CU-BBA-SEM IV- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY-SECOND DRAFT (1)

BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION SEMESTER IV RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning SLM Development Committee Prof. (Dr.) H.B. Raghvendra Vice- Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab:Chairperson Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Registrar Prof. (Dr.) B. Priestly Shan Dean of Academic Affairs Dr. Nitya Prakash Director – IDOL Dr. Gurpreet Singh Associate Director –IDOL Advisors& Members of CIQA –IDOL Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director – IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director – CIQA, IGNOU Editorial Committee Prof. (Dr) Nilesh Arora Dr. Ashita Chadha University School of Business University Institute of Liberal Arts Dr. Inderpreet Kaur Prof. Manish University Institute of Teacher Training & University Institute of Tourism & Hotel Management Research Dr. Manisha Malhotra Dr. Nitin Pathak University Institute of Computing University School of Business © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any formor by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS 2

First Published in 2021 All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from Chandigarh University. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this book may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This book is meant for educational and learning purpose. The authors of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event the Authors has/ have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. . 3

CONTENTS Unit 1: Introduction To Research .......................................................................................... 5 Unit 2: Research Process ..................................................................................................... 32 Unit 3: Formulationofresearch............................................................................................. 63 Unit 4: Building Hypothesis ................................................................................................ 73 Unit 5: Research Design...................................................................................................... 83 Unit 6: Types Of Research Design-1 ................................................................................... 99 Unit 7: Types Of Research Design - 2 ............................................................................... 114 Unit 8: Variables ............................................................................................................... 124 Unit 9: Scaling .................................................................................................................. 143 Unit 10: Measurement And Scaling................................................................................... 158 Unit 11: Data Collection.................................................................................................... 179 Unit 12: Sampling And Types Of Sampling ...................................................................... 212 Unit 13: Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 230 Unit 14: Parametric And Non-Parametric Tests ................................................................. 270 4

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH STRUCTURE 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Meaning of Research 1.2 Definition of Research 1.3 Motivation of Research 1.4 Information and competitive advantage 1.4.1 Goals 1.4.2 Decision Support 1.4.3 Business Intelligence 1.4.4 Strategy 1.4.5 Tactics 1.5 Hierarchy of Information-Based Decision Makers 1.6 Managers and Research 1.7. Types of Research 1.8 Research Approaches 1.8.1 Qualitative approach 1.8.2 Quantitative approach 1.9 Significance of Research 1.10 Research Methods versus Methodology 1.11 What is Good Research? 1.12 Summary 1.13 Keywords 1.14 Learning Activity 1.15 Unit End Questions 1.16 References 1.0LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: 5

 Describe nature of research  Identify the motivation for research  State the competitive advantage for research  Describe the significance of research  What is good research? 1.1MEANING OF RESEARCH Research refers to a search for knowledge. Research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as, “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”. The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. According to Robert Ross, “research is essentially an investigation, a recording and an analysis of evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge.” It can generally be defined as a systematic method of finding solutions to problems. A research need not lead to ideal solution, but it may give rise to new problems which may require further research. In other words, research is not an end to a problem since every research gives birth to a new question. It is carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of old ones. Business Research Business research refers to systematic collection and analysis of data with the purpose of finding answers to problems facing management. It can be carried out with the objective to explore, to describe or to diagnose a phenomenon. It involves establishing objectives and gathering relevant information to obtain the answer to a business issue and it can be conducted to answer a business-related question, such as: What is the target market of my product? Business research can also be used to solve a business-related problem, such as determining how to decrease the amount of excess inventory on hand. When deciding whether business research is to be conducted or not, the firm keeps in mind factors like the availability of data, time constraints and the value of the research information to the company. Adequate planning and information-gathering are essential to derive results for business. Social Research 6

Social research refers to research conducted by social scientists. It is the scientific investigation conducted in the field of social sciences and also in the behavioural sciences. Social research methods can generally vary along a quantitative/qualitative dimension. While various methods may sometimes be classified as quantitative or qualitative, most methods contain elements of both. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from census survey data derived from millions of individuals to the in-depth analysis of a single agents' social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The social science research is a systematic method of exploring, analysing and conceptualizing social life in order to expand, correct or verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the practice of an art. Educational Research Educational Research is that activity which is directed towards development of a science of behaviour in educational situations. The ultimate aim of this research is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by most effective methods. Educational research refers to a variety of methods, in which individuals evaluate different aspects of education including: “student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics”. Educational researchers have come to the consensus that, educational research must be conducted in a rigorous and systematic way although what this implies is often debated. There are a variety of disciplines which are each present to some degree in educational research. These include psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. The overlap in disciplines creates a broad range from which methodology can be drawn. The findings of educational research also need to be interpreted within the context in which they were discovered as they may not be applicable in every time or place. 1.2DEFINITION OF RESEARCH Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. According to Clifford woody, research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions collecting, organising and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions; to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “themanipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” 7

