignores the result implies that the moral duty is what really matters. If a researcher, though, acts deontologically he may feel that he has not protected society. Another issue is that the researcher may have to report confidential information to courts which can also cause moral dilemmas. In those cases it can be argued that the moral duty and personal ethos can be stronger than legal requirements. Even if there are no duty conflicts, the researcher faces several problems with respect to maintaining confidentiality especially in qualitative research where conduct is personal, the sample is smaller and the reports display quotations of interviews.  Vulnerable groups of people Nowadays, there is an increased concern about vulnerable groups and whether it is ethical or not for them to be used as research subjects.\" Fisher classifies vulnerability as one characteristic of people unable to protect their own rights and welfare\". So, vulnerable groups include captive populations (prisoners, institutionalized, students etc.), mentally ill persons, aged people, children, critically ill or dying, poor, with learning disabilities, sedated or unconscious. The different opinions about their participation in research can be attributed to their inability to give an informed consent and also to their need for further protection and sensitivity from the researcher as they are in a greater risk of being deceived, threatened or forced to participate. Many are in favour of the use of such subjects in research whilst others would argue strongly against it. Most condition their responses according to the seriousness of the research, the level of potential risk and the availability of alternatives.  Respect for privacy The fifth principle of the entitled \"A Patient's Bill of rights\" document published in 1975 by the American Hospital Association (AHA), affirm the patient's right of privacy. According to Levine : \"privacy is the freedom an individual has to determine the time, extent, and general circumstances under which private information will be shared with or withheld from others \". 11 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Kelman believes that an invasion of privacy happens when private information such as beliefs, attitudes, opinions and records, is shared with others, without the patient’s knowledge or consent. This may even apply to report of age, income, marital status, and other details that the subject may regard intimate. They also imply that privacy can be invaded when researchers study certain groups without their knowledge and without identifying themselves. Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and to act ethically in various situations. 1.5 ETHICAL CODE IN RESEARCH The quote ‟everything is fair in love and war‟ but is neither applicable to business nor to research. Hence, this section has been incorporated this analysis. The aspects of ethics are the creations of WW II and it revolutionized it, yet nothing is finalized. What is acceptable today may not be after a decade or so. Hence, as per the codes, it should indicate their boundaries as follows: 1. Boundaries of Competence: a) Researchers provides services, teach and conduct research only within the boundaries of their competencies, based on their education, training, supervised experience or appropriate professional experience b) Researchers provide services, teach or conduct research in new areas or involving new techniques only after first undertaking appropriate study, training, supervision. c) In those emerging areas in which generally recognized standards for preparatory training do not yet exist, psychologists nevertheless take reasonable steps to ensure the competence of their work and to protect patients, clients, students, research participates and others from harm. 2. Maintaining Expertise: Research scholars who engages in assessments, therapy, teaching, research organizational consult ting or other professional activities maintain reasonable level of awareness of current scientific and professional information in their fields of activity and undertake ongoing efforts to maintain competence in the skills they use. 3. Planning Research: It needs meticulous planning and proper follow up: a) Research scholars design, conduct and report research in accordance with recognized standard of scientific competence and ethical research b) Research scholars plans their research to minimize the possibility that results will be misleading c) In planning research, psychologists consider its ethical acceptability under ethics code. If an ethical issue is unclear, psychologists seek to resolve the issue though consultation with institutional review boards, peer consultation or other proper mechanism 12 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d) Research scholars take reasonable steps to implements appropriate protections for the rights and welfare of human participants other persons affected by the search and the welfare of animal’s subjects 4. Responsibility: Due care on the part of the guide and the researcher must be taken care of depending upon the competence: a) Research scholars conduct research completely and with due concern for the dignity and welfare of the participants b) Research scholar are responsible for the ethical conduct of research conducted by them or by others under their supervision or control c) Researchers and assistants are permitted to perform only those tasks for which they are appropriately trained and prepared d) As part of the process of development and implementation of research projects psychologists consult those with expertise concerning any special population under investigation or most likely to be affected 5. Compliance with Law and Standard Research scholars plan and conduct research in a manner consistent with union and state prevailing stature and regulations as well as professional standards governing the conduct of research and particularly those standards governing research with human participants. 6. Institutional Approval Research scholars obtain from host institutions or organizations appropriate approval prior to conducting research and they provide accurate information about their research proposal or for that matter purely a Pilot study, before going for a major research 7. Research Responsibilities Prior to conducting research psychologists enter into an agreement with participations that clarifies that nature of the research and the responsibilities of each party 8. Informed consent to Research: Psychologists must follow certain norms: a) Research scholars use language that is reasonable understandable to research participants in obtaining their appropriate informed consent b) Using language that is reasonably understandable to participants, psychologists inform participants of the nature of the research; they inform participants that they are free to participate or to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research; they explain the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing; they inform participants of significant factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate c) When research scholars conduct research with individuals such as students or subordinates, psychologists take exceptional care to protect the prospective participants from adverse consequences of declining or withdrawing from participation. d) When research participations are course requirement or opportunity for extra credit, the prospective participants are given the choice of equitable alternatives activities. 13 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

9. Dispensing with Informed Consent Before determining that planned research does not require the informed consents of research participants, psychologists consider applicable regulations and they consult with colleagues as appropriate. 10. Informed consensus to research Filming or Recording: Research scholars obtains informed consents from research participants proper to filming or recording them in any form, unless the research involves simply naturalistic observations in public place and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in manner that could cause personal identification or harm. 11. Offering incentives for Research Participants: Incentives or an inducement is fare but there should not be any element of fear: a) In offering professional services as an inducement to obtain research participants, psychologists make clear the nature of the services as well as the risks, obligations and limitations especially while dealing with the patients or clients b) Psychologists do not offer excessive or inappropriate financial or other inducements to obtain research participants, particularly when it might tend to coerce participations. 12. Deception in Research: No deception unless justifiable: a) Research scholars do not conduct a study involving deception unless they have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study prospective scientific, educational or applied value and that equally effective alternative procedures that do not use deception are not feasible. b) Research scholar never deceive research participants about significant aspects that would affect their willingness to participate c) Any other deception that is an integral feature of the design and conduct of an experiment must explained to participants as early as is feasible, preferably at the end of their participation, but no later than the conclusion of the research 13. Sharing and Utilizing data: Research scholars inform research participants of their anticipated or further use of personally identifiable research data and of the possibility of unanticipated future uses 14. Minimizing Invasiveness: In conducting research, research scholars interfere with the participants or milieu from which data are collected only in a manner that is warranted by an appropriate research design and that is consistent with psychologist roles as scientific investigators 15. Providing participants with information about the study: i. Research scholars provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain information about the nature, result and conclusion of the research and psychologists attempt to correct any misconception that participants may have ii. If scientific or human values justify delaying or withholding this information, psychologists take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm. 16. Honouring Commitment: Research scholars take reasonable measures to honour hall commitment they have made to research participants 17. Reporting of Results: Results should be true and authentic in all respects: 14 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

