CU-BBA-SEM IV- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-SECOND DRAFT (1)

on identifying and measuring differences in attitudes between individuals. With the second objective, you may use the same data as with the first, but you are now interested in how satisfied people are with various design options. Each participant is asked to select the object or solution that he or she prefers from a list of options. Participants evaluate which object possesses a greater amount of a particular characteristic or which design solution is the most closely aligned with the company's stated objectives. 9.5.2 Response types. Rating scales, ranking scales, categorization scales, and sorting scales are the four general types of measurement scales. When participants rate an object or indicator without making a direct comparison to another object or attitude, they are using a rating scale to help them. It is possible that they will be asked to rate the styling of a new automobile on a 7-point rating scale, for example. Comparing and ordering two or more properties (or their indicators) or objects on a ranking scale forces the study participant to make comparisons and determine order among them. Participants may be asked to choose which of a pair of cars they think has the more attractive styling among a group of participants. A choice scale requires that participants choose one alternative over another in order to be valid. They could also be asked to rank the importance of comfort, ergonomics, performance, and price in the target vehicle according to their own personal preferences. Categorization is a game in which participants are asked to classify themselves or property indicators into groups or categories. It would be necessary to develop a category response strategy if you wanted to ask auto show attendees about their gender or ethnic background, or whether a particular prototype design would appeal to a young or mature driver. Sorting requires that participants sort cards (representing concepts or constructs) into piles based on criteria established by the researcher in order to complete the task. The cards could include photographs or images, as well as verbal descriptions of product characteristics such as various descriptors of the car's performance. 9.5.3 Data properties. Most of the time, decisions about the selection of measurement scales are made in light of the data properties that are generated by each scale. Scales are classified according to their power in ascending order; scales are classified as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. Nominal scales divide data into categories without indicating the order in which the data was collected, the distance between the data points, or the origin of the data. Ordinal data show relationships of greater than and less than, but they do not have a distinct origin or a distance between them. Interval scales have both order and distance, but they do not have a single point of origin. Ratio scales have all of the characteristics of the four properties. It is determined by the assumptions that underpin each level of scale how the data from a particular measurement scale will be analysed statistically. 151

9.5.4 Number of dimensions. Unidimensional or multidimensional measurement scales are used in the field of measurement. The purpose of a unidimensional scale is to assess only one characteristic of the participant or object being measured, such as height. When it comes to star power, one of the most important factors to consider is an actor's ability to \"carry\" a movie. It only has a single dimensionality. It is possible to measure this dimension with a number of different items, and by combining them into a single measure, an agent can place clients along a linear continuum of star strength. In a multidimensional scale, it is recognised that an object may be better described in several dimensions than it would be in a single dimension on a continuum. In terms of star power, three distinct dimensions might be more appropriate: ticket sales for the actor's last three films, the speed with which he can attract financial resources, and media buzz (including news coverage, tweets, and YouTube videos) about the actor's last three films. 9.5.5 Balanced or unbalanced. A balanced rating scale has the same number of categories above and below the midpoint as there are above and below the midpoint. In general, rating scales should be balanced, with an equal number of favourable and unfavourable response options on either side of the scale. Scales, on the other hand, can be balanced either with or without the indifference or midpoint options. “very good—good—average—poor—very poor,” for example, could be the format of a well-balanced scale. In an unbalanced rating scale, the number of favourable and unfavourable response options is unequally distributed. \"Poor—fair—good—very good— excellent\" is an example of an unbalanced scale that contains only one unfavourable descriptive term and four favourable descriptive terms: \"poor—fair—good—very good— excellent.\" In order to ensure that the mean ratings are near \"good\" and that there is a symmetrical distribution of answers around that point, the scale designer did not allow participants who were unfavourable to express the intensity of their feelings on the scale. Researchers can justify the use of an unbalanced rating scale when they know in advance that nearly all of the participants' scores will lean one way or the other. It is more likely that observers will give higher ratings to attitude objects when they are familiar with them as well as when they are ego-involved. Customers who have remained loyal to a brand are also expected to respond positively. When researchers anticipate that one side of the scale will not be used, they focus their efforts on the side of the scale that will receive the majority of the participant's attention. If the participants are known to be either \"easy raters\" or \"hard raters,\" unbalanced scales may also be used to assess their performance. It is possible to compensate for the error of leniency created by such raters by using an unbalanced scale. 9.5.6 Forced or unforced choices. When participants are unable to make a decision among the alternatives presented, an unforced-choice rating scale provides them with the opportunity to express their lack of 152

opinion. A forced-choice rating scale necessitates that participant select one of the options that are presented to them. When researchers are aware that the majority of participants have an opinion on a topic, they frequently exclude the response options \"no opinion,\" \"undecided,\" \"don't know,\" \"uncertain,\" or \"neutral\" from their surveys. In this situation, it is reasonable to impose restrictions on participants in order to ensure that they carefully consider their alternatives and do not arbitrarily choose the middle position. However, when a large number of participants are clearly undecided and the forced-choice scale does not allow them to express their uncertainty, the results of the study are skewed. When a higher percentage of participants express an attitude than did so in previous studies on the same issue, researchers have discovered a possible bias. It is possible that some of this bias is due to participants providing meaningless responses or reacting to questions about which they have no opinions or attitudes. This has an effect on the statistical measures of the mean and median, which shift toward the scale's midpoint, making it more difficult to distinguish between attitudinal differences across the instrument's length. For researchers, understanding neutral responses is a difficult challenge. Using an unforced scale, researchers conducted a customer satisfaction study with a company in the electronics industry that was primarily concerned with the overall satisfaction question. Despite this, the study's findings revealed that the company could convert 75 percent of those in the \"neutral\" participant group into brand loyalists if the company excelled (received highly favourable ratings) on only two of the 26 scaled questions in the study. 6 A forced-choice scale would have revealed the information that was sought because the participants in the neutral group weren't truly neutral in their responses. 9.5.7 Number of scale points. What is the optimum number of points for a rating scale in your opinion? Academics and practitioners frequently respond to this question with dogmatic responses, but the answer is more pragmatic in nature: The scale should be appropriate for the task at hand. An effective scale should match the stimulus being presented and extract information in proportion to the level of complexity of the attitude object, concept, or construct being evaluated. A product that requires little effort or thought to purchase, is purchased on a regular basis, or has a benefit that fades quickly (low-involvement products) can be measured with a simple scale in most cases, according to the manufacturer. For deodorant, a fast-food burger, gift-wrapping, or a snack, a three-point scale (better than average—average—worse than average) is probably sufficient. If you want to use a scale with 5 or more points, there is little support for doing so in this situation. But when the product is complex, plays an important role in the consumer’s life, and is costly (e.g., fi nancial services, luxury goods, automobiles, and other high-involvement products), a scale with 5 to 11 points should be considered. 153

Among the most important considerations in making measurement decisions are the characteristics of reliability and validity. For starters, the reliability of the measure increases as the number of scale points on the scale increases. 7 Second, in some studies, scales with 11 points have been shown to produce more valid results than scales with 3, 5, and 7 points. 8 Third, some constructs necessitate greater measurement sensitivity as well as the ability to extract more variance, both of which are made possible by the addition of additional scale points. Fourth, when using single-dimension scales rather than multiple-dimension scales, a greater number of scale points is required to achieve the same level of accuracy. 9.5.8 Rater errors. The usefulness of rating scales is predicated on the assumption that a person is capable of and will make sound decisions. Before accepting the ratings of participants, we should take into account their proclivity to make errors of central tendency and halo effect errors. Some raters are hesitant to make extreme judgments, and this is one of the factors that contributes to the central tendency error. Participants may also be \"easy raters\" or \"hard raters,\" committing what is known as a \"error of leniency\" when evaluating their peers. These mistakes are most frequently made when the rater is unfamiliar with the object or property being evaluated. Researchers can take the following steps to address these tendencies:  Modify the strength of descriptive adjectives as necessary.  Increase the distance between the intermediate descriptive phrases.  Make the differences in meaning between the steps near the ends of the scale smaller than the differences between the steps near the centre of the scale.  Increase the number of points on the scale. The halo effect is a systematic bias introduced by the rater as a result of carrying over a generalised impression of the subject from one rating to another during the course of the evaluation. An instructor anticipates that a student who performs well on the first question of an examination will perform similarly on the second question. You come to the conclusion that a report is good because you like its format, or you believe someone is intelligent because you agree with him or her on a point. When a property being studied is not clearly defined, is not easily observed, is not frequently discussed, involves reactions with others, or is a trait of high moral importance, avoiding halo is especially difficult to accomplish. In order to counteract the halo effect, techniques such as having participants rate one trait at a time, revealing one trait per page (as in an Internet survey where the participant is unable to change his or her answer), and periodically reversing the terms that anchor the endpoints of a scale can be used to ensure that positive attributes are not always on the same end of each scale. 154