1.3 MOTIVATION OF RESEARCH What motivates individuals to conduct research? We are dealing with a topic of basic significance. One or more of the following reasons for conducting research may be the driving force behind the endeavour: 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits. 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiate’sresearch. 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. 4. Desire to be of service to society. 5. Desire to get respectability. However, this is not an entire list of the elements that influence people's decisions to participate in research investigations. People may be motivated (or compelled) to do research operations by a variety of other variables, including government directives, employment conditions, a desire to learn about new things, a need to understand causal linkages, societal thinking and awakening, and other similar forces. Let's talk about the managerial motivation aspects of the research: The goal must be clearly specified. The aim of the business research the problem that needs to be solved or the choice that needs to be made should be clearly stated and sharply described in words that are as unambiguous as they can be. In situations where the same person is both researcher and decision maker, having this information in paper is beneficial to both parties. The scope of the decision problem, its restrictions, and the precise meanings of any phrases and concepts relevant to the research should all be included in the statement of the choice problem. Those who read the study report and do not see this step completed properly may have reasonable concerns that the researcher does not have a thorough enough understanding of the problem to make a credible plan for attacking it. Detailed description of the research method Another researcher should be able to replicate the research if the procedures that were utilized are detailed in sufficient detail. This comprises the procedures for recruiting individuals, obtaining informed consent, selecting sampling methods and determining representativeness, as well as the procedures for gathering data. Unless strict confidentiality requirements are in place, research reports should be transparent about the sources of data and the methods by which they were gathered. If significant procedural details are left out of a research study, it becomes difficult or impossible to estimate its validity and reliability. This, in turn, causes readers to have less confidence in the study itself and in any recommendations that may result from the study, which is understandable. 8

The research design was meticulously prepared. The procedure for conducting the research, as well as the selection of a design from among competing options, should be properly stated and meticulously prepared in order to produce results that are as objective as feasible. When more trustworthy evidence is available from documentary sources or from direct observation, a survey of opinions or recollections should not be utilized to gather information. If feasible, make your bibliographic searches as extensive and complete as possible. Experiments should include adequate controls, which reduce the threat to internal validity while increasing the likelihood of external validity (generalizability). Direct observations should be made as soon as feasible following an incident to ensure that they are not lost. When selecting and documenting data, efforts should be made to minimize the influence of personal bias. The application of high ethical standards. Researchers frequently operate on their own and have a great deal of freedom in terms of creating and conducting projects. A research design that incorporates measures to prevent participants from suffering mental or physical harm, as well as one that places data integrity first, should be regarded as extremely valuable. Important moral concerns regarding the practice of responsible behaviour in society are reflected in ethical challenges in scientific study. Researchers usually find themselves in a delicate position where they must strike a balance between the rights of their subjects and the scientific dictates of their method of choice. When this occurs, they have a responsibility to protect the well-being of the participants in the studies, as well as the well-being of the organisations to which they belong, their clients, their colleagues, and their own well-being. It is critical to give careful thought to study scenarios in which there is a risk of physical or psychological injury, exploitation, invasion of privacy, and/or loss of dignity to participants. The need for further research must be evaluated against the possibility of these negative consequences. Generally speaking, you have the ability to redesign a research, although this is not always the case. This is a dilemma that the researcher should be prepared to face. The limitations are openly stated. Flaws in procedural design should be reported completely and honestly by the researcher, together with an estimate of their impact on the findings. There are only a few excellent research designs in the world. Some of the defects may have just a minor impact on the validity and trustworthiness of the data, while others may render the data completely invalid. A skilled researcher should be sensitive to the effects of inadequacies in the research design. It should be possible to estimate the influence of design defects on the data using the researcher's previous experience in data analysis. It is your responsibility as a decision-maker to examine the value of research for which no limits are disclosed. Adequate analysis to meet the needs of the decision maker. 9