a) Research scholars do not fabricate date of falsify results in their publications b) If research scholars discover significant efforts in their published data, they take reasonable steps to correct such errors in correcting, reaction, erratum, or other appropriate publications means 18. Plagiarism: Research scholars do not present substantial portions or elements of another work or data as their own, even if the other work or data source is cited occasionally 19. Publication Credit: Research scholars to ensure that due credit is given to the right claimant: a) Research scholars take responsibility and credit, including authorship credit, only for work they have performed or to which they have contributed b) Principal authorship and other publications credits accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individual involved, regardless of their relative status 20. Duplicate Publication of Data: Research scholars do not publish, as original data, data that have been previously published this does not preclude republishing data when they are accompanied by proper acknowledgement 21. Sharing Data: After research result are published, research scholars do not withhold that data in which their conclusions are based from other content professional who seek to verify the substantive claims through reanalysis and who intend to use such data only for that purpose, if confidentiality of the participants can be protected and unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude their release 22. Professional Reviewer Research scholars who review materials submitted for publication, grants or other research proposal review respect the confidentially of and the proprietary rights in such information of those who submit it 23. Manipulation of Data: Authenticity of the source is must and at the same time, inflation of the data, manipulation or multiplication of data- all are unethical 1.6 SUMMARY In psychology, large variety of research methods are applied, all of which are differing in several respects. Researchers have the responsibility to choose a method which serves best the purpose of the study, suits the studied construct and the investigated subjects available, and eventually reflects the applied psychological approach. The decision must be cautious and scientifically confirmed, as all methods imply not only advantages, but limitations and downfalls. The aim of this course is to establish, enrich and encourage scientific thinking regarding psychological studies, and psychological problems. Students completed the course must be able to analyse psychological research in terms of research method, variables, design and identify the corresponding special advantages and disadvantages. The course enables students to plan research studies in a scientifically established manner regarding conceptualization and operational planning in detail. A special emphasis is made on experimental research, namely 15 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

on planning of experiments, experimental designs and special problems of experimental studies. In general, the course develops critical thinking regarding research. 1.7 KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS  Confidentiality-A principle of law and professional research ethics in which researchers and professional practitioners are required to limit disclosure of information they have acquired in the practice of their profession, including the name of their clients or subjects and all other data that has been collected about the clients or subjects without their informed consent.  Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct-A document adopted by the American Psychological Association delineating the professional code of ethics and expected behaviour for psychologists in the performance of their duties as psychologists.  Ethics-1. The principles that define morally acceptable conduct, often within a particular group or profession. 2. The field of study within philosophy which debates the nature and content of moral judgments. 1.8 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Assume a pharmaceutical company has approached you to research the effectiveness of a memory boasting supplement. What are the ethical questions you will ask to decide whether to accept the research proposal? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Explain ways in which ethics can be followed while conducting research. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 1.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. What do you mean by scientific research? 2. Outline the characteristics of research. 3. Write a note on Ethics in Research. 4. Discuss history of ethics in research. 16 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. Explain the ethical issues in research? B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. Which ethical code means that the person is knowingly and voluntarily participating in a research study? (A) Benevolence (B) Confidentiality (C) Anonymity (D) Informed consent 2. ___________________ means moral principles that govern a person's or group's behaviour (A) Ethics (B) Research (C) Counselling (D) Experiment 3. Which is not an ethical principal? (A) Informed consent (B) Confidentiality (C) Intentional Harm (D) Respect 4. ___________________ means “moral principles that govern a person's or group's behaviour.” (A) Scientific Study (B) Ethics (C) Research 17 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(D) Methodology 5. __________________ means “a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.” (A) Scientific Study (B) Ethics (C) Research (D) Principle Answer 1. d 2 c 3 a 4 b 5 d 1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS  Introduction to Statistics by David M. Lane, David Scott, Mikki Hebl, Rudy Guerra, Dan Osherson, and Heidi Zimmer  Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches by Keith F Punch  Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques By C. R. Kothari  Research Methodology By D K Bhattacharyya  Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners By Ranjit Kumar  Research Methodology By P. Sam Daniel, Aroma G. Sam 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 2 MIXED METHOD APPROACH Structure 2.0. Learning Objectives 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Quantitative Research 2.3. Qualitative Research 2.4. Mixed Methods Studies 2.5. Uses of Mixed Methods Research Designs 2.6. Factors to Consider while using Mixed Research Design 2.7. Advantages of Mixed Method 2.8. Limitations of Mixed Method 2.9. Summary 2.10. Key Words/ Abbreviations 2.11. Learning Activity 2.12. Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 2.13. Suggested Readings 2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Outline mixed method research.  Identify the uses of mixed method in research  Discuss advantages and limitations of mixed method in research. 2.1 INTRODUCTION How would you write a mixed methods procedure section for your proposal? Up until this point, we have considered collected quantitative data and qualitative data. We have not discussed “mixing” or combining the two forms of data in a study. We can start with the assumption that both forms of data provide different types of information (open-ended data in the case of qualitative and closed-ended data in the case of quantitative). If we further assume that each type of data collection has both limitations and strengths, we can consider how the strengths can be combined to develop a stronger understanding of the research problem or questions (and, as well, overcome the limitations of each). This “mixing” or blending of data, it can be argued, provides a stronger understanding of the problem or question than either by itself. This idea is at the core of a reasonably new method called “mixed methods research.” 19 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In the past two decades, mixed methods, the application of both quantitative and qualitative research approaches to investigate a research area of interest in a single study, has gained momentum in various disciplines, including nursing. The use of mixed methods allows for a deeper understanding of a phenomenon of interest than the use of either a quantitative or qualitative approach alone, especially when the phenomenon is complex. Mixed methods is recommended when one of the four following scenarios is evident: 1) When very little is known about a new concept, a qualitative approach can be used before a quantitative approach; 2) when findings from a research approach can be better interpreted by using findings from the other approach; 3) when a sole approach is not sufficient to generate meaningful findings; and 4) when quantitative findings can be enriched by qualitative findings.2,4 Oftentimes with mixed methods, results from one method can help identify appropriate participants to be questioned for richer information. Conveying the nature of mixed methods research and what it is begins a good mixed methods procedure. Begin with the assumption that mixed methods is a new methodology in research and that the readers need to be educated as to the basic intent and definition of the design, the reasons for choosing the procedure, and the value it will lend to a study. Then, decide on a mixed methods design to use. There are many from which to choose and consider the different possibilities and decide which one is best for the proposed study. With this choice in hand, discuss the data collection, the data analysis, and the data interpretation and validation procedures within the context of the design. Finally, end with a discussion of potential ethical issues that need to be anticipated in the study, and suggest an outline for writing the final study 2.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. Quantitative research collects information from existing and potential customers using sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires, etc., the results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After careful understanding of these numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make changes accordingly. An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did a doctor takes to see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a hospital, and other such questions. Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social sciences using the statistical methods used above to collect quantitative data from the research study. In this research 20 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