9.6 SUMMARY  Measuring qualitative or abstract phenomena is a difficult and time-consuming task, which is made even more difficult when dealing with qualitative or abstract phenomena.  The following are some examples of possible sources of measurement error. Respondent, sources, measurer, instrument.  Validity, reliability, and practicality are all requirements for sound measurement.  The extent to which a test measures what we actually want to measure is referred to as its validness.  The accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure are referred to as reliability in this context.  Economy, convenience, and interpretability are all important considerations in the realm of practicality  It takes four stages to develop measurement tools, and each stage is comprised of the following components: (a) Concept development. (b) Specification of concept dimensions. (c) Selection of indicators; and (d) Formation of index. 9.7 KEYWORDS  Content validity: The extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the topic under investigation is referred to as content validity.  Relevance: A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms, we judge to be the proper measure.  Freedom from bias: Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives each subject an equal opportunity to score well.  Reliability: A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.  Availability: The information specified by the criterion must be available.  Construct Validity: An indicator of construct validity is one that confirms predicted relationships with other theoretical propositions to the extent that the measure demonstrates construct validity.  Stability aspect: The stability aspect is concerned with ensuring consistent results when repeated measurements are taken by the same person and with the same device. Stability is typically determined by comparing results from multiple measurements taken at different intervals. 155

 Equivalence aspect: The equivalence aspect takes into account the amount of error that may be introduced by different investigators or different samples of the items under investigation. 9.8 LEARNING ACTIVITY You have data from a corporation on the annual salary of each of its 200 employees. a. Illustrate how the data can be presented as ratio, interval, ordinal, and nominal data. b. Describe the successive loss of information as the presentation changes from ratio to nominal. 9.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Mention the possible sources of measurement error 2. Write short note on content validity 3. Discuss about balanced rating scale 4. Identify the two aspects of reliability 5. Explain the general types of scaling objectives Long Questions 1. Explain the sources of error in measurement 2. Summarize the sound measurement tests in detail 3. Classify the types of validity 4. Explain the techniques of developing measurement tools 5. Discuss the number of factors that have an impact on the reliability, validity, and practicality of the scale. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Any numerical variables that can be counted in a realistic manner, such as the coins in your wallet or the money in your savings account, are acceptable. a. Continuous variable b. Discrete variable c. Binary variable d. Nominal variable 2. Only two categories are represented by variables such as male or female, red or blue, and so on. a. Continuous variable 156

b. Discrete variable c. Binary variable d. Nominal variable 3. Groups that are ranked in a specific order denotes a. Continuous variable b. Discrete variable c. Binary variable d. Ordinal variable 4. The condition that you change in an experiment is referred to as the ______. a. Dependent variable b. Independent variable c. Discrete variable d. Continuous variable 5. They can be used to predict the value of a dependent variable. a. Predictor variable b. Independent variable c. Discrete variable d. Continuous variable Answers 1-b, 2-c, 3-d, 4-b, 5-a 9.10 REFERENCES References book  R1, Business Research Methods – Alan Bryman& Emma Bell, Oxford University Press.  R2, Research Methodology - C.R. Kothari  R2, Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, Levine Stephan, Krehbiel Berenson Textbook references  T1,SPSSExplained,ISBN:9780415274104,Publisher:TataMcgrawHill  T2, Sancheti&Kapoor,BusinessMathematics,SultanChand,NewDelhi 157

UNIT 10: MEASUREMENT AND SCALING STRUCTURE 10.0 Learning objectives 10.1 Meaning of Scaling 10.2 Scale Classification Bases 10.3 Characteristics of a Measurement scaling Techniques 10.4 Scaling Techniques 10.5 Scaling Techniques 10.6 Primary Scaling Techniques 10.6.1Nominal Scale 10.6.1.2 Ordinal Scale 10.6.1.3 Interval Scale 10.6.1.4 Ratio Scale 10.7 Other Scaling Techniques 10.7.1 Comparative Scales 10.7.1.1 Paired Comparison 10.7.1.2 Rank Order 10.7.1.3 Constant Sum 10.7.1.4 Q-Sort Scaling 10.7.2 Non-Comparative Scales 10.7.2.1 Continuous Rating Scales 10.7.2.2 Itemized Rating Scale 10.7.2.3 Likert Scale 10.7.2.4 Semantic Differential Scale 10.7.2.5 Stapel Scale 10.8 Summary 10.9 Keywords 10.10 Learning Activity 10.11 Unit End Questions 158

10.12 References 10.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the scale classification basics.  Describe the primary scaling techniques  Briefly explain the comparative and non-comparative scaling techniques  Explain the scale classification basics.  Elucidate the characteristics of a measurement scale 10.1 MEANING OF SCALING In the context of scales, the procedures for assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude, and other concepts are described. This can be accomplished in two ways, namely, a. A person's characteristic is assessed, and he is then placed on a scale that has been defined in terms of that characteristic. b. construction of surveys and questionnaires in such a way that the score of an individual's responses determines his or her position on a scale As previously stated, a scale is a continuum consisting of two extreme points (in terms of some characteristic, such as preference, favourableness, etc.) and several intermediate points between these two extremes. Due to the close relationship between these scale-point positions, when the first point is reached, the second point indicates a higher degree in terms of the given characteristic as compared to the third point, and the third point indicates a higher degree as compared to the fourth point, and so on and so forth. In this way, individuals are assigned numbers that correspond to their scale-positions in order to measure the degree of distinctions in their attitudes/opinions and vice versa. All of this is more easily comprehended when we talk about scaling technique (s). So, the term \"scaling\" is used to describe the procedures for attempting to determine quantitative measures of subjective abstract concepts that are difficult to quantify. As defined by the International Standard Organization, scaling is a “procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to a property of objects in order to impart some characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.” 10.2 SCALE CLASSIFICATION BASES There are several ways to categorise number assigning procedures and scaling procedures, but the following are the most commonly used classifications: 159

(a) subject orientation. (b) response form. (c) degree of subjectivity. (d) scale properties. (e) number of dimensions and (f) scale construction techniques. We will deal with each of these individually. (a) Subject orientation: A scale can be designed to measure characteristics of the respondent who completes it, or it can be designed to judge the stimulus object that is presented to the respondent. We assume that, in the case of the former, the stimuli presented are sufficiently homogeneous such that the variation between stimuli is small when compared to the variation among respondents. As an alternative to the first approach, we ask the respondent to judge a specific object in terms of one or more dimensions, and we anticipate that the variation between respondents will be small when compared to variation among the different stimuli presented to respondents for judging. (b) Response form: On the basis of this, we can categorise the scales as categorical or comparative. Categorical scales are also referred to as rating scales in some circles. When a respondent scores an object without making any direct comparisons to other objects, these scales are employed. Comparative scales, also known as ranking scales, are questions in which the respondent is asked to make a comparison between two or more objects. In this sense, the respondent may state that one object is superior to another, or that three different pen models are ranked in the following order: 1, 2, 3, etc. To be more specific, the essence of ranking is actually a relative comparison of a specific property between two or more objects. (c) Degree of subjectivity: The scale data may be based on whether we are measuring subjective personal preferences or whether we are simply making non-preference judgments on this foundation. While in the former case, the respondent is asked to choose which person he prefers or which solution he would like to see implemented, in the latter case, he is simply asked to judge which person is more effective in some aspect or which solution will require fewer resources without taking into consideration his or her personal preferences. (d) Scale properties: 160

When considering scale properties, one can categorise scales into four types: nominal scales, ordinal scales, interval scales, and ratio scales. Nominal scales are merely classification systems that do not indicate order, distance, or a single point of origin. Ordinal scales indicate magnitude relationships of 'more than' or 'less than,' but they do not indicate distance or a single point of origin in the universe. Interval scales have values for both order and distance, but they do not have a single origin. All of these characteristics can be found in ratio scales. (e) Number of dimensions: Scales can be divided into two categories based on their dimensions: \"unidimensional\" scales and \"multidimensional\" scales. Multidimensional scaling recognises that an object may be better described by using the concept of an attribute space of ‘n' dimensions rather than a single-dimension continuum, whereas single-dimension scaling measures only one attribute of the respondent or object. (f) Scale construction techniques: In the following section, you will find the five most important techniques for developing scales. (i) Arbitrary approach: An approach in which scale is developed on an as-needed basis is described as such. This is the approach that is most commonly used. Despite the lack of evidence to support this assumption, it is commonly assumed that such scales measure the concepts for which they have been developed. (ii) Consensus approach: In this section, a panel of judges evaluates the items selected for inclusion in the instrument in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area and whether their implication is unambiguous. (iii) Item analysis approach: Several individual items are combined into one test that is administered to a group of participants under this procedure. Following the administration of the test, the total scores for all participants are computed. Once the individual items have been analysed, it is possible to determine which items distinguish between persons or objects who have received high total scores and those who have received low total scores. (iv) Cumulative scales: In order to select cumulative scales, it is necessary to ensure that they are consistent with some ranking of items with ascending and descending discriminating power. Consider the following example: in such a scale, the endorsement of an item representing an extreme 161

position should result in the endorsement of all other items representing a less extreme position. (v) Factor scales Factor scales can be constructed on the basis of intercorrelations of items, which indicate that a common factor is responsible for the relationship between the items under consideration. Typically, the factor analysis method is used to determine this relationship. 10.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A MEASUREMENT SCALE Identity Identification refers to the process of assigning numbers to the values of each variable in a data set in a statistical analysis. Let's say you have a questionnaire that asks for a respondent's gender and provides the options Male and Female as responses. Male and female can be distinguished from one another by assigning them the numbers 1 and 2, respectively. Because these values are only used for identification purposes, there are no arithmetic operations that can be performed on them. As you can see in the example below, this is a characteristic of a nominal scale. Magnitude Magnitude is the size of a measurement scale on which numbers (the identity) are arranged in a natural order from least to greatest and is expressed as a percentage of the scale's total length. Depending on the situation, they are typically represented on a scale in either ascending or descending order. The positions are usually ordered from first to last in a race, with the first and second positions being the most important. Because it possesses both identity and magnitude, this example is rated on a scale ranging from one to ten on the ordinal scale. Equal intervals The term \"Equal Intervals\" refers to the fact that the scale has a standardised order and that the intervals are all the same. In other words, the difference between each level on the scale is the same for each and every one of the levels. This is not the case in the preceding ordinal scale example, which has been highlighted in boldfaced type. Each position does not have a difference in interval that is equal to the difference in intervals of the other positions. During a race, the first-place finisher may cross the finish line in 20 seconds, the second- place finisher in 20.8 seconds, and the third-place finisher in 30 seconds, depending on how fast they run. In mathematics, an interval scale is used to measure a variable that possesses three characteristics: identity, magnitude, and interval of equal length. Absolute zero 162