The data should be thoroughly examined in order to expose its relevance, which is referred to as insights by managers. The methods of analysis that are employed must be appropriate. The amount to which this criterion is met is frequently a good indicator of the researcher's level of skill. For a rookie researcher, the most difficult aspect of research is conducting an adequate analysis of the data. The quality and dependability of the data should be thoroughly investigated. In order to assist the researcher in obtaining relevant conclusions, the data should be classified in a way that makes the results that led to those conclusions readily visible to the researcher. The appropriate descriptive and inferential approaches should be selected when using statistical methods, the likelihood of error should be evaluated when using statistical methods, and the statistical significance criteria should be implemented when using statistical methods. The findings are presented in a clear and understandable manner. The report itself contains some proof of the researcher's expertise and honesty, which may be verified. A researcher's use of language that is restrained, clear, and precise; assertions that are carefully formulated and hedged with appropriate caveats; and an evident effort to achieve maximum objectivity all contribute to a positive impression of the researcher in the minds of decision-makers. Exaggerations and superfluous language, as well as generalizations that outpace the statistical findings or other facts on which they are based, are likely to make a negative impression on the reader. Managers who are navigating the minefields of organisational decision-making will find such reports to be of little assistance. Information presented to decision makers should be comprehensive, properly interpreted, easily understood by the decision maker, and organized in such a way that the decision maker can quickly discover significant findings. Conclusions are supported by the evidence. Conclusions should be limited to those for which the data give a sufficient basis, unless otherwise stated. When conducting inductive research, researchers are frequently tempted to widen the base of induction by integrating personal experiences and their interpretations data that are not subject to the same controls as those used in the research. Another habit that should be avoided is the all-too-common practice of extracting conclusions from a study of a small population and applying them to a large population. Also possible is the temptation for researchers to rely too much on data acquired in an earlier research study and to apply that data to their new study's interpretation. Such behaviour is occasionally observed among research specialists who limit their clientele to companies in a specific industry or niche. These acts have the effect of decreasing the objectivity of the research and decreasing the confidence of readers in the findings. When drawing conclusions, good researchers always define the criteria under which they believe their findings are legitimate. The researcher's own personal experience is reflected. 10

It is reasonable to have greater faith in research if the researcher is well-versed in the field, has a solid reputation in the field, and is a person of integrity. If it were possible for the reader of a research report to obtain sufficient information about the researcher, this criterion might be one of the most useful for determining the level of confidence that should be placed in a piece of research and the value of any decision that should be made as a result of that research. As a result, the research report should include information about the researcher's educational and professional qualifications. In order to achieve organisational goals, good business research has inherent value only to the extent that it aids management in making better decisions to attain those goals. It is nice to have interesting knowledge about customers, employees, competitors, or the environment, but the information's value is diminished if it cannot be applied to a key choice. A study's usefulness should be questioned if it does not assist management in selecting more effective, more efficient, less dangerous, or more profitable choices than would otherwise be the case. Alternatively, management may be unable to undertake a suitable study due to a lack of resources (time, money, or expertise) or may be exposed to a low level of risk as a result of the option being considered. In these circumstances, it is reasonable to avoid conducting business research and incurring the accompanying time and financial costs. Ultimately, the contribution that business research contributes to the decision-making process and the bottom line provides sufficient justification for its existence. 1.4 INFORMATION AND COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE Managers have access to information that is not derived through business research, such as market data. In order to comprehend how information drives decisions relating to an organization's mission, goals, strategies, and tactics, it is necessary to grasp the relationship between business research and these other information sources—decision support systems and business intelligence. 1. Goals 2. Decision Support 3. Business Intelligence 4. Strategy 5. Tactics 1.4.1 Goals In contrast to Nabisco, a local bakery would have a different set of objectives, but both would likely have goals relating to sales (membership), market share (return on investment), profitability (profitability after taxes), customer acquisition (customer satisfaction, customer retention), employee productivity (or owner's equity), and so on—whether codified in a written plan or detailed only in an entrepreneurial plan. Managers rely on information derived from the decision support system, combined with information generated by business 11