method, researchers and statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and theories that pertain to the quantity under question. Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times, even investigational. The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical, and unbiased. Data collection happened using a structured method and conducted on larger samples that represent the entire population. Characteristics of quantitative research Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research are:  Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls, or questionnaires are used to gather quantitative data. Using such structure methods helps in collecting in-depth and actionable data from the survey respondents.  Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant sample size that represents the target market. Appropriate sampling methods have to be used when deriving the sample to fortify the research objective  Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created per the objective of the research. These questions help collect quantitative data and hence, are extensively used in quantitative research.  Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are studied before collecting feedback from respondents.  Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by tables, charts, graphs, or any other non-numerical form. This makes it easy to understand the data that has been collected as well as prove the validity of the market research.  Generalization of results: Results of this research method can be generalized to an entire population to take appropriate actions for improvement. Quantitative research examples Some examples of quantitative research are: 1. If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey, a customer satisfaction survey template can be used. Through this survey, an organization can collect quantitative data and metrics on the goodwill of the brand or organization in the mind of the customer based on multiple parameters such as product quality, pricing, customer experience, etc. This data can be collected by asking a net promoter score (NPS) question, matrix table questions, etc. that provide data in the form of numbers that can be analyzed and worked upon. 21 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. Another example of quantitative research is an organization that conducts an event, collecting feedback from the event attendees about the value that they see from the event. By using an event survey template, the organization can collect actionable feedback about satisfaction levels of customers during various phases of the event such as the sales, pre and post-event, the likelihood of recommending the organization to their friends and colleagues, hotel preferences for the future events and other such questions. Advantages of quantitative research There are many advantages of quantitative research. Some of the major advantages of why researchers use this method in market research are:  Collect reliable and accurate data: As data is collected, analyzed, and presented in numbers, the results obtained will be extremely reliable. Numbers do not lie. They offer an honest picture of the conducted research without discrepancies and is also extremely accurate. In situations where a researcher predicts conflict, quantitative research is conducted.  Quick data collection: A quantitative research is carried out with a group of respondents who represent a population. A survey or any other quantitative research method applied to these respondents and the involvement of statistics, conducting, and analyzing results is quite straightforward and less time-consuming.  Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this research method provides a wide scope of data collection.  Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for personal comments or biasing of results. The results achieved are numerical and are thus, fair in most cases. Disadvantages of quantitative research  Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).  Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).  Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations. 22 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation. 2.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication. This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. For example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more. One good method to determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview of potential customers in the category. For example, on successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and malls, and selecting them through random sampling, it was known that the store doesn’t have enough items for women and so there were fewer women visiting the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t visit the store, because there were more male products than female ones. Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses, where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding how your audience takes decisions can help derive conclusions in market research. Characteristics of qualitative research methods 1. Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants are experiencing issues or problems. These are real-time data and rarely bring the participants out of the geographic locations to collect information. 2. Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source. 3. This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking down into meaningful inferences, that is easily readable and understood by all. 4. Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the researcher and the information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated. Qualitative research method case study 23 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Let’s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their sales and customer outreach. An online community of members who were the loyal patrons of the bookstore were interviewed and related questions were asked and the questions were answered by them. At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were suitable for adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers. By conducting this qualitative research, the bookstore owner realized what the shortcomings were and what were the feelings of the readers. Through this research now the bookstore owner can now keep books for different age categories and can improve his sales and customer outreach. Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to indulge in further quantitative research, which provides remedies. Advantages of qualitative research  Qualitative research is a very affordable method of research. Qualitative research is one of the most affordable ways to glean information from individuals who are being studied. Focus groups tend to be the primary method of collecting information using this process because it is fast and effective. Although there are research studies that require an extensive period of observation to produce results, using a group interview session can produce usable information in under an hour. That means you can proceed faster with the ideas you wish to pursue when compared to other research methods.  Qualitative research provides a predictive element. The data which researchers gather when using the qualitative research process provides a predictive element to the project. This advantage occurs even though the experiences or perspectives of the individuals participating in the research can vary substantially from person-to-person. The goal of this work is not to apply the information to the general public, but to understand how specific demographics react in situations where there are challenges to face. It is a process which allows for product development to occur because the pain points of the population have been identified.  Qualitative research focuses on the details of personal choice. The qualitative research process looks at the purpose of the decision that an individual makes as the primary information requiring collection. It does not take a look at the reasons why someone would decide to make the choices that they do in the first place. Other research methods  Qualitative research uses fluid operational structures. 24 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The qualitative research process relies on data gathering based on situations that researchers are watching and experiencing personally. Instead of relying on a specific framework to collect and preserve information under rigid guidelines, this process finds value in the human experience. This method makes it possible to include the intricacies of the human experience with the structures required to find conclusions that are useful to the demographics involved – and possible to the rest of society as well.  Qualitative research uses individual choices as workable data. When we have an understanding of why individual choices occurred, then we can benefit from the diversity that the human experience provides. Each unique perspective makes it possible for every other person to gather more knowledge about a situation because there are differences to examine. It is a process which allows us to discover more potential outcomes because there is more information present from a variety of sources. Researchers can then take the perspectives to create guidelines that others can follow if they find themselves stuck in a similar situation.  Qualitative research is an open-ended process. One of the most significant advantages of qualitative research is that it does not rely on specific deadlines, formats, or questions to create a successful outcome. This process allows researchers to ask open-ended questions whenever they feel it is appropriate because there may be more data to collect. There are not the same time elements involved in this process either, as qualitative research can continue indefinitely until those working on the project feel like there is nothing more to glean from the individuals participating. Because of this unique structure, researchers can look for data points that other methods might overlook because a greater emphasis is often placed on the interview or observational process with firm deadlines.  Qualitative research works to remove bias from its collected information. Unconscious bias is a significant factor in every research project because it relies on the ability of the individuals involved to control their thoughts, emotions, and reactions. Everyone has preconceived notions and stereotypes about specific demographics and nationalities which can influence the data collected. No one is 100% immune to this process. The format of qualitative research allows for these judgments to be set aside because it prefers to look at the specific structures behind each choice of person makes.  Qualitative research provides specific insight development. The average person tends to make a choice based on comfort, convenience, or both. We also tend to move forward in our circumstances based on what we feel is comfortable to our spiritual, moral, or ethical stances. Every form of communication that we use becomes a 25 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