There is a feature known as absolute zero that can only be found in a ratio scale and cannot be found in any other type of scale. It signifies that there is a zero on the scale, and it is defined by the absence of the variable that is being monitored (e.g., no qualification, no money, does not identify as any gender, and so forth.). 10.4 MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUEDES In business research, one of the most common objectives is to measure attitudes. A company can use the findings of this study to craft practical responses, such as hiring and training supervisors who are committed to providing positive support to their employees. Other business researchers can use attitudes to answer questions ranging from identifying needs to measuring employee satisfaction with other aspects of the company's work processes. The methods of attitude measurement discussed in this chapter are diverse. When it comes to social scientists, an attitude can be defined as a long-term disposition to respond consistently to specific aspects of the world such as actions, other people, or objects. One method of comprehending an attitude is to disassemble it into its constituent parts. Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs Variables that are not directly observable but are measurable through indirect indicators, such as verbal expression or overt behaviour, are referred to as indirect indicators. Importance of Measuring Attitudes The intuitive belief of most managers is that changing consumers' or employees' attitudes toward their company, or their company's products or services, is a major goal of their organisation. Because modifying attitudes plays such a significant role in developing strategies to achieve these objectives, measuring attitudes is a critical task. Techniques for Measuring Attitudes ranking The task of ranking a small number of stores, brands, or objects on the basis of their overall preference or a characteristic of the stimulus is known as a preference ranking task. Rating Responses are asked to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic or quality that a brand, store, or object possesses in order to complete the measurement task successfully. Sorting A measurement task in which a respondent is presented with a number of objects or product concepts, and the respondent is required to arrange the objects into piles or classify the product concepts is described. Choice 163

The use of a measurement task that requires respondents to choose between two or more alternatives in order to identify preferences. 10.5 SCALING TECHNIQUES As defined by the rules of the game, the scaling technique involves placing respondents in a sequence of gradual changes in the pre-assigned values, symbols, or numbers as the features of a particular object are observed and evaluated. All scaling techniques are based on four pillars, which are the following: order, description, distance, and origin of the data. The scaling techniques are extremely important in marketing research because they allow for the completion of market analysis without the use of these techniques. Types of Scaling Techniques Many scaling techniques have been identified by the researchers; today, we will discuss some of the most common scales used by business organisations, researchers, economists, experts, and other professionals. Primary scaling techniques and other scaling techniques are two types of scaling techniques that can be used. Let's take a closer look at each of these methods in more detail below: SCALING TECHNIQUES PRIMARY OTHER SCALING SCALING TEHNIQUES TECHNIQUES Figure 10.1 Scaling Techniques 10.6 PRIMARY SCALING TECHNIQUES Primary Scaling Techniques The major four scales used in statistics for market research consist of the following: 1. Nominal Scale 164

2. Ordinal Scale 3. Interval Scale 4. Ratio Scale Figure 10.2 Primary scaling techniques 10.6.1 Nominal scale Nominal scales are used for labelling variables that are distinct and distinct from one another and are not quantitative (i.e., do not have a numerical implication). Types of Nominal Scales: 1. Dichotomous: A nominal scale that has only two labels is called ‘dichotomous’; for example, Yes/No. 2. Nominal with Order: The labels on a nominal scale arranged in an ascending or descending order is termed as ‘nominal with order’; for example, Excellent, Good, Average, Poor, Worst. 3. Nominal without Order: Such nominal scale which has no sequence, is called ‘nominal without order’; for example, Black, White. 10.6.2 Ordinal scale In order to function, the ordinal scale must be based on the concept of the relative position of objects or labels based on the individual's preference or choice. For example, At Amazon.in, every product has a customer review section where the buyers rate the listed product according to their buying experience, product features, quality, usage, etc. The ratings so provided are as follows: 165

 5 Star – Excellent  4 Star – Good  3 Star – Average  2 Star – Poor  1 Star – Worst 10.6.3 Interval scale In addition to being known as an interval scale, a cardinal scale is a numerical labelling system that uses the same difference between each of the consecutive measurement units. It is possible for researchers to obtain a more accurate comparison between objects by utilizing this scaling technique. For example, A survey conducted by an automobile company to know the number of vehicles owned by the people living in a particular area who can be its prospective customers in future. It adopted the interval scaling technique for the purpose and provided the units as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 to select from. In the scale mentioned above, every unit has the same difference, i.e., 1, whether it is between 2 and 3 or between 4 and 5. 10.6.4 Ratio scale The ratio scale is one of the most superior measurement techniques available. A ratio scale, like an interval scale, is a number system that is abstract in nature. It allows for accurate measurement at appropriate intervals, as well as order, categorization, and distance, with the additional feature of starting from a fixed zero point. When evaluating this situation, the acquired ratio can be used to make a comparison. For example, A health product manufacturing company surveyed to identify the level of obesity in a particular locality. It released the following survey questionnaire: Select a category to which your weight belongs to: Less than 40 kilograms  40-59 Kilograms  60-79 Kilograms  80-99 Kilograms  100-119 Kilograms  120 Kilograms and more The following table will better clarify the difference between all the four primary scaling techniques: 166

Particular Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale Characteristics Description Order Distance Description, Order, Distance And Origin Sequential Arrangement Not Applicable Applicable Applicable Applicable Fixed Zero Point Not Applicable Not Applicable Not Applicable Applicable Multiplication And Not Applicable Not Applicable Not Applicable Applicable Division Addition And Not Applicable Not Applicable Applicable Applicable Subtraction Difference Between Non- Non- Measurable Measurable Variables Measurable Measurable Mean Not Applicable Not Applicable Applicable Applicable Median Not Applicable Applicable Applicable Applicable Mode Applicable Applicable Applicable Applicable Table 10.1 Comparison of Primary scales 167

Figure 10.3 Comparison of Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales 10.7. OTHER SCALING TECHNIQUES The scaling of objects can be used to conduct a comparative study between two or more objects at the same time (products, services, brands, events, etc.). Alternatively, it can be carried out on an individual basis to better understand the consumer's behaviour and response to a specific object. The following are the two categories into which other scaling techniques are classified based on their comparability with one another: Figure 10.4 Other Scaling Techniques 10.7.1 Comparative scales Respondents use a comparative scale when comparing two or more variables to make their decisions. Here is a list of the various types of comparative scaling techniques: 1) Paired Comparison 2) Rank Order 3) Constant Sum 4) Q-Sort Scaling 168

10.7.1.1 Paired Comparison A paired comparison is a representation of two variables from which the respondent must choose one. This technique is primarily used during product testing to provide consumers with a comparative analysis of two major products available on the market, which is particularly useful for new products. One can compare three objects at once by first comparing P with Q and then the superior one (i.e., the one that has a higher percentage) with R if one wants to compare more than two objects. For example, A market survey was conducted to find out consumer’s preference for the network service provider brands, A and B. The outcome of the survey was as follows: Brand ‘A’ = 57% Brand ‘B’ = 43% Thus, it is visible that the consumers prefer brand ‘A’, over brand ‘B’. 10.7.1.2 Rank Order To complete rank order scaling, the respondent must rank or arrange the objects that have been provided in the manner that he or she prefers. For example, A soap manufacturing company conducted a rank order scaling to find out the orderly preference of the consumers. It asked the respondents to rank the following brands in the sequence of their choice: SOAP BRANDS RANK Brand V 4 Brand X 2 Brand Y 1 Brand Z 3 The above scaling shows that soap ‘Y’ is the most preferred brand, followed by soap ‘X’, then soap ‘Z’ and the least preferred one is the soap ‘V’. 169