intelligence on competitive and environmental activity, to assist them in making increasingly complex decisions about goals, strategies, and tactics as the organisation grows more complex. 1.4.2 Decision Support A requirement to complete one or more exchanges with prospective consumers, members, or constituents is the driving force behind every organisation. There are numerous elements of data generated by every exchange, no matter how we define it whether it's an exchange for a product or service, voting, attending a function, or making a charitable contribution as well as the strategic and tactical activities designed to bring it to a successful conclusion. A decision support system is comprised of a collection of data items that are arranged for retrieval and stored in a database (DSS). It has been able to disseminate this collected transactional data with an organization's decision makers across an intranet or an extranet thanks to improvements in computer technology over the previous two and a half decades. Today, smart managers have developed data management systems (DSSs), which allow data to be accessible in real time (as transactions are completed). Catalogue managers (for example, Lands' End, a casual clothing retailer) understand exactly what tactics are used to generate a transaction from a specific individual within their prospect and customer databases, as well as how profitable each customer is to the company and an estimate of that customer's lifetime value to the organisation. Managers who have real-time access to transactional data have a distinct advantage over their counterparts when it comes to strategic and tactical planning. 1.4.3 Business Intelligence Because no choice can be made in a vacuum, the decision maker must have a thorough understanding of the organization's environment. It is the goal of a business intelligence system (BIS) to provide a manager with up-to-the-minute information on current events and trends in the fields of technological innovation, economic development, political and legal affairs, demographic development, cultural development, social development, and, most importantly, competitive development. This type of information is compiled from a range of different resources. In many cases, data from a DSS or BIS will prompt the question, \"Should we conduct business research?\" As an example, in the MindWriter case, this could be data collected regarding laptop faults that need to be repaired; in the case of our restaurant, where the friendliness quotient is changing, this could be customer remarks collected by the wait staff. 1.4.4 Strategy The term \"strategic planning\" refers to the broad method that a company will take to attain its objectives. A restaurant had received complaints that the welcoming mood had shifted in a previous instance. Perhaps the shift in approach was the cause of this assessment of the situation. The restaurant may have made the decision to shift from an environment where 12

patrons were encouraged to linger over their meal (occupying a table for a long period of time while accruing incremental revenues with each additional course) to a new strategy of turning each table in a shorter time frame by changing food preparation and the menu. Typically, a company will employ more than one strategy at a given moment. In terms of training, one organisation may choose to train its data warehouse personnel primarily through classroom activities, whilst another may choose to train its data warehouse employees primarily through on-the-job training. Another strategy can define how an organisation conducts maintenance on its equipment—for example, whether it does rigorous periodic maintenance or whether it just performs repair when equipment fails. Earlier this year, Microsoft conducted a significant corporate restructure. Rather than measuring customer pleasure through sales and earnings, the company opted to connect compensation for its 600 managers to levels of customer satisfaction as evaluated by periodic customer satisfaction surveys. The BIS, in conjunction with business research, is frequently tasked with the discovery of possibilities and challenges that have the potential to impact strategic decisions. 1.4.5 Tactics Business research also has a substantial impact on the formulation of tactics, which are the particular, timed activities that are used to carry out a strategy. Business research can also be utilized to assist a manager in determining which of several possible methods is most likely to result in the effective implementation of the intended plan. The menu might have been updated (a marketing approach) to include entrées that could be prepared more swiftly (an operational tactic) and brought to a table more quickly in our previous example. It's possible that the manager also implemented a new training programme (human resources tactic) to implement a new zoned, table coverage structure (operations tactic), as well as a new sales- incentive programme (human resources tactic) that discouraged the wait staff from engaging in small talk with customers and rewarded teamwork and efficiency instead. All of the examples above exemplify the following objectives of business research: • To recognise and define opportunities and issues. • To analyse and evaluate information. • Defining, monitoring, and refining tactics is essential. • Defining, monitoring, and refining tactical options • To gain a better understanding of the various sectors of business administration. 1.5 HIERARCHY OF INFORMATION-BASED DECISION MAKERS Although not all organizations use business research to help make planning decisions, increasingly the successful ones do. Figure shows an emerging hierarchy of organizations in terms of their use of business research. 13