potential foundation for researchers to understand the demographics of humanity in better ways. By looking at the problems we face in everyday situations, it becomes possible to discover new insights that can help us to solve do you need problems which can come up. It is a way for researchers to understand the context of what happens in society instead of only looking at the outcomes.  Qualitative research requires a smaller sample size. Qualitative research studies wrap up faster that other methods because a smaller sample size is possible for data collection with this method. Participants can answer questions immediately, creating usable and actionable information that can lead to new ideas. This advantage makes it possible to move forward with confidence in future choices because there is added predictability to the results which are possible.  Qualitative research provides more useful content. Authenticity is highly demanded in today’s world because there is no better way to understand who we are as an individual, a community, or a society. Qualitative research works hard to understand the core concepts of how each participant defines themselves without the influence of outside perspectives. It wants to see how people structure their lives, and then take that data to help solve whatever problems they might have. Although no research method can provide guaranteed results, there is always some type of actionable information present with this approach. Disadvantages of qualitative research  Qualitative research creates subjective information points. The quality of the information collected using the qualitative research process can sometimes be questionable. This approach requires the researchers to connect all of the data points which they gather to find the answers to their questions. That means the results are dependent upon the skills of those involved to read the non-verbal cues of each participate, understand when and where follow-up questions are necessary, and remember to document each response. Because individuals can interpret this data in many different ways, there can sometimes be differences in the conclusion because each researcher has a different take on what they receive.  Qualitative research can involve significant levels of repetition. Although the smaller sample sizes found in qualitative research can be an advantage, this structure can also be a problem when researchers are trying to collect a complete data profile for a specific demographic. Multiple interviews and discovery sessions become necessary to discover what the potential consequences of a future choice will be. When you only bring in a handful of people to discuss a situation, then these individuals may not offer a complete 26 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

representation of the group being studied. Without multiple follow-up sessions with other participants, there is no way to prove the authenticity of the information collected.  Qualitative research is difficult to replicate. The only way that research can turn into fact is through a process of replication. Other researchers must be able to come to the similar conclusions after the initial project publishers the results. Because the nature of this work is subjective, finding opportunities to duplicate the results are quite rare. The scope of information which a project collects is often limited, which means there is always some doubt found in the data. That is why you will often see a margin of error percentage associated with research that uses this method. Because it never involves every potential member of a demographic, it will always be incomplete.  Qualitative research relies on the knowledge of the researchers. The only reason why opportunities are available in the first place when using qualitative research is because there are researchers involved which have expertise that relates to the subject matter being studied. When interviewers are unfamiliar with industry concepts, then it is much more challenging to identify follow-up opportunities that would be if the individual conducting the session was familiar with the ideas under discussion. There is no way to correctly interpret the data if the perspective of the researcher is skewed by a lack of knowledge.  Qualitative research does not offer statistics. The goal of qualitative research is to seek out moments of commonality. That means you will not find statistical data within the results. It looks to find specific areas of concern or pain points that are usable to the organization funding to research in the first place. The amount of data collected using this process can be extreme, but there is no guarantee that it will ever be usable. You do not have the same opportunities to compare information as you would with other research methods.  Qualitative research still requires a significant time investment. It is true that there are times when the qualitative research process is significantly faster than other methods. There is also the disadvantage in the fact that the amount of time necessary to collect accurate data can be unpredictable using this option. It may take months, years, or even decades to complete a research project if there is a massive amount of data to review. That means the researchers involve must make a long-term commitment to the process to ensure the results can be as accurate as possible. These qualitative research pros and cons review how all of us come to the choices that we make each day. When researchers understand why we come to specific conclusions, then it becomes possible to create new goods and services that can make our lives easier. This 27 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

process then concludes with solutions which can benefit a significant majority of the people, leading to better best practices in the future. 2.4 MIXED METHODS STUDIES The term “mixed methods” refers to an emergent methodology of research that advances the systematic integration, or “mixing,” of quantitative and qualitative data within a single investigation or sustained program of inquiry. The basic premise of this methodology is that such integration permits a more complete and synergistic utilization of data than do separate quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis. The evaluation of PCMHs provide an ideal opportunity for mixed methods studies to contribute to learning about best practices in how to implement a PCMH as well as PCMH effectiveness in achieving the triple aim outcomes of cost, quality, and patient experience of care. Mixed methods research originated in the social sciences and has recently expanded into the health and medical sciences including fields such as nursing, family medicine, social work, mental health, pharmacy, allied health, and others. In the last decade, its procedures have been developed and refined to suit a wide variety of research questions (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011). These procedures include advancing rigor, offering alternative mixed methods designs, specifying a shorthand notation system for describing the designs to increase communication across fields, visualizing procedures through diagrams, noting research questions that can particularly benefit from integration, and developing rationales for conducting various forms of mixed methods studies. The core characteristics of a well-designed mixed methods study in PCMH research include the following: 1. Collecting and analysing both quantitative (closed-ended) and qualitative (open- ended) data. 2. Using rigorous procedures in collecting and analysing data appropriate to each method’s tradition, such as ensuring the appropriate sample size for quantitative and qualitative analysis. 3. Integrating the data during data collection, analysis, or discussion. 4. Using procedures that implement qualitative and quantitative components either concurrently or sequentially, with the same sample or with different samples. 5. Framing the procedures within philosophical/theoretical models of research, such as within a social constructionist model that seeks to understand multiple perspectives on a single issue—for example, what patients, caregivers, clinicians, and practice staff would characterize as “high quality treatment” in a PCMH. Conducting mixed methods research allowed for the identification of the convergence and divergence of qualitative and quantitative data, contributing to results that mutually 28 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

complement each other. Integration of qualitative and quantitative methods opened up for the researchers a greater overall understanding of governance of nursing professional practice in a hospital setting. Mixed methods studies allow for greater relevance of research as long as the researchers know how to clearly identify the potentials and limitations of such research at the time of applying their methods, taking into account the nature of the object of their study when planning the research. Mixed methods research aims at converging qualitative data and quantitative, the paradigmatic pluralism-thus, potentially reaching a broader answer to the problem or phenomena under investigation. To that end, the attribution of the desired weight for the qualitative and the quantitative data as well as the use of techniques for mixing data is essential for the quality of the mixed methods study. Finally, more specific studies on mixed methods research need to be conducted for the development of the method, as has been happening internationally, and to aid the researchers who make use of it. It is in this sense that this study contributes a step towards the construction of such knowledge in the scope of mixed methods research and to future research in the health and nursing fields overall. 2.5 USES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH DESIGNS Mixed methods can be an ideal technique to assess complex interventions such as PCMHs (Homer, Klatka, Romm, et al., 2008; Nutting, Miller, Crabtree, et al., 2009). PCMH evaluators can choose from five primary mixed methods designs depending on the research questions they want to answer and resources available for the evaluation. 1. Validate findings using quantitative and qualitative data sources Evaluators can use a convergent design to compare findings from qualitative and quantitative data sources. It involves collecting both types of data at roughly the same time; assessing information using parallel constructs for both types of data; separately analysing both types of data; and comparing results through procedures such as a side-by-side comparison in a discussion, transforming the qualitative data set into quantitative scores, or jointly displaying both forms of data. For example, the investigator can gather qualitative data to assess the personal experiences of patients while also gathering data from survey instruments measuring the quality of care. The two types of data can provide validation for each other and also create a solid foundation for drawing conclusions about the intervention. 2. Use qualitative data to explore quantitative findings This explanatory sequential design typically involves two phases: (1) an initial quantitative instrument phase, followed by (2) a qualitative data collection phase, in which the qualitative phase builds directly on the results from the quantitative phase. In this way, the quantitative 29 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