10.7.1.3 Constant Sum In this technique, respondents rate the features, attributes, and importance of a particular product or service using a continuous sum of units such as dollars, points, chits or chips, among other things, to determine the relative importance of the product or service. For example, the respondents belonging to 3 different segments were asked to allocate 50 points to the following attributes of a cosmetic product ‘P’: From the above constant sum scaling analysis, we can see that:  Segment 1 considers product ‘P’ due to its competitive price as a major factor.  But segment 2 and segment 3, prefers the product because it is skin-friendly. ATTRIBUTES SEGMENT 1 SEGMENT 2 SEGMENT 3 Finish 11 8 9 Skin Friendly 11 12 12 Fragrance 7 11 8 Packaging 9 8 10 Price 12 11 11 From the above constant sum scaling analysis, we can see that:  Segment 1 considers product ‘P’ due to its competitive price as a major factor.  But segment 2 and segment 3, prefers the product because it is skin-friendly. 10.7.1.4 Q-Sort Scaling Q-sort scaling is a technique for sorting the most appropriate objects out of a large number of variables that are given to the computer. It emphasises the importance of ranking the given objects in descending order in order to form similar piles based on specific characteristics. It is appropriate in situations where the number of objects is between 60 and 140, with the number of objects between 60 and 90 being the most appropriate of the options. 170

For example,the marketing manager of a garment manufacturing company sorts the most efficient marketing executives based on their past performance, sales revenue generation, dedication and growth. The Q-sort scaling was performed on 60 executives, and the marketing head divides the results into three piles based on their efficiency, which are listed as follows: Figure 10.6 Q-Sort Scaling In the above diagram, the initials of the employees are used to denote their names. 10.7.2 Non-comparative scales The overall performance of a single product or object, when compared to the overall performance of other products or objects, is evaluated using a non-comparative scale. Following is a list of some of the most commonly encountered types: 1) Continuous Rating Scales 2) Itemized Rating Scale 3) Likert Scale 4) Semantic Differential Scale 5) Stapel Scale 10.7.2.1 Continuous Rating Scales When responding to the survey, respondents have the option of placing the object at any point on the graphical rating scale. It is accomplished by selecting and marking a point along a vertical or horizontal line that is in the middle of two opposing extreme criteria. For example, A mattress manufacturing company used a continuous rating scale to find out the level of customer satisfaction for its new comfy bedding. The response can be taken in the following different ways (stated as versions here): 171

Figure 10.7 Continuous Rating Scale The diagram above illustrates a non-comparative analysis of a single product, in this case, comfortable bedding. Consequently, it becomes abundantly clear that the customers are extremely pleased with the product and its features. 10.7.2.2 Itemized Rating Scale The itemised scale is yet another important technique in the non-comparative scales category. It emphasises the importance of respondents selecting a specific category from among the various options presented to them. The researchers have provided a brief definition of each class in order to aid in the selection process. The following are the three most frequently encountered itemised rating scales: 10.7.2.3 Likert Scale In the Likert scale, the researcher presents some statements and asks the respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with these statements by selecting one of the five alternatives from a list of options. For example, A shoes manufacturing company adopted the Likert scale technique for its new sports shoe range named Z sports shoes. The purpose is to know the agreement or disagreement of the respondents. For this, the researcher asked the respondents to circle a number representing the most suitable answer according to them, in the following representation:  1 – Strongly Disagree  2 – Disagree 172

 3 – Neither Agree nor Disagree  4 – Agree  5 – Strongly Agree Statement Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Disagree Agree Nor Agree Disagree Z Sports Shoes Are 1 2 34 5 Very Light Weight Z Sports Shoes Are Extremely 1 2 34 5 Comfortable Z Sports Shoes Look 1 2 34 5 Too Trendy I Will Definitely Recommend Z Sports Shoes To 1 2 34 5 Friends, Family And Colleagues Table 10.2 Likert scale The company will benefit from the above illustration in order to better understand what its customers think about its products. Whether or not there is a need for improvement is also considered. 10.7.2.4 Semantic Differential Scale It is possible for the respondent to mark on any of the seven points for each given attribute of the object according to his or her personal preference on a bipolar seven-point non- comparative rating scale. As a result, the respondent's attitude or perception towards the object is represented. For example, A well-known brand for watches, carried out semantic differential scaling to understand the customer’s attitude towards its product. The pictorial representation of this technique is as follows: 173

Figure 10.8 Semantic Differential Scale Based on the diagram above, we can conclude that the customer believes the product is of superior quality; however, the brand should place greater emphasis on the aesthetics of its timepieces. 10.7.2.5 Stapel Scale It is an itemised rating scale that measures the response, perception, or attitude of respondents to a specific object through the use of unipolar ratings on a single item on the scale. The range of a Stapel scale is between -5 and +5, with the zero removed, resulting in a limit of 10 units. For example, A tours and travel company asked the respondent to rank their holiday package in terms of value for money and user-friendly interface as follows: Figure 10.9Stapel Scale 174

With the help of the aforementioned scale, we can conclude that the company's value for money package could be improved. The fact that the interface is extremely user-friendly for customers, on the other hand, is the deciding factor. 10.8 SUMMARY  In the context of scales, the procedures for assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude, and other concepts are described. This can be accomplished in two ways, namely, a. A person's characteristic is assessed, and he is then placed on a scale that has been defined in terms of that characteristic. b. construction of surveys and questionnaires in such a way that the score of an individual's responses determines his or her position on a scale  There are several ways to categorise number assigning procedures and scaling procedures, but the following are the most commonly used classifications: (a) subject orientation. (b) response form. (c) degree of subjectivity. (d) scale properties. (e) number of dimensions and (f) scale construction techniques.  Characteristics of a measurement scale are:  Identity  Magnitude  Equal intervals  Absolute zero  The major four primary scaling techniques used in statistics for market research consist of the following: Nominal scale, Ordinal scale, Interval scale, Ratio scale  The following are the two categories into which other scaling techniques are classified based on their comparability with one another as Comparative scales and non- comparative scales. 10.9 KEYWORDS  Identity: Identification refers to the process of assigning numbers to the values of each variable in a data set in a statistical analysis 175

 Magnitude: Magnitude is the size of a measurement scale on which numbers (the identity) are arranged in a natural order from least to greatest and is expressed as a percentage of the scale's total length.  Equal intervals: The term \"Equal Intervals\" refers to the fact that the scale has a standardised order and that the intervals are all the same  Absolute zero: There is a feature known as absolute zero that can only be found in a ratio scale and cannot be found in any other type of scale  Rating: Responses are asked to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic or quality that a brand, store, or object possesses in order to complete the measurement task successfully.  Sorting: A measurement task in which a respondent is presented with a number of objects or product concepts, and the respondent is required to arrange the objects into piles or classify the product concepts is described.  Choice: The use of a measurement task that requires respondents to choose between two or more alternatives in order to identify preferences. 10.10 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. You have been asked to determine how hospitals prepare and train volunteers. Since you know relatively little about this subject, how will you find out? Be as specific as possible. 10.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Scaling 2. What do you mean by dichotomous scale? 3. Briefly write about measurement of attitudes. 4. What is paired comparison scale? 5. Define ratio scale Long Questions 1. Explain the scale classification basics. 2. Describe the primary scaling techniques 3. Briefly explain the comparative and non-comparative scaling techniques 4. Explain the scale classification basics. 5. Elucidate the characteristics of a measurement scale B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ______must be based on the concept of the relative position of objects or labels based on the individual's preference or choice. 176

a. Ordinal scale b. Nominal scale c. Interval scale d. Ratio scale 2. ______is a representation of two variables from which the respondent must choose one. a. Paired comparison b. Constant sum c. Rank order d. Q-sort scaling 3. The researcher presents some statements and asks the respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with these statements by selecting one of the five alternatives from a list of options. a. Semantic differential scale b. Likert c. Stapel scale d. Rating scale 4. It is an itemised rating scale that measures the response, perception, or attitude of respondents to a specific object through the use of unipolar ratings on a single item on the scale. a. Likert scale b. Semantic differential scale c. Stapel scale d. Rating scale 5. It is possible for the respondent to mark on any of the seven points for each given attribute of the object according to his or her personal preference on a bipolar seven- point non-comparative rating scale. a. Likert scale b. Semantic differential scale c. Stapel scale d. Rating scale Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-b, 4-c, 5-b 177

10.12 REFERENCES References book  R1, Business Research Methods – Alan Bryman& Emma Bell, Oxford University Press.  R2, Research Methodology - C.R. Kothari  R2, Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, Levine Stephan, Krehbiel Berenson Textbook references  T1,SPSSExplained,ISBN:9780415274104,Publisher:TataMcgrawHill  T2, Sancheti&Kapoor,BusinessMathematics,SultanChand,NewDelhi 178

UNIT 11: DATA COLLECTION STRUCTURE 11.0 Learning Objectives 11.1 Meaning of Data Collection 11.2 Collection of Primary Data 11.3 Observation Method 11.4 Interview Method 11.4.1 Personal Interviews 11.4.2 Telephonic Interviews 11.5 Collection of Data through Questionnaires 11.5.1 Merits of questionnaire method 11.5.2 Demerits of questionnaire method 11.5.3 Main aspects of a questionnaire 11.5.4 Essentials of a good questionnaire 11.6 Collection of Data through Schedules 11.7 Difference between Questionnaires and Schedules 11.8 Some Other Methods of Data Collection 11.9 Collection of Secondary Data 11.10 Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection 11.11 Case Study Method 11.11.1 Meaning 11.11.2 Characteristics 11.11.3 Evolution and scope 11.11.4 Assumptions 11.11.5 Major phases involved 11.11.6 Advantages 11.11.7 Limitations 11.12 Summary 11.13 Keywords 179