In the top tier, organizations see research as the fundamental first step in any venture. They go beyond the tried-and-true methodologies and use creative combinations of research techniques to gain deep insights to aid in their sophisticated decision making. Some even develop their own proprietary methodologies. These firms may partner with a small group of outside research suppliers that have the expertise to use innovative combinations of research methods to address management dilemmas. These visionary managers can be found in research firms, service firms, non-profit organizations, and product and service manufacturers and distributors. Minute Maid, the manufacturer that brings us fresh and frozen juice-based products, fosters decision making at this level. Its vice president of Consumer and Marketing Knowledge is a member of the firm’s highest strategic planning team. Implementation and activation of the research are the critical stages of decision makers in this tier. Design Forum, an architectural and graphic design firm specializing in retail design and positioning for such firms as Lexus, Dunkin’ Donuts, and McDonald’s, is another firm operating at this level; every recommendation to each client is based on data drawn from the use of extensive research. In the second tier of the hierarchy are those decision makers that rely periodically on research information. They usually turn to business research primarily when they perceive the risk of a particular strategy or tactic to be too great to proceed without it. They rely heavily on those methodologies that proved themselves in the last several decades of the 20th century surveys and focus groups often choosing the methodology before fully assessing its appropriateness to the dilemma at hand. This tier is occupied by many large, medium, and small organizations of all types. Some of the firms newly arrived to this tier are in transition from the base tier. They have realized that failing to collect information prior to decision making or failing to extract insight from information that has been collected in their DSS puts them at a distinct competitive disadvantage. 14

Figure 1.1 Hierarchy of Information-Based Decision Makers Finally, the base tier comprises those managers who primarily use instinct and intuition rather than research knowledge to facilitate their decisions. These firms may or may not have sophisticated DSSs or BISs. They believe themselves to be so close to customers and distribution partners, as well as to employees and other stakeholders, that they rarely need business research. When they do collect information, they use a limited amount of qualitative research, often in the form of an informal group discussion or small number of individual interviews, to confirm their ideas. Especially in the business-to-business arena, they often rely on feedback filtered by members of the sales force. Following guidelines for adequate sampling or other procedures of scientific inquiry is not fundamental to this group. Larger firms that occupy this tier are influenced as much by organizational culture as by resources. Many small companies find themselves in this tier not because of an unwillingness to use business research but based on a perception that any more formalized research is too expensive to employ and that their resources won’t accommodate this mode of decision making. The trends of the past two decades, especially the technology that has been driving research methodologies of data collection and dissemination, make it likely that managers who do not prepare to advance up the hierarchy will be at a severe competitive disadvantage. Some examples of where business collects its data. 15

1.6 MANAGERS AND RESEARCH Managers that are well-versed in research have a distinct advantage over their counterparts. However, as a manager, even if you are not involved in any big study, you will be responsible for understanding, anticipating, and controlling occurrences that are detrimental to the firm. For example, a newly produced product may not be catching on, or a financial investment may not be recouping its costs as quickly as planned. The causes and consequences of such distressing phenomena must be understood and explained. It will not be feasible to anticipate the future of that product or the prospects of that investment unless this is done, nor will it be possible to control potential catastrophic results. Managers will be better equipped to analyse, forecast, and influence their environment if they have a firm knowledge of research methodology. Some people think it is unnecessary to study research because they will be bringing in researchers to address problems rather than conducting the research themselves. This is a valid point of view, but it is not the only one. When one examines the ramifications of failing to do so, the reasons become evident. Modern companies are becoming increasingly complicated, and the unpredictable environment in which they operate has necessitated a permanent state of troubleshooting in the workplace. This is especially true for the management of organisational systems. It would be beneficial if managers were able to detect, identify, and deal with problems before they spiral out of control. Managers that are familiar with research and problem-solving procedures are better able to spot problem situations before they spiral out of hand. Despite the fact that minor issues can be resolved by the management, major issues would necessitate the engagement of independent researchers or consultants. It is possible for a manager who is well-versed in research to communicate effectively with them. Having a thorough understanding of research procedures, methodology, and data interpretation also assists managers in becoming discriminating recipients of research findings and determining whether or not the offered solutions are suitable for execution. When professional managers learn about research methods, they will become more discriminating when sifting through the content published in business journals, which is another reason why they need to know about research methods today. Some journal articles are more scientific and objective than others, and some are more subjective. There are differences even among scholarly publications in terms of their suitability for application or adaptation to specific organisations and settings as opposed to others. Depending on the sampling strategy, the sorts of organisations researched, and other characteristics described in the journal papers, this may be true or not true. Unless the manager is able to grasp the true meaning of the empirical study that has been published, she or he is likely to make mistakes when implementing some of the recommendations contained 16