results are explained in more detail through the qualitative data. For example, findings from instrument data about costs can be explored further with qualitative focus groups to better understand how the personal experiences of individuals match up to the instrument results. This kind of study illustrates the use of mixed methods to explain qualitatively how the quantitative mechanisms might work. 3. Develop survey instruments Yet another mixed methods study design could support the development of appropriate quantitative instruments that provide accurate measures within a PCMH context. This exploratory sequential design involves first collecting qualitative exploratory data, analysing the information, and using the findings to develop a psychometric instrument well adapted to the sample under study. This instrument is then, in turn, administered to a sample of a population. For example, a PCMH study could begin with a qualitative exploration through interviews with primary care providers to assess what constructs should be measured to best understand improved quality of care. From this exploration, an instrument could be developed using rigorous scale development procedures (DeVellis, 1991) that is then tested with a sample. In this way, researchers can use a mixed methods approach to develop and test a psychometric instrument that improves on existing measures. 4. Use qualitative data to augment a quantitative outcomes study An outcomes study, for example a randomized, controlled trial, with qualitative data collection and analysis added, is called an embedded design. Within this type of an outcomes study, the researcher collects and analyses both quantitative and qualitative data. The qualitative data can be incorporated into the study at the outset (for example, to help design the intervention); during the intervention (for example, to explore how participants experience the PCMH model); and after the intervention (for example, to help explain the results). In this way, the qualitative data augment the outcomes study, which is a popular approach within implementation and dissemination research (Palinkas, Aarons, Horwitz, et al., 2011). 5. Involve community-based stakeholders A community-based participatory approach is an example of a multiphase design. This advanced mixed methods approach involves community participants in many quantitative and qualitative phases of research to bring about change (Mertens, 2009). The multiple phases all address a common objective of assessing and refining PCMH models. This design would involve primary care providers and staff, patients, and other providers and individuals in the community in the research process. Key stakeholders participate as co-researchers in a project, providing input about their needs, ways to address them, and ways to implement changes. 30 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

These five research designs apply mixed methods approaches to evaluations of PCMH models. The literature details their procedures, illustrates the flow of activities through the use of shorthand notation, and reflects on strengths and limitations. 2.6 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHILE USING MIXED RESEARCH DESIGN The choice of a particular mixed methods design is based on several factors that relate to the intent of the procedures as well as practical considerations. I will begin with the procedural reasons for choosing a particular mixed methods strategy. It should be recognized that many variations exist in mixed methods designs, and the particular approach an investigator has in mind may not conform exactly to the approaches specified here. However, these designs represent the common underlying features of many designs, and, with modification, researchers can find their own strategy. Consider the amount of time you have to collect data. Concurrent approaches are less time consuming because both qualitative and quantitative data are collected at the same time in the same visit to the field. 1. Choice Based on Outcomes Expected This thinking calls for the researcher to determine the outcome anticipated at the end of the mixed methods study and then to link it to the types. 2. Choice Based on How the Data Will Be Used Together (or Integrated) To choose a mixed methods strategy beyond considering the outcome anticipated, the researcher needs to consider whether mixed methods integration of the two databases will be merged, connected, or embedded. Merging the data involves combining the quantitative and qualitative data through the procedures of a side-by-side comparison, data transformation, or a joint display. Connecting the data means that the analysis of one data set is used to lead into or build into the second data set. In short, the data analysis of one data set informs the data collection of the other data set. In embedding, one data set—involving quantitative, qualitative, or combined data—is embedded within a larger design. For example, in a convergent design the two are considered to be independent and the data collection and analysis proceeds for each database separately. In an embedded experimental design, the qualitative data may be collected independently of the experiment and used to support or augment the larger design, the experiment. Alternatively, the two databases may be connected with one building on the other. This is a sequential type of design (explanatory sequential strategy or an exploratory sequential strategy), and one database does not stand in isolation of the other database. In these sequential designs, the data collection in the second phase cannot be conducted until the first 31 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

phase results are in. In short, the follow-up data collection builds directly on the results of the initial data collection. 3. Choice Based on the Timing of the Data Collection related factor is timing in mixed methods data collection—whether the two databases are collected concurrently, at roughly the same time, or with one following the other, sequentially. A convergent strategy typically involves collecting data concurrently while the explanatory sequential and the exploratory sequential strategies means that the data will be collected in sequence. Sometimes this criterion is difficult to identify in published mixed methods studies, but it should go into the thinking about choosing a mixed methods strategy. 4. Choice Based on the Emphasis Placed on Each Database Like timing, the emphasis placed on each database in mixed methods research is also somewhat difficult to determine and to apply to the question of choice. A mixed methods study can illustrate an equal emphasis (or priority or weight) on both databases, or an unequal emphasis. For example, a mixed methods project can stress the qualitative phase of the research and give minimal attention to the quantitative phase. How can we tell? We can look at the number of pages in a study to determine emphasis, how the study begins (e.g., with a strong quantitative theory orientation or personal qualitative stories), the amount of depth and sophistication given to the qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis, or even the background training of the investigator. As mentioned earlier in the section on notation, capital letters are used in the notation for greater emphasis (e.g., QUAN) and lowercase letters for less emphasis (e.g., Quan). The emphasis can help determine the choice of a mixed methods strategy. Typically if the researcher seeks to emphasize both databases, a convergent approach is best. Alternatively, if a stronger emphasis is sought for the quantitative approach, then an explanatory sequential strategy is used because it began with the quantitative component of the study. If a qualitative approach is to be emphasized, then an exploratory sequential strategy is chosen. These are not firm guidelines, but they may play into the overall decision about a choice of strategy. 5. Choice Based on Type of Design Most Suited for a Field On a practical level, the choice of a strategy depends on the inclination of fields toward certain designs. For quantitatively oriented fields, the explanatory sequential approach seems to work well because the study begins (and perhaps is driven) by the quantitative phase of the research. In qualitatively oriented fields, the exploratory sequential approach may be more appealing because it begins with an exploration using qualitative research. 32 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