11.14 Learning Activity 11.15 Unit End Questions 11.16 References 11.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe the methods of data collection.  How to select appropriate data collection methods  Explain the data collection method through questionnaires  State the role of interview method in collecting the data  Distinguish between questionnaire and schedules 11.1 MEANING OF DATA COLLECTION It is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest in a systematic manner that allows one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and assess outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study, including the physical and social sciences, the humanities, business, and other fields of endeavour. While the methods used by different disciplines differ, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection is the same across the board. The significance of ensuring that accurate and appropriate data collection is carried out. Exact data collection is critical to the integrity of research, regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative versus qualitative). In order to reduce the likelihood of errors occurring, it is important to select appropriate data collection instruments (whether existing, modified, or newly developed) and to provide clear instructions for their correct use. Consequences from improperly collected data include:  inability to answer research questions accurately  inability to repeat and validate the study  distorted findings resulting in wasted resources  misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation  compromising decisions for public policy  causing harm to human participants and animal subjects The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/ plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. 180

DATA COLLECTION METHODS PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA Figure 11.1 Data Collection methods Primary data are those that are collected from scratch and for the first time and are therefore considered to be unique in nature. Data that has already been collected and processed through the statistical process, on the other hand, is referred to as secondary data. As part of his research, the researcher will need to decide what type of data he will be using (and thus collecting) for his study, and he will then need to choose between various data collection methods. Primary data collection differs from secondary data collection in that primary data must be collected from the beginning, whereas secondary data collection is merely a compilation of data collected previously. We discuss the various methods of data collection, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each method. 11.2 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews. This, in other words, means that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive research. Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method (iii) through questionnaires, (iv) through schedules, and 181

(v) other methods which include  warranty cards.  distributor audits.  pantry audits.  consumer panels.  using mechanical devices.  through projective techniques.  depth interviews, and  content analysis. We briefly take up each method separately. 11.3 OBSERVATION METHOD It is the observation method that is most commonly used in research, particularly in studies relating to behavioural sciences and psychology. Though we all observe the world around us in some way, this type of observation is not the same as scientific observation. When an observation serves a clearly defined research purpose, is meticulously planned and recorded, and is subjected to checks and controls to ensure that it is valid and reliable, it is transformed into a scientific tool and the primary method of data collection for the researcher. The information sought through the observation method is obtained through the investigator's own direct observation, rather than by asking the respondent for information. For example, in a study involving consumer behaviour, the investigator may choose to examine the wristwatch used by the respondent himself rather than asking about the brand of watch used by the respondent. Advantages  The main advantage of this method is that, if the observation is done correctly, subjective bias is eliminated from the results.  Information obtained through this method pertains to the present situation; past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes aren't a factor in the information obtained through this method.  Because this method is not dependent on respondents' willingness to respond, it necessitates less active cooperation on the part of respondents than the interview or the questionnaire methods, which are both more time-consuming and expensive.  When dealing with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are unable to provide verbal reports of their feelings for a variety of reasons, this method is particularly well suited for the task. Disadvantages:  It is a time-consuming and expensive method. 182

 The information provided by this method is extremely limited.  Unexpected factors may interfere with the observational task at any point in time.  At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible for direct observation creates a barrier to the effectiveness of this method in terms of collecting data wristwatch Structured observation is defined as an observation that is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, a style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of observation, and the selection of pertinent data of observation. Unstructured observation, on the other hand, refers to observation that takes place without regard to the characteristics that have been predetermined. In descriptive studies, structured observation is considered appropriate, whereas in exploratory studies, the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured. In the context of studies, particularly in the social sciences, we frequently discuss the types of observation that take place with and without participants. In order to make this distinction, the observer must decide whether or not he will participate in the life of the group he is observing. If the observer observes by putting himself in the shoes of the group, he is observing in order to experience what the members of the group are experiencing, the observation is referred to as participant observation, and the group is referred to as the observer. However, when the observer acts as a detached emissary without making any attempt to experience what others are experiencing through participation, this type of observation is referred to as non-participant observation. There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group. (ii) The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. (iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule. But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not solved; and it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience. Controlled and uncontrolled observation are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably. The term \"uncontrolled observation\" refers to observation that takes place in a natural setting without the use of any pre-arranged plans or procedures, whereas the term \"controlled observation\" refers to observation that takes place under the supervision of a trained professional and involves the use of an experimental procedure. 183

Precision instruments are not used in non-controlled observational studies because they are not feasible. The primary goal of this type of observation is to obtain a spontaneous picture of people and their surroundings in real time. In general, it tends to provide naturalness and completeness of behaviour, while also allowing enough time for observers to observe it. In controlled observation, on the other hand, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments to aid in the accuracy and standardisation of our observations. A common characteristic of such observation is that it tends to provide formalised data, which can then be used to construct generalisations with a high degree of confidence. The most significant drawback of non-controlled observation is the possibility of subjective interpretation of the results. Having the false impression that we know more about the observed phenomena than we actually do is a danger as well. In general, controlled observation is used in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or under controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is used in exploratory researches that are not conducted in a controlled environment. 11.4 INTERVIEW METHOD The interview method of data collection entails the presentation of oral-verbal stimuli, followed by a response expressed in terms of verbal responses. Personal interviews and, if at all possible, telephone interviews can be used to implement this method of data collection. 11.4.1. Personal interviews: When using the personal interview method, it is necessary for a person known as the interviewer to ask questions to the other person or persons while in direct contact with them. (The interviewee may, on occasion, ask specific questions, to which the interviewer responds; however, it is more common that the interviewer initiates the interview and gathers the information.) This type of interview can take the form of a direct personal investigation or it can take the form of an indirect or oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation, the interviewer is required to personally collect the information from the sources who are being investigated. The data collection must take place on the spot, and he must meet with the individuals who are to provide the information. This method is particularly well suited for in-depth investigations. However, in some cases, it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact the individuals who are the subject of the investigation directly, or the technique of direct personal investigation may not be appropriate due to the broad scope of the investigation. It is possible to conduct an indirect oral examination in such cases, in which the interviewer is required to cross-examine other individuals who are presumed to be knowledgeable about the problem under investigation, and the information gathered is recorded. This method is used by the vast majority of commissions and committees appointed by the government to conduct investigations into crimes. 184

Structured Interview: Personal interviews are a method of gathering information that is typically carried out in a structured manner. As a result, the interviews are referred to as structured interviews. Such interviews entail the use of a predetermined set of questions as well as highly standardised techniques for recording the conversation. As a result, he is given much greater freedom to ask supplementary questions if necessary, and he may even choose to omit certain questions if the situation calls for it. He may even alter the order in which the questions are asked. While recording the responses, he has a disproportionately greater degree of freedom to include some aspects and leave out others. Nevertheless, this type of flexibility results in a lack of comparability between interviews, and the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult and time-consuming than the analysis of structured responses obtained through structured interviews. Unstructured interviews Unstructured interviews necessitate in-depth knowledge and superior interviewing skills on the part of the interviewer as well. In exploratory or formulative research studies, the unstructured interview, on the other hand, is the primary technique for gathering information, whether it is structured or unstructured. However, in descriptive studies, we frequently employ the technique of structured interview because it is more cost-effective, provides a more secure basis for generalisation, and necessitates a lower level of skill on the part of the interviewer. Focussed Interview The purpose of a focused interview is to direct the interviewer's attention to the respondent's specific experience and the consequences of that experience. Under it, the interviewer has the authority to determine the manner and sequence in which the questions will be asked, as well as the authority to inquire into the reasons and motives of the participants. When conducting a focused interview, the interviewer's primary responsibility is to limit the respondent's discussion to issues with which he or she wishes to become acquainted. Such interviews are commonly used in the development of hypotheses and constitute a significant proportion of all unstructured interviews conducted. Clinical Interview The clinical interview is concerned with the broad underlying feelings or motivations of the individual, as well as the course of the individual's life experience, during the interview. The method by which information is elicited under it is generally left to the discretion of the person conducting the interview. Non-directive interview In a non-directive interview, the interviewer's role is to simply encourage the respondent to talk about the topic at hand while employing the bare minimum of direct questioning 185

techniques. The interviewer frequently serves as a catalyst for a comprehensive expression of the respondents' feelings and beliefs, as well as of the frame of reference within which those feelings and beliefs take on personal significance. Despite the fact that interview techniques vary from one another, the major advantages and disadvantages of personal interviews can be enumerated in a generalised manner. Advantages: The following are the primary advantages of the interview method: 1) It is possible to obtain more information, and that information is more in-depth. 2) Interviewer's ability to overcome any resistance from respondents; interview method can be tailored to produce a sample that is almost perfect representation of the general population. 3) There is greater flexibility with this method because the opportunity to restructure questions is always available, which is especially true in the case of unstructured interviews. 4) The observation method can also be used to record verbal responses to a variety of different types of questions. 5) It is also possible to obtain personal information quickly and easily using this method. 6) Samples can be controlled more effectively because there is no longer a problem with missing returns; the rate of non-response remains extremely low in most cases. 7) In most cases, the interviewer has complete control over who will respond to the questions. In the case of the mailed questionnaire approach, this is not possible. Group discussions can also be held if that is what is desired. 8) Using an unexpected interview method, such as a telephone interview, may result in more spontaneous responses from the informant than would be obtained using a mailed questionnaire. 9) The language of the interview can be tailored to the ability or educational level of the person being interviewed, thereby reducing the likelihood of misinterpretations of questions during the interview. 10) Additional information about the respondent's personal characteristics and environment can be gathered during the interview, which is often extremely useful in interpreting the results. Disadvantages: But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important weaknesses, mention may be made of the following: 1. Although this is a very expensive method, it can be extremely effective when applied to a large and widely dispersed geographical sample. 2. There is still the possibility of bias on the part of the interviewer as well as the respondent, as well as the headache of overseeing and controlling the interviewers. 186