in such publications. Managers can also successfully deal with their own challenges while saving a significant amount of money by analysing the outcomes of solid published research that has dealt with comparable situations in the past. Other reasons for professional managers to be aware about research and research methods in the business world include the following: 1. First, such understanding increases managers' sensitivity to the various variables working in a scenario and serves to remind them on a regular basis of the multicausality and multifinality of events, therefore avoiding unsuitable, simplistic concepts of one variable causing another. 2. Second, when managers comprehend the study findings on their firms that have been delivered to them by specialists, they will be better prepared to take intelligent, educated, and calculated risks that are associated with recognised probabilities of success or failure. Instead of being a jumble of confusing statistical information, research becomes a useful decision-making tool in this situation. 3. Third, because managers have an understanding of scientific findings, entrenched interests within or outside the business will be unable to prevail. For example, if managers are aware of the biases that might sneak into research and understand how data is collected and interpreted, an internal research group within the firm will not be able to distort information or manipulate the findings to their advantage. To give an example, an internal research team might conclude that a particular unit to which it is partial (for whatever reason) has demonstrated increased profits and, as a result, should be allocated more resources in order to purchase sophisticated equipment in order to further enhance its effectiveness. However, it is possible that the increased profit was the result of a one- time windfall phenomena caused by external environmental factors such as market conditions, which had no relationship whatsoever to the unit's operating efficiency at the time. As a result, being aware of the many methods by which data might be concealed can assist the management in making the best selection. 4. Fourth, having a working knowledge of research allows the manager to connect with and share essential information with the researcher or consultant who has been hired to assist with problem solutions. To summarize, having a thorough understanding of research and research methodology assists professional managers in the following ways: 1. Recognize and successfully resolve minor difficulties that arise in the workplace. 2. Understand how to distinguish between good and bad research. 3. Understand and be continually conscious of the numerous influences and consequences of the various aspects that are at play in a given circumstance. 4. When making decisions, take calculated risks, understanding full well the probability connected with the many possible outcomes. 17

5. Fifth, you must prevent potential vested interests from exerting their influence over a situation. 6. Improve your ability to communicate with and relate to paid researchers and consultants. 7. When making decisions, combine your personal experience with scientific understanding. 1.7. TYPES OF RESEARCH There are several types of research. Mentionable some basic types of research are as follows: 1) Descriptive Research 2) Analytical Research 3) Applied Research 4) Fundamental Research 5) Quantitative Research 6) Qualitative Research 7) Empirical Research Their descriptions are furnished below: Descriptive research: Surveys and fact-finding enquiries of varying kinds are included in descriptive research projects. The primary goal of descriptive research is to provide a detailed description of the current state of affairs. Among the most notable qualities of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has occurred or what is currently occurring. Figure 1.2 Types of Research 18

Analytical research: Analytical research is when the researcher uses facts or information that is already available and analyses it in order to create a critical evaluation of the subject under consideration. Applied research: Applied research is concerned with finding a solution to a problem that is currently confronting a society or an industrial/business entity. Applied research is defined as study that is directed toward specific conclusions in the context of a concrete social or business problem. A good example of applied research is study to uncover social, economic, or political trends that may have an impact on a certain institution, such as copy research, marketing research, or evaluation research, among other things. Fundamental research: Fundamental research is primarily focused with making broad generalizations and formulating a theory of some sort. Fundamental research can include investigations into some scientific phenomenon or investigations into pure mathematics, to name a couple of examples. Human behaviour similarity studies that are carried out with the goal of making generalizations about human behaviour are also examples of fundamental research. In addition, Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based on the quantification of a quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be represented in terms of a number of variables or parameters. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, which are phenomena that have to do with, or involve, quality or kind. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena this sort of research intended to uncover the underlying motivations and desires of the participants, and it did so through the use of a depth interview. It is especially vital in behavioural science, where the goal is to uncover the fundamental motivations that drive human behaviour, to do qualitative research. Conceptual research: Conceptual research is concerned with the investigation of abstract concepts or theories. In most cases, philosophers and thinkers use it to build new concepts or to reinterpret old concepts. Empirical research: Empirical research is based solely on experience or observation and is frequently conducted without respect for the larger system or theory. It is data-driven study, and the results reached may be verified through observation or experimentation, rather than through speculation. In 19

order to conduct such research, the researcher must first formulate a working hypothesis or make an educated guess as to the likely outcomes. 1.8. RESEARCH APPROACHES The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. APPROCHES OF RESEARCH QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH APPROACH Figure:1.3 Approaches of Research 1.8.1 Qualitative approach Qualitative research is written down. It's used to comprehend ideas, thoughts, and experiences. This type of research allows you to learn more about topics that aren't well- understood. The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub- classified into inferential, experimental and simulation approachesto research. The purpose of inferential approachto research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics. Experimental approachis characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables. 20