However, in this approach, an outcome may be a measurement instrument that is tested so that the outcome, a quantitative outcome, outweighs in importance how the study began. In some fields, the choice of approach may be dependent on collecting data efficiently, and this would argue for a convergent mixed methods study in which both quantitative and qualitative data are typically collected at roughly the same time rather than at different times that require more visits to the research site. 6. Choice Based on a Single Researcher or Team A final practical reason for a choice of a strategy depends on whether a single researcher (e.g., graduate student) conducts the study or a team of researchers (e.g., funded long-term investigation). If the investigator is a single researcher, the sequential strategies of an explanatory sequential or exploratory sequential approach are best because the investigation can be divided into two manageable tasks rather than multiple data collection and analysis procedures. The study can be projected out over a period of time rather than collecting multiple forms of data at the same time as in a convergent approach. When time is a problem, I encourage students to think about an embedded model of design. This model emphasizes the use of a recognized research design (e.g., an experiment), and it includes within it a minor, secondary form of data collection (e.g., a few interviews with some of the participants). The fact that both forms of data are not equal in size and rigor enables the study to be reduced in scope and manageable for the time and resources available. For students, I recommend that they find a published mixed methods journal article that uses their design and introduce it to advisers and faculty committees so that they have a working model to understand the design. Since we are at the early stage of adopting mixed methods research in many fields, a published example of research in a field will help to create both legitimacy for mixed methods research and the idea that it is a feasible approach to research for graduate committees or other audiences. If a research team is conducting the study, multiple forms of data collection at the same time or over a long period of time are possible, such as in an embedded or a multiphase design. Although a single researcher can conduct a transformative study, the labour-intensive nature of collecting data in the field involving participants as collaborators typically suggests more of a team approach than the inquiry by a single investigator. 2.7 ADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHOD Using a mixed methods study has several advantages, which we discuss below. 1. Compares quantitative and qualitative data Mixed methods are especially useful in understanding contradictions between quantitative results and qualitative findings. Reflects participants’ point of view. Mixed methods give a 33 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

voice to study participants and ensure that study findings are grounded in participants’ experiences. 2. Fosters scholarly interaction Such studies add breadth to multidisciplinary team research by encouraging the interaction of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods scholars. 3. Provides methodological flexibility Mixed methods have great flexibility and are adaptable to many study designs, such as observational studies and randomized trials, to elucidate more information than can be obtained in only quantitative research. 4. Collects rich, comprehensive data Mixed methods also mirror the way individuals naturally collect information—by integrating quantitative and qualitative data. For example, sports stories frequently integrate quantitative data (scores or number of errors) with qualitative data (descriptions and images of highlights) to provide a more complete story than either method would alone. 2.8 LIMITATIONS OF MIXED METHOD Mixed methods studies are challenging to implement, especially when they are used to evaluate complex interventions such as a PCMH model. Below we discuss several challenges. 1. Increases the complexity of evaluations Mixed methods studies are complex to plan and conduct. They require careful planning to describe all aspects of research, including the study sample for qualitative and quantitative portions (identical, embedded, or parallel); timing (the sequence of qualitative and quantitative portions); and the plan for integrating data. Integrating qualitative and quantitative data during analysis is often a challenging phase for many researchers. 2. Relies on a multidisciplinary team of researchers Conducting high-quality mixed methods studies requires a multidisciplinary team of researchers who, in the service of the larger study, must be open to methods that may not be their area of expertise. Finding qualitative experts who are also comfortable discussing quantitative analyses and vice versa can be challenging in many environments. Given that each method must adhere to its own standards for rigor, ensuring appropriate quality of each component of a mixed methods study can be difficult. 34 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