3. This method may be ineffective in reaching certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people from high-income groups because they are difficult to reach. As a result, the data may be insufficient in some cases. 4. If the sample is large and it is necessary to contact all of the respondents again, this method is more time-consuming than the previous one. 5. The mere presence of the interviewer on the spot may cause the respondent to become overstimulated, to the point where he may divulge fictitious information in order to keep the interview interesting. 6. The interview method necessitates a more complex organisational structure for selecting, training, and supervising field personnel, which presents a number of formidable challenges. 7. Interviewing has the potential to introduce systematic errors at times. 8. A successful interview depends on the ability to establish a rapport with respondents that allows them to give free and frank answers. This is frequently a very difficult requirement to fulfil. Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing: Interviewers should be carefully selected, trained, and briefed in order to ensure the successful implementation of the interview method. They should be trustworthy, sincere, hardworking, and impartial, and they should be well-versed in technical matters and have the necessary hands-on experience. Every now and then, it is necessary to conduct field checks to ensure that interviewers are not cheating or deviating from the instructions provided to them in order to perform their jobs efficiently. A plan should be put in place ahead of time to ensure that appropriate action can be taken if any of the selected respondents refuse to cooperate or are not available when the interviewer calls on them. Rather than being a scientific discipline, interviewing is an art that is guided by certain scientific principles. Everyone involved in the interview process should make every effort to create a friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence, so that respondents can feel at ease while conversing and debating with one another. The interviewer must ask appropriate and intelligent questions, and he or she must accurately and completely record each respondent's responses. At the same time, the interviewer must provide legitimate answers to any legitimate questions that the respondent may have and must dispel any doubts that the respondent may have. A friendly, courteous, conversational, and unbiased approach must be taken by the interviewer during the interview. The interviewer should not express surprise or disapproval at a respondent's response, but he should maintain control over the direction of the interview by discouraging irrelevant conversation and making every effort to keep the respondent on track. 187

11.4.2. Telephone interviews: It is necessary to contact respondents directly by telephone in order to collect information using this method. Even though it is not a widely used method, it is extremely important in industrial surveys, particularly in developed countries. The following are the primary advantages of such a system: 1. It offers greater flexibility when compared to the mailing method. 2. There are several advantages to using this method over other methods, including speed and ease of retrieval of information. 3. It is less expensive than the personal interviewing method because the cost per response is lower in this case. 4. Call-backs are simple and cost-effective; recall is simple and cost-effective. 5. The response rate is higher than that of the traditional mailing method, and the rate of non-response is generally very low as well. 6. There is no need for respondents to feel embarrassed when their responses are recorded. 7. The interviewer will have an easier time explaining the requirements. 8. It is possible to gain access to respondents who would otherwise be unable to be contacted for a variety of reasons at times. 9. No field staff is required. 10. It is possible to obtain a representative sample with a wider distribution. However, there are some drawbacks to this system of information gathering. Some of these may be highlighted in greater detail. 1. Responses are given little time to consider their responses; the interview period is unlikely to last more than five minutes in the majority of cases. 2. Respondents who have access to a telephone are not eligible to participate in surveys. 3. Due to cost considerations, it is possible that extensive geographic coverage will be curtailed. 4. It is not appropriate for large-scale surveys in which comprehensive responses to a variety of questions are necessary. 5. There is a greater likelihood of the interviewer being biased than usual. 6. Questions must be succinct and to the point; probes are difficult to deal with. 11.5 COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES This method of data collection is quite popular, especially when dealing with large amounts of information. A growing number of private individuals, researchers, private and public organisations, and even governments, are embracing it. In this method, a questionnaire is sent (typically by mail) to the individuals who are to be contacted, with a request that they 188

respond to the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire is a collection of questions that are printed or typed in a specific order on a form or set of forms and distributed to respondents. It is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions before writing down their responses in the space designated for this purpose on the actual questionnaire. The respondents are required to provide their own responses to the questions. The method of collecting data that is most widely used is mailing questionnaires to respondents. various economic and business surveys have used this phrase. 11.5.1. Merits The following are the advantages that are asserted in support of this method: 1. Even when the universe is large and geographically dispersed, there is a low cost per unit of time. 2. It is free of bias due to the interviewer's presence; responses are given in the respondents' own words. 3. Respondents have ample opportunity to provide well-thought-out responses to the survey questions. 4. Responses from respondents who are difficult to reach can also be obtained with relative ease. 5. This allows for the use of larger samples, which increases the reliability and dependability of the results. 11.5.2 Demerits The main demerits of this system can also be listed here: 1. There is a low return rate for properly completed questionnaires; the bias resulting from non-response is frequently indeterminate. 2. It can only be used when respondents are well-educated and cooperative in their responses. 3. Once the questionnaire has been sent, the ability to control it may be lost. 4. There is an inherent inflexibility in the approach because it is difficult to change the approach once questionnaires have been sent out to respondents. 5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous responses or the omission of responses to specific questions altogether; interpreting omissions can be difficult. 6. It is difficult to determine whether or not willing respondents are truly representative of the population. 7. This method is most likely to be the most time-consuming of all. It is always recommended to conduct a \"pilot study\" (Pilot Survey) prior to using this method in order to test the questionnaires before implementing them. The importance of a pilot survey is felt strongly in a large-scale investigation. The pilot survey is, in fact, a replica and 189

practise run for the primary survey. The weaknesses (if any) of the questionnaires and survey techniques are brought to light in such a survey, which is carried out by professionals. It is possible to make improvements as a result of the experience gained in this manner. 11.5.3 Main aspects of a questionnaire: When conducting a survey, the questionnaire is frequently considered to be the most important component of the operation. As a result, it should be constructed with extreme care. If the survey is not properly set up, it is almost certain to fail. This fact necessitates our investigation of the primary aspects of a questionnaire, which include the general form, question sequence, question formulation and wording, and question wording. When it comes to these three main aspects of a questionnaire, the researcher should keep the following in mind: 1. General form: The general form of a questionnaire can be classified as either structured or unstructured, depending on the purpose of the questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires that contain questions that are specific, concrete, and pre-determined in their content and format. All respondents are presented with the same questions, which have the exact same wording and are presented in the exact same order. This type of standardisation is used to ensure that all respondents respond to the same set of questions, which is why it is so popular. Whether the question is closed (that is, of the type ‘yes or no') or open (that is, inviting a free response), the form of the question should be stated in advance and not constructed during the course of the interview. Structured questionnaires may also include fixed alternative questions, in which the responses of the informants are limited to the options that have been specified by the questionnaire creator. To put it another way, a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are clearly defined, and comments in the respondent's own words are kept to an absolute bare minimum. When these characteristics are absent from a questionnaire, the questionnaire is referred to as an unstructured or non-structured questionnaire, respectively. Further, we can say that an unstructured questionnaire is one in which the interviewer is provided with a general guide as to the type of information that should be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own responsibility, and the responses are to be recorded in the respondent's own words to the extent that this is possible; in some cases, tape recorders may be used to accomplish this goal. Using a structured questionnaire is simple to administer, and the analysis of the results is relatively inexpensive. The provision of alternative responses can, on occasion, aid in the understanding of the meaning of a question more clearly. However, there are some limitations to such questionnaires. Structured questionnaires, for example, cannot be used to gather a diverse range of information, much less information that is expressed in the respondent's own words. They are typically regarded as inappropriate in investigations in 190

which the goal is to probe for attitudes and reasons behind specific actions or feelings, rather than simply observing them. They are also inappropriate when a problem is being explored and working hypotheses are being sought for the first time. Unstructured questionnaires can be used effectively in these types of circumstances. Afterwards, on the basis of the results obtained in pretest (testing before final use) operations from the use of unstructured questionnaires, it is possible to construct a structured questionnaire that will be used in the main investigation. 2. Question sequence: During the questionnaire preparation process, a researcher should pay close attention to the question sequence in order to ensure that the questionnaire is effective and that the quality of the responses received is high. It is significantly less likely that individual questions will be misunderstood when questions are asked in the proper sequence. In other words, the relationship between one question and another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer placed at the beginning of the sequence. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly moving, meaning that the relationship between one question and another should be readily apparent to the respondent. The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to have an impact on the attitude of the respondent as well as the likelihood of obtaining the desired cooperation from him or her. The opening questions should be such that they pique the interest of the audience. In general, the following types of questions should not be used as the first question in a questionnaire: • questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent. • questions of a personal character. • questions related to personal wealth, etc. Questions that are truly critical to the research problem should follow the opening questions, and a connecting thread should run through all of the subsequent questions. In an ideal situation, the question sequence should be tailored to the respondent's way of thinking and reasoning. The researcher can rearrange the order of the questions (which is possible in the case of an unstructured questionnaire) in order to fit the discussion in each specific case once they have determined what information is desired. Nonetheless, when designing a structured questionnaire, the best that can be done is to determine the question-sequence with the help of a Pilot Survey, which is likely to produce good rapport with the majority of participants. Questions that are relatively difficult to answer must be relegated to the end of the questionnaire so that, even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, a significant amount of information has already been gathered. The researcher should always keep in mind that the answer to a given question is a function of not only the question itself, but of all previous questions as well, and that the question sequence should generally go from 191