Simulation approachinvolves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.” Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future conditions. 1.8.2 Quantitative approach Numbers and graphs are used in quantitative research. It's used to put theories and assumptions to the test or confirm them. This type of study can be used to come up with generalizable facts about a subject. 1.9 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH “Inquiry is the source of all advancement. “Doubt is often preferable to overconfidence, because it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention,” according to a well-known Hudson Maxim, in the context of which the relevance of study may be readily seen. Increased amounts of research make it feasible to make progress. Research instils scientific and inductive reasoning, as well as the formation of logical habits of thought and organisational skills in its participants. Modern times have seen a significant expansion of the role played by research in a variety of sectors of applied economics, whether they are related to business or to the economy in general. Business and government are becoming increasingly complex, which has heightened interest in the application of research in the solution of operational difficulties. Research as an assistance to economic policy has risen in relevance in recent years, both for the government and the private sector. Research serves as the foundation for practically all of the government policies that affect our economic system. To give an example, the budgets of governments are based in part on an understanding of the needs and aspirations of the people, and in part on the availability of money to meet those requirements. The cost of necessities must be compared to the likelihood of revenue generation, and this is an area in which further research is required. With the help of research, we can come up with various policies and then study the repercussions of each of these policies. Although decision-making is not a component of research, research surely aids in the decision-making of policymakers. In addition, the government must devise strategies for dealing with all aspects of the country's existence, the majority of which will be linked 21

directly or indirectly to economic situations. The hardship of cultivators, the problems of large and small company and industry, working conditions, trade union activities, distribution issues, and even the size and composition of the defence services are all subjects that require further investigation and investigation. As a result, study is regarded vital in order to determine how best to allocate the nation's resources. Collection of information about the economic and social structure of a country is another area of government where research is required to be done effectively. This type of information provides insight into what is going on in the economy and what changes are taking place. Gathering this type of statistical information is by no means a regular task, and it includes dealing with a wide range of research issues. These days, practically all governments employ a big number of research technicians or experts to carry out this work on their behalf. As a result, in the framework of government, research as a tool for economic policy has three separate phases of operation, namely, research as a tool for economic policy formulation, research as a tool for economic policy implementation, and research as a tool for economic policy implementation. The research of economic structure is carried out by a continuous compilation of information. The diagnosis of current events, as well as the investigation of the forces that are driving them; and the prognosis, which is a forecast of what will happen in the future. 1.10 RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY Research methods and research methodology are two terms that are frequently used interchangeably and are meant to mean the same thing. They are not identical, and there are differences between them, according to strict definitions. If we look at the etymology of the word ‘methodology,' it refers to the combination of the words ‘method' and ‘ology.' The term 'ology' is often used to refer to a field of study or an area of knowledge. As a result, the study of methods is technically referred to as the methodology. Research Method When we say \"research method,\" we are simply referring to the procedures or tools that will be utilized to perform the research, regardless of whether the research is in the physical sciences, social sciences, or any other area. The methods include three broad groups.  The first group includes methods dealing with collection and description of data.  The second group consists of techniques used for establishing a statistical relationship between variables.  The third group deals with methods used to evaluate the reliability, validity, and accuracy of the results discerned by the data 22

An electron microscope or a radio telescope, for example, are tools that a physical scientist can use to gather data for his or her research. A social scientist or a manager, on the other hand, may employ an opinion poll or sample survey with a postal questionnaire or conduct a personal interview to gather information for his or her research. Among the data collection methods available to him are the telephone interview, group discussion, and case study approach. Nonetheless, they are essentially adopting the same technique, which is some form of observation, to gather data for research purposes. Nonetheless, the scientists in their respective disciplines use instruments and approaches that might vary greatly in terms of their nature and complexity. Research Methodology It is possible to investigate the numerous processes that are normally taken by a researcher in order to study his research problems methodically, as well as the logic, assumptions, reasoning, and rationale that underpins each of these steps. Whenever we adopt a research approach, we must provide a rationale for why we believe this method is superior to others. This is the question that the methodology is attempting to address. As a result, when we speak about research methodology, we are not just referring to research methodologies, but also to the reasoning and justification that underpins the method that we choose to employ in the context of our research endeavour. The approach of a researcher is intended to provide answers to questions such as:  What was it about this particular group of folks that made them stand out from the others?  What criteria were used to define the research problem?  A total of how many persons submitted the answers that were used to form the basis of the researcher's conclusions?  What was the purpose of using these specific procedures to analyse data?  What was the process through which the research hypothesis was developed, and why was it developed?  To assess whether or not to reject the stated hypothesis, what degree of evidence was considered relevant? Difference between research method and research methodology. For example, if the subject or topic into which you conduct research is a scientific subject or topic, then the research methods used will include experiments, tests, and the analysis and 23