For example, quantitative analyses require much larger sample sizes to obtain statistical significance than do qualitative analyses, which require meeting goals of saturation (not uncovering new information from conducting more interviews) and relevance. Embedded samples, in which a qualitative subsample is embedded within a larger quantitative sample, can be useful in cases of inadequate statistical power. 3. Requires increased resources Finally, mixed methods studies are labour intensive and require greater resources and time than those needed to conduct a single method study 2.9 SUMMARY The integration of quantitative and qualitative data in the form of a mixed methods study has great potential to strengthen the rigor and enrich the analysis and findings of any PCMH evaluation. By carefully selecting the mixed method design that best suits the evaluation’s questions and meets its resource constraints, evaluators can facilitate deeper, more meaningful learning. In terms of the relationship between quantitative and qualitative research, mixed methods studies promote an understanding of chosen phenomena in a manner that would not be possible using a single approach. Four main aspects must be taken into consideration when planning a mixed method research study: time distribution, weight attribution, combination and theorization. 2.10 KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS  Qualitative research- Any scientific approach that does not use mathematical formulas to describe nature. This has traditionally included interviews, phenomenological analysis, psychoanalysis, content analysis, conversational analysis, critical theory, deconstruction, ethnology, focus groups, grounded theory, hermeneutics, protocol analysis, and theories of knowledge.  qualitative research- Any scientific approach that does not use mathematical formulas to describe nature. This has traditionally included interviews, phenomenological analysis, psychoanalysis, content analysis, conversational analysis, critical theory, deconstruction, ethnology, focus groups, grounded theory, hermeneutics, protocol analysis, and theories of knowledge. 2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITY 35 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1. Select a research topic. What are the quantitative and qualitative areas in the research topic? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. How is Mixed Method Research better than Quantitative and Qualitative Research? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. What do you mean by Mixed Method Research? 2. Identify the characteristics of Mixed Method Research 3. State the uses of Mixed Method Research. 4. List the advantages of Mixed Method Research 5. Outline the limitations of Mixed Method Research. B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. The core characteristics of a well-designed mixed methods include a. Collecting and analysing both quantitative (closed-ended) and qualitative (open- ended) data. b. Using rigorous procedures in collecting and analysing data appropriate to each method’s tradition, such as ensuring the appropriate sample size for quantitative and qualitative analysis. c. Integrating the data during data collection, analysis, or discussion. d. All of these 2. Research is_________________ 36 a. Searching again and again b. Finding solution to any problem c. Working in a scientific way to search for truth of any problem CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. None of these 3. A systematic study of facts according to a reliable and correct method of study is called a _________. a. Scientific Study b. Biological Study c. Social Technique d. Methodology 4. Which is an advantage of Mixed Method Research? a. Searching again and again b. Finding solution to any problem c. Working in a scientific way to search for truth of any problem d. None of these 5. Which is a disadvantage of Mixed Method Research? a. Compares quantitative and qualitative data b. Relies on a multidisciplinary team of researchers c. Provides methodological flexibility d. Collects rich, comprehensive data Answer 1d 2a 3c 4d 5b 2.13 SUGGESTED READINGS  Introduction to Statistics by David M. Lane, David Scott, Mikki Hebl, Rudy Guerra, Dan Osherson, and Heidi Zimmer  Mixed Methods: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis While Studying Patient-Centered Medical Home Models, PCMH Research method Series  Research Design: Quantitative Qualitative and Mixed Approaches by John W. Creswell  Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches by Keith F Punch 37 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques By C. R. Kothari  Research Methodology By D K Bhattacharyya  Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners By Ranjit Kumar  Research Methodology By P. Sam Daniel, Aroma G. Sam 38 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 3 RESEARCH DESIGN Structure 3.0. Learning Objectives 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Meaning and Definition of Research Design 3.3. Characteristics of a Research Design 3.4. Purpose of a Research Design 3.5. Experimental Research 3.6. Exploratory Research 3.7. Correlational Research 3.8. Longitudinal Research 3.9. Cross-Sectional Research 3.10. Qualities of a Good Research Design 3.11. Summary 3.12. Key Words/ Abbreviations 3.13. Learning Activity 3.14. Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 3.15. Suggested Readings 3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  State meaning and definition of Research Design  Outline the characteristics and purposes of a Research Design  Discuss Experimental and Exploratory Research 3.1 INTRODUCTION The most important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of the research project, which is popularly known as the ‘research design’.A research design helps to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means etc. with regard to an enquiry or a research study. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Infect, research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. 39 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF RESEARCH DESIGN A research design is simply the framework or plan for a study that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed in completing a study. Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and analysis of data. Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research. Thus, research design provides an outline of what the researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the final data analysis. According to William Zikmund, “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.” According to Kerlinger, “A research design is a basic plan that guides the data collection and analysis phases of the research project. It provides the framework that specifies the type of information to be collected, its sources and collection procedure. There are many frameworks of research design which can be classified into two major categories: Exploratory and Conclusive. The conclusive research can be further divided into descriptive and casual research.” The research design is a comprehensive master plan of the research study to be undertaken, giving a general statement of the methods to be used. The function of a research design is to ensure that requisite data in accordance with the problem at hand is collected accurately and economically. Simply stated, it is the framework, a blueprint for the research study which guides the collection and analysis of data. The research design, depending upon the needs of the researcher may be a very detailed statement or only furnish the minimum information required for planning the research project. 3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum information and provides an opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors: Objectivity: Objectivity refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the responses. The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are fairly 40 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of analysis and interpretation. Reliability: It refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For example, if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability. Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is expected to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ should measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be framed accordingly. Generalization: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. while preparing the research design. Thus a good research design is one which is methodologically prepared and should ensure that generalization is possible. For ensuring the generalization we should confirm that our research problem has the following characteristics;  The problem is clearly formulated.  The population is clearly defined.  Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to form an appropriate sample.  Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out. Adequate Information: 41 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The most important requirement of good research design is that it should provide adequate information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide perspective. An ideal design should take into account important factors like;  Identifying the exact research problem to be studied  The objective of the research  The process of obtaining information  The availability of adequate and skilled manpower and  The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying research. Other Features: Some other important features of a good research design are flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being economic and so on. A good research design should minimize bias and maximize reliability and generalization. 3.4 PURPOSE OF A RESEARCH DESIGN The Importance of good Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in it may upset the entire project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work. Research designs are used for the following purposes; 1. To minimize the expenditure: Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results attained .It therefore provides a solid base for the whole research. This makes the research as effective as possible by providing maximum information with minimum spending of effort, money and time by preparing the advance plan of all about the research. 2. To facilitate the smooth scaling: 42 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth scaling of the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. 3. To collect the relevant data and technique: Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff time and money. Poor preparation of research design upset the entire project. 4. To provide blue print for plans: Research design is needed due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of many research operations. It is like blue print which we need in advance to plan the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and techniques to be used in its analysis for preparation of research project. Just as for better economical and attractive construction of a house need a blue print and a map of that, similarly we needs a blue print or a design for the smooth flow of operation of research. 5. To provide an overview to other experts: A research design provides an overview of all the research process and with the help of the design we can take the help and views of experts of that field .The design helps the investigator to organize his ideas , which helps to recognize and fix his faults. 6. To provide a direction: A research design provides a proper or particular direction to the other executives and others who are helping us into the process. The researcher studies available, literature and learns about new (alternative approaches. Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in rendering the research exercise futile. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations. The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others for their comments and critical evaluation. In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic to provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study. 3.5 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that 43 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