the general to the more specific. For example, if one question concerns the price of coffee that is typically paid and the next concerns the reason for preferring a particular brand of coffee, the answer to the latter question may be framed primarily in terms of price differences between brands. 3. Question formulation and wording: Regarding this aspect of the questionnaire, the researcher should keep in mind that each question must be extremely clear, as any misunderstanding can cause irreparable harm to the survey. In addition, the question should be objective in order to avoid painting a distorted picture of the true state of affairs. It is important to construct questions with the goal of having them function as logical components of a well thought out tabulation plan. As a general rule, all questions should adhere to the following criteria: In order to be easily understood, (a) a statement must be brief, (b) it must be straightforward, conveying only one thought at a time, and (c) it must be concrete and conform as much as possible to the respondent's mode of thinking. For example, instead of asking, \"How many razor blades do you use annually?\" ask, \"How many razor blades do you use annually?\" “How many razor blades did you use last week?” would be a more realistic question to pose to the subject. When it comes to the structure of questions, there are two primary types to consider: the multiple-choice question and the open-ended question. In the former, the respondent chooses one of the possible answers that have been presented to him, whereas in the latter, he is required to provide the answer in his own words. It is possible to think of a question with only two possible answers (typically ‘Yes' or ‘No') as a special case of a multiple-choice question, or it can be called a ‘closed question.' Each possible form of question has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, which are listed below. Numerous choice or closed questions have the advantages of being simple to handle, simple to answer, quick to analyse, and relatively inexpensive to analyse. They are the ones that lend themselves the most to statistical analysis. It is possible that the provision of alternative responses will assist in clarifying the meaning of the question. However, the main disadvantage of fixed alternative questions is that they have the potential to “put answers in people's mouths,” i.e., they may force a statement of opinion on an issue on which the respondent does not, in fact, have an opinion at all. This method is not appropriate when the issue under consideration is complex, and it is also not appropriate when the researcher's primary interest is in the investigation of a particular process. In such cases, open-ended questions that are designed to allow the respondent to provide a free response rather than one that is limited to a set of pre-determined options are 192

considered to be the most appropriate choice. Such questions give the respondent a great deal of leeway in how they phrase their response. The ability to obtain responses in the respondent's own words is thus the most significant advantage of open-ended questions. However, it should not be forgotten that, from an analytical standpoint, open-ended questions are more difficult to deal with because they raise issues of interpretation, comparability, and interviewer bias, among other things. In practise, it is rare to come across a situation in which a questionnaire is composed entirely of a single type of question. The various forms are meant to be used in conjunction with one another. As a result, a variety of questions in various formats are included in a single questionnaire. For example, multiple-choice questions serve as the foundation of a structured questionnaire, which is particularly useful in a mail-in survey. The use of open-ended questions, however, is common even in surveys in order to provide a more complete picture of the respondent's feelings and attitudes. The wording of questions must be carefully considered by the researcher because it has a significant impact on the reliability and significance of the results. Because words have the potential to influence responses, they should be carefully chosen. It is preferable to use straightforward language that is familiar to all respondents. It is necessary to avoid using words that have ambiguous meanings. In the same way, avoid using dangerous words, catchphrases, or words with emotional connotations in your writing. It is also important to exercise caution when using phrases that reflect negatively on the respondent's status. In no case should the way a question is phrased influence the answer. Rather than being a science, question wording and formulation is an art that can only be learned through experience. 11.5.4 Essentials of a good questionnaire: For a questionnaire to be successful, it must be relatively short and straightforward; in other words, the questionnaire's length should be kept to a bare minimum. Questions should be answered in a logical sequence, starting with the easiest and progressing to the most difficult. Personal and intimate questions should be saved for the end of the conversation. In a questionnaire, technical terms and vague expressions that could be interpreted differently should be avoided. Questions may be dichotomous (with only yes or no answers), multiple choice (with a list of alternative answers), or open-ended in nature. Such questions are often difficult to analyse and, as a result, should be avoided whenever possible when creating a questionnaire for research purposes. A few control questions should be included in the questionnaire to determine whether or not the respondent is a trustworthy source. For example, a question designed to determine the consumption of a specific material may be asked in two ways: first in terms of financial expenditure and then in terms of mass. Consequently, the control questions serve as a cross-check to determine whether the information gathered is correct or incorrect. Questions that have an impact on the emotions of respondents should be avoided. In order to facilitate editing and tabulation, adequate space 193

for answers should be provided in the questionnaire. A provision for indications of uncertainty, such as \"don't know,\" \"don't care,\" \"don't care about,\" and so on, should always be available. Invariably, brief instructions on how to complete the questionnaire should be included within the questionnaire itself. At the conclusion, the physical appearance of the questionnaire has an impact on the level of cooperation that the researcher receives from the respondents; therefore, an attractive looking questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus when it comes to soliciting cooperation from the respondents. The quality of the paper, as well as the colour of the paper, must be excellent in order to capture the attention of the intended audience. 11.6 COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES This method of data collection is very similar to the collection of data through questionnaires, with the main difference being that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are filled out by enumerators who have been specifically appointed for the purpose of filling out the schedules. Enumerators, accompanied by schedules, go to respondents and ask them the questions from the proforma in the order they are listed on the proforma, after which they record their responses in the space designated for that purpose on the proforma. Respondents may be given schedules, and enumerators may assist them in recording their responses to various questions on the schedules that have been handed out to them. Enumerators explain the objectives and goals of the investigation, as well as alleviate any difficulties that respondents may be experiencing in comprehending the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms, among other things. It is necessary to select enumerators for the purpose of filling out schedules or assisting respondents to fill out schedules when using this method, and as a result, enumerators should be carefully chosen. The enumerators should be properly trained in order to do their jobs properly, and the nature and scope of the investigation should be thoroughly explained to them in order for them to understand the implications of the various questions that have been included in the schedule. In order to uncover the truth, enumerators must be intelligent and capable of conducting cross-examinations with one another. Above all, they should be truthful, sincere, and hardworking, as well as patient and perseverant in their pursuits. This method of data collection is extremely useful in large-scale investigations and can produce results that are reasonably reliable. Despite this, it is prohibitively expensive, and it is typically used in investigations conducted by government agencies or by large corporations. A population census is carried out using this method in every country in the world. 194

11.7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES Both questionnaires and schedules are commonly used methods of collecting data in research surveys, and they both have their advantages. As a result of their striking similarities, many people have observed that from a practical standpoint, the two methods can be considered interchangeable. However, there is a distinction between the two in terms of technical considerations. The following are the most significant points of distinction:  It is customary to send the questionnaire to informants through the mail, with the expectation that they will respond in the manner specified in the covering letter, but with no further assistance from the sender. The schedule is usually filled out by the research assistant or the enumerator, who can also interpret questions when necessary, according to the situation.  Using a questionnaire to gather information is a relatively inexpensive and efficient method of gathering information because we only have to spend money on the questionnaire itself and on mailing it to respondents. There is no need for field personnel in this situation. The collection of data through schedules is more expensive than other methods because a significant amount of money must be spent on the appointment of enumerators and the importation of training for them. In addition, money is spent on the preparation of schedules.  Because many people do not respond and many others return the questionnaire without answering all questions, the non-response rate is typically high when using a questionnaire. Bias resulting from non-response is frequently indeterminate. The opposite is true in the case of schedules, where non-response is typically very low because these are filled by enumerators who are capable of obtaining answers to all questions. However, there is still the possibility of interviewer bias and cheating.  Unlike with a questionnaire, it is not always clear who is responding; however, with a schedule, the identity of the respondent is readily apparent.  The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow because many respondents do not return the questionnaire on time, despite repeated reminders, whereas schedules ensure that information is collected on time because they are filled in by enumerators as they are completed.  In most cases, personal contact is not possible when using the questionnaire method because questionnaires are sent to respondents via postal mail, and they also return the questionnaires via postal mail. Direct personal contact with respondents is established only in the case of scheduled meetings.  It is only possible to collect information using the questionnaire method when the respondents are literate and cooperative; however, when using schedules, it is possible to collect information even when the respondents are illiterate. 195