can be measured, calculated and compared. Most importantly, experimental research is completed in a controlled environment. The researcher collects data and results will either support or reject the hypothesis. This method of research is referred to a hypothesis testing or a deductive research method. Experimental research is any research conducted with a scientific approach, where a set of variables are kept constant while the other set of variables are being measured as the subject of experiment. There are times when you don’t have enough data to support your decisions. In such situations, you need to carry out experiments to discover the facts. Experimental research can gather a lot of data that can help you make better decisions. Experimental research seeks to determine a relationship between two (2) variables—the dependent variable and the independent variable. After completing an experimental research study, a correlation between a specific aspect of an entity and the variable being studied is either supported or rejected. Experimental research should establish a cause and effect of a phenomenon, i.e. effects are observed from an experiment due to the cause. As naturally, occurring event can be confusing for researchers to establish conclusions. For instance, if a cardiology student conducts research to understand the effect of food on cholesterol and derives that most heart patients are non-vegetarians or have diabetes. They are aspects (causes) which can result in a heart attack (effect). Advantages of Experimental Research 1. It provides researchers with a high level of control. 2. There is no limit to the subject matter or industry involved. 3. Experimental research provides conclusions that are specific. 4. The results of experimental research can be duplicated. 5. Natural settings can be replicated with faster speeds. 6. Experimental research allows cause and effect to be determined. 7. It can be combined with other research methods. Disadvantages of Experimental Research 1. Results are highly subjective due to the possibility of human error. 2. Experimental research can create situations that are not realistic. 3. It is a time-consuming process. 44 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4. There may be ethical or practical problems with variable control. 5. Experimental research does not provide an actual explanation. 6. Extraneous variables cannot always be controlled. 7. Participants can be influenced by their current situation. 8. Manipulating variables isn’t necessarily an objective standpoint. 9. Human responses in experimental research can be difficult to measure. 3.6 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems. This type of research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet. Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues that can be the focus for future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and how. Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of the problem. When conducting exploratory research, the researcher ought to be willing to change his/her direction as a result of revelation of new data and new insights. Exploratory research design does not aim to provide the final and conclusive answers to the research questions, but merely explores the research topic with varying levels of depth. It has been noted that “exploratory research is the initial research, which forms the basis of more conclusive research. It can even help in determining the research design, sampling methodology and data collection method”. Exploratory research “tends to tackle new problems on which little or no previous research has been done”. Unstructured interviews are the most popular primary data collection method with exploratory studies. Characteristics of Exploratory research 1. They are not structured studies 45 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended. 3. It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem? What is the purpose of the study? And what topics could be studied? 4. To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the existing ones do not answer the problem precisely enough. 5. It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it. 6. The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular study he is doing. 7. There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and scattered. 8. The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not important in the industry the research carried out is ineffective. 9. The research should also have a few theories which can support its findings as that will make it easier for the researcher to assess it and move ahead in his study 10. Such a research usually produces qualitative data, however in certain cases quantitative data can be generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments. Advantages of Exploratory research 1. The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research progresses. 2. It is usually low cost. 3. It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research. 4. It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the time and resources and if it is worth pursuing. 5. It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be further studied in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the problem. Disadvantages of Exploratory research 1. Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is usually inconclusive. 46 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data. Interpretation of such information can be judgmental and biased. 3. Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample, hence the results cannot be accurately interpreted for a generalized population. 4. Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a chance of that data being old and is not updated. 3.7 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is conducted to establish a relationship between two closely knit entities and how one impacts the other and what are the changes that are eventually observed. This research method is carried out to give value to naturally occurring relationships and a minimum of two different groups are required to successfully conduct this quantitative research method. Without assuming different aspects, a relationship between two groups or entities must be established. Definition of Correlational Research A correlation refers to a relationship between two variables. Correlations can be strong or weak, as well as positive or negative. In other cases, there might be no correlation at all between the variables of interest. Correlational studies are a type of research often used in psychology as a preliminary way to gather information about a topic or in situations where performing an experiment is not possible. The correlational method involves looking at relationships between two or more variables. While researchers can use correlations to see if a relationship exists, the variables themselves are not under the control of the researchers. Another point is that while correlational research can reveal if a relationship exists between variables, this kind of research cannot prove that changes to one variable lead to changes to another variable. In other words, correlational studies cannot prove cause-and-effect relationships. Correlational methods have a number of strengths and weaknesses, so it's important to determine which research method is best for a particular situation. Researchers use this quantitative research method to correlate two or more variables using mathematical analysis methods. Patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are concluded as they exist in their natural set up. The impact of one of these variables on the other is observed along with how it changes the relationship between the two variables. Researchers tend to manipulate one of the variables to attain the desired results. Ideally, it is advised to not make conclusions merely on the basis of correlational research. This is because it is not mandatory that if two variables are in sync that they are interrelated. 47 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Example of Correlational Research Questions:  The relationship between stress and depression.  The equation between fame and money.  The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students. The Purpose of Correlational Research There are three possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. Positive correlations: In this type of correlation, both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation. Negative correlations: This type of correlation indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation. No correlation: This indicates no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation. Advantages and Disadvantages of Correlational Research Advantages of Correlation Research  Correlational research allows researchers to collect much more data than experiments.  Furthermore, because correlational research usually takes place outside of the lab, the results tend to be more applicable to everyday life.  Another benefit of correlational research is that it opens up a great deal of further research to other scholars.  When researchers begin investigating a phenomenon or relationship for the first time, correlational research provides a good starting position.  It allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of a relationship so that later studies can narrow the findings down and, if possible, determine causation experimentally. Disadvantages of Correlation Research  Correlation research only uncovers a relationship; it cannot provide a conclusive reason for why there's a relationship. 48 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 A correlative finding doesn't reveal which variable influences the other. For example, finding that wealth correlates highly with education doesn't explain whether having wealth leads to more education or whether education leads to more wealth.  Reasons for either can be assumed, but until more research is done, causation can't be determined.  Also, a third, unknown variable might be causing both. For instance, living in the state of New York can lead to both wealth and education. 3.8 LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH Longitudinal studies are a type of correlational research in which researchers observe and collect data on a number of variables without trying to influence those variables. While they are most commonly used in medicine, economics, and epidemiology, longitudinal studies can also be found in the other social or medical sciences. Longitudinal studies often use surveys to collect data that is either qualitative or quantitative. Additionally, in a longitudinal study, a survey creator does not interfere with survey participants. Instead, the survey creator distributes questionnaires over time to observe changes in participants, behaviors, or attitudes. Many medical studies are longitudinal; researchers note and collect data from the same subjects over what can be many years. Characteristics of a longitudinal study Using the same individuals or samples in the longitudinal study is to observe any measurable change over time. It ensures that you can account for the same variables of interest in the duration of your research. A longitudinal study is not restricted to the field of science or medicine. It also impacts business. With a longitudinal survey, researchers can measure and compare various business and branding initiatives. Some of the classic examples of longitudinal surveys include: Many medical studies are longitudinal; here, a set of a sample or similar individuals form a group. Researchers observe and study the group over the years. The purpose of using the same individuals or samples in a longitudinal study to see them and review any measurable changes over a period. Types of longitudinal studies Longitudinal studies are versatile, repeatable, and able to account for quantitative and qualitative data. Consider the three major types of longitudinal studies for future research:  Panel study: A panel study involves a sample of people from a more significant population and is conducted at specified intervals for a more extended period. One of 49 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

the panel study’s essential features is that researchers collect data from the same sample at different points in time. Most panel studies are designed for quantitative analysis, though they may also be used to collect qualitative data and analysis.  Cohort Study: A cohort study samples a cohort (a group of people who typically experience the same event at a given point in time). Medical researchers tend to conduct cohort studies. Some might consider clinical trials similar to cohort studies. However, in cohort studies, researchers merely observe participants without intervention, unlike clinical trials in which participants undergo tests.  Retrospective study: A retrospective study uses already existing data, collected during previously conducted research with similar methodology and variables. While doing a retrospective study, the researcher uses an administrative database, pre- existing medical records, or one-to-one interviews. Advantages and Disadvantages of a longitudinal study Advantages of a longitudinal study  A longitudinal study can identify and relate to events. You can reveal chronology between events like long-term and short-term changes in variables, making this ideal for medical studies.  Similarly, because longitudinal research is carried out over a long period, it helps identify and establish a particular sequence of events.  The longitudinal analysis provides meaningful insights that might not be possible with other research types like cross-sectional and similar studies.  A longitudinal study allows researchers to trace development over a timeline instead of drawing conclusions based on a “snapshot” of data. Disadvantages of a longitudinal study  Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and often more expensive than other types of studies, so they require significant commitment and resources to be effective.  Since longitudinal studies repeatedly observe subjects over a period of time, any potential insights from the study can take a while to be discovered.  Attrition, which occurs when participants drop out of a study, is common in longitudinal studies and may result in invalid conclusions. 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)