 Although the questionnaire method allows for a wider and more representative distribution of samples, it is often difficult to send enumerators over a relatively large geographic area due to the limitations of schedules.  The questionnaire method carries a higher risk of collecting incomplete and incorrect information than other methods, particularly when people are unable to comprehend the questions properly. When using schedules, on the other hand, the information gathered is generally complete and accurate because enumerators can eliminate any difficulties that respondents may have had in correctly understanding the questions. The information obtained through schedules is therefore more accurate than the information obtained through questionnaires as a result.  The success of the questionnaire method is dependent primarily on the quality of the questionnaire itself, whereas the success of the schedule method is dependent primarily on the honesty and competence of the enumerators themselves.  When it comes to attracting respondents' attention, the physical appearance of the questionnaire must be quite appealing. However, this may not be the case in the case of schedules, as they are intended to be filled out by enumerators rather than by respondents.  The observation method can be used in conjunction with schedules, but this is not possible when data is collected through questionnaires. 11.8. SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Let us consider some other methods of data collection, particularly used by big business houses in modern times 1. Warranty cards: Warranty cards, which are typically postal-sized cards, are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect information about their products, such as product specifications. It is necessary to obtain this information through the use of questions printed on ‘warranty cards,' which are placed inside packages along with the product and require the consumer to fill out the card and return it to the dealer. 2. Distributor or store audits: On a regular basis, distributors and manufacturers employ their sales representatives to audit their distributors and stores to ensure that they are operating properly. The information gathered from audits of retail stores by sales representatives is used by distributors to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing patterns, and other factors. Information is gathered in such audits not through questioning but through observation instead of questioning. Visiting a representative sample of grocery stores on a regular basis and recording information about the inventory on hand, either through observation or copying from store records, would be part of a grocery store audit, for example. Retail store audits are almost always conducted by panels of employees, with the primary goal of estimating sales 196

and assembling sales trends by store as the primary \"reason detre\" for their existence. It is particularly advantageous in that it provides the most efficient means of evaluating the effect on sales of variations of various in-store promotion techniques. 3. Pantry audits: Using the pantry audit technique, you can estimate consumption of a basket of goods at the consumer level simply by looking at what is currently in the pantry. In this type of audit, the investigator compiles a list of the various commodities that have been purchased, including the types, quantities, and prices of each commodity. The information gathered during a pantry audit is as a result of the examination of the consumer's pantry. With a pantry audit, the usual goal is for the auditor to determine what types of consumers buy certain products and which brands they prefer, with an assumption that what is in the pantry accurately reflects the preferences of the consumers in question. The practise of supplementing pantry audits with direct questioning about the reasons and circumstances under which specific products were purchased in an attempt to link these factors to purchasing habits is common practise. If it is believed that a single visit is sufficient to obtain an accurate picture of consumer preferences, an audit of a pantry may or may not be conducted as a panel operation. This approach has a significant limitation in that it may not always be possible to determine consumers' preferences solely from audit data. This is especially true when promotional devices result in a significant increase in sales, as previously mentioned. 4. Consumer panels: It is possible to extend the pantry audit approach on a regular basis by establishing a consumer panel. A consumer panel is comprised of consumers who have agreed to keep detailed daily records of their food intake and to make these records readily accessible to the investigating officer when requested by the investigators. For the purposes of this definition, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed on a regular basis over an extended period of time. The majority of consumer panels fall into one of two categories: the transitory consumer panel and the ongoing consumer panel. A transitory consumer panel is set up in order to assess the impact of a specific phenomenon on the public. Most of the time, such a panel will be conducted on a \"before-and-after\" basis. Initial interviews are conducted prior to the occurrence of the phenomenon in order to document the attitude of the consumer. Following the occurrence of the phenomenon, a second round of interviews is conducted in order to determine whether any changes in the consumer's attitude have occurred as a result of the phenomenon. It is a popular tool in advertising and social research because of its versatility. Consumer panels that are intended to collect data on a specific aspect of consumer behaviour over an extended period of time, generally at periodic intervals. These panels may also be intended to serve as general-purpose panels for researchers interested in a wide range 197

of topics. Consumer expenditure panels, public opinion panels, and radio and television listenership panels, to name a few applications, have all been used in the past. The majority of these panels are operated through the mail. Following the two major problems associated with the use of this method of data collection, the representativeness of the panel in relation to the population and the effect of panel membership on the information obtained are discussed. 5. Use of mechanical devices: The use of mechanical devices to collect information has become increasingly popular as a means of gathering information indirectly. The eye camera, the pupilometric camera, the psychogalvanometer, the motion picture camera, and the audiometer are the principal devices that have been developed and are commonly used by modern big business houses, primarily in the developed world, for the purpose of gathering the necessary information for the purposes of data collection. Eye cameras are designed to capture the focus of a respondent's eyes on a specific portion of a sketch, diagram, or piece of written material using a digital camera. This type of information is beneficial when creating advertising materials. Pupilometric cameras capture images of the pupil dilation that occurs as a result of a visual stimulus. Interest in the stimulus is indicated by the extent to which the dilation has increased. The psychogalvanometer is used to determine the extent to which the body is excited as a result of viewing a visual stimulus. Motion picture cameras can be used to record the movement of a buyer's body as he or she considers whether or not to purchase a consumer good from a shop or big box store. Buyers would be prompted to make certain physical movements as a result of the influence of the packaging or the information provided on the label, which could be easily recorded by a hidden motion picture camera within the shop's four walls. Some television companies employ audiometers to determine the types of programmes and radio stations that people prefer to listen to and watch. In order to record these changes, a device is installed within the television instrument itself. This type of information can be used to determine the market share of competing television stations. 6. Projective techniques: For the collection of data, psychologists have developed projective techniques (also known as indirect interviewing techniques) that rely on respondents' projections to infer about underlying motives, urges, or intentions that the respondent is either unwilling or unable to identify for himself. When using projective techniques, the respondent is more likely to unconsciously project his or her own attitudes or feelings onto the subject under investigation when providing information. When conducting motivational research or conducting attitude surveys, projective techniques are extremely useful. 198

The application of these techniques necessitates extensive and specialised training. It is not taken at face value when using such techniques that an individual's responses to a stimulus- situation are considered. There are many different types of reactions that can be triggered by the stimuli. It is not always clear from the nature of the stimuli and the manner in which they are presented that they are to be interpreted in this way when using these techniques. The stimulus can be anything from a photograph to a picture to an inkblot, and so forth. When individuals respond to these stimuli, their responses are interpreted as indicating their own point of view, their own personality structure, their own needs, their own tensions, and so on, in the context of some pre-established psychological conceptualisation of what their own responses to the stimulus mean. We will now briefly discuss the most important projective techniques that exist. (i) Word association tests (ii) Sentence completion tests (iii) Story completion tests (iv) Verbal projection tests (v) Pictorial techniques (vi) Play techniques (vii) Quizzes, tests and examinations (viii) Sociometry 7. Depth interviews: Depth interviews are interviews that are designed to uncover underlying motives and desires. They are frequently used in motivational research because of their effectiveness. Such interviews are conducted in order to better understand the needs, desires, and feelings of those who participate. Instead, they seek to elicit both unconscious and other types of material, with a particular emphasis on personality dynamics and motivations, during the interview process. As a result, depth interviews necessitate a high level of skill on the part of the interviewer while also requiring a significant amount of time. Depth interviewing should not be attempted unless the researcher has received specialised training in this area. A depth interview may be projective in nature or it may be non-projective in nature, depending on the situation. What distinguishes them is the nature of the questions they are asked. The answers to indirect questions on seemingly unrelated subjects can yield information about the informant's behaviour or attitude toward the subject under investigation. As an example, the informant may be asked about his frequency of air travel, and he may be asked again at a later stage to describe his thoughts on the feelings of the 199

relatives of another man who has died in an aeroplane accident at a later stage. The inability to fly can then be linked to responses to questions of a similar nature as the ones above. Similarly, if the depth interview contains questions of this nature, the interview may be classified as a projective depth interview. However, depth interviews do not necessarily have to be projective in nature in order to be effective; even non-projective depth interviews can reveal important aspects of a person's psycho-social situation that can be used to better understand his or her attitudes. 8. Content-analysis: Documentary materials such as books, magazines, and newspapers as well as the contents of all other verbal materials that can be either spoken or printed are subjected to a content- analysis procedure. For many years before the 1940s, content-analysis consisted mostly of quantitative analysis of documentary materials based on certain characteristics that could be identified and counted. However, since the 1950s, content-analysis has primarily focused on qualitative issues such as the overall meaning or message conveyed by the documents in question. According to the author, the distinction is similar to that between a casual interview and a depth interview. Bernard Berelson's name is often associated with the latter type of content analysis, which is a type of semantic analysis. “Content-analysis is a method of measuring things by their proportions. When it comes to content analysis, pervasiveness is measured, and this is sometimes used as an indicator of the intensity of the force.” Any time one is concerned with the investigation of the nature of verbal materials, the analysis of content is an essential activity. Research reviews in any field, for example, involve the examination of the contents of research articles that have been published in scholarly journals. A simple level of analysis may be used, or a more complex level of analysis may be used. When we pursue it on the basis of certain characteristics of the document or verbal materials that can be identified and counted, it is at its most basic level of sophistication (such as on the basis of major scientific concepts in a book). Researchers conduct research on the attitudes of feature writers toward education, for example, at a subtle level. They are looking at attitudes of the press toward education. 11.9 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA Secondary data refers to information that has already been collected and analysed by another party, i.e., information that has already been made available to the public. The researcher must investigate a variety of sources in order to obtain secondary data when working with secondary data. It's safe to say that he won't be confronted with the difficulties that are typically associated with the collection of original data in this situation. Secondary data can be either published or unpublished, depending on the situation. Generally, published data can be found in the following places:  various publications of the central, state, and local governments. 200