comparison of many other results of different experiments performed previously on that topic or that subject, among others. When it comes to scientific topics, research methodology involves the techniques that are used to conduct the research, such as justifications for the use of specific research tools, advanced techniques that can be used in performing the experiments, and the like, while research methodology about the scientific topic is concerned with how to go about conducting the research. What you did was follow a method. It is a straightforward description. You could, for example, choose 100 rats and weigh them all at the same time. You fed some rats and didn't feed others. Your next visit was a week later, and you weighed them once more. The technique is the reason why you should expect a significant outcome and why you chose to utilize a specific way rather than one of many others. This would detail, in particular, how you have controlled for errors, such as why you fed the rats for a week rather than a month and why you felt 100 rats would be sufficient. According to the table below, the key differences between research methodologies and research methodology are as follows: Research Method Research Methodology Research method seeks to answer: what did the Research methodology seeks to answer: how did researcher use to complete his research. the researcher complete his study. Research methods are the techniques and tools by Methodology explains and justifies the which you research a subject or a topic. techniques and tools by which you may proceed with your research. Research methods involve the tasks of Research methodology involves the learning of conducting experiments, tests, surveys, and the various techniques to conduct research and like utilizing the knowledge and skills learned acquiring knowledge to perform tests, through research methodology experiments, surveys, and critical analysis The research method aims at finding solutions to Research methodology ensures the employment research problems. of the correct procedures to solve the problems. Research methods are the end of any scientific or Research methodology paves the way to choose non-scientific research. appropriate research methods and thus is the beginning of any research. 24

1.11 WHAT IS GOOD RESEARCH? Whatever the types of research works and studies that are conducted, one thing that is crucial to note is that they all come together on the basis of the scientific method that is used by them. The following requirements should be met by scientific research, according to most people: 1. The aim of the investigation should be clearly specified, and common terms should be employed. 2. The study technique should be detailed in such detail to allow another researcher to replicate the research for the purpose of future advancement while maintaining the continuity of what has previously been accomplished. 3. The procedure design of the research should be meticulously designed in order to get data that are as impartial and unbiased as possible. 4. The researcher should report any defects in the procedure design and evaluate the impact of these flaws on the findings in an open and honest manner. 5. The data should be analysed in a way that is sufficient to disclose its relevance, and the methods of analysis utilised should be appropriate. The authenticity and dependability of the data should be thoroughly examined before use. 6. Conclusions should be limited to those that are supported by the study data and to those for which the data give a sufficient basis for making the conclusion. 7. If the researcher has a lot of expertise, has a solid reputation in the field, and is a person of integrity, there is reason to have more faith in his or her findings. In other terms, the following are the characteristics of a successful research project: Good research is systematic: Research is structured in that specific steps must be completed in a specific sequence in line with a set of rules that have been established. The systematic nature of the research does not preclude the use of innovative thinking, but it does disallow the use of guesswork and intuition in reaching results. Good research is logical: Thus, research is led by logical thinking norms, and the logical processes of induction and deduction are extremely valuable in the process of carrying out scientific research. When we talk about induction, we are talking about reasoning from a component to the whole. When we talk about deduction, we are talking about reasoning from a premise to the conclusion that follows from that very premise. As a matter of fact, logical thinking increases the significance of study in the context of decision-making. Good research is empirical: 25

It suggests that the research is primarily concerned with one or more aspects of a real-world situation and that it deals with solid data that serves as a foundation for the external validity of research findings. Good research is replicable: This quality enables for the verification of research findings by replication of the study, resulting in the development of a sound basis for decision-making. Problems Encountered by Researchers in India Researchers in India, particularly those involved in empirical research, are confronted with a number of difficulties. The following are some of the most significant issues: 1. Researchers in our country face significant challenges due to a scarcity of scientific expertise in research technique. There is a scarcity of highly qualified researchers. Many researchers take a blind plunge into the unknown without first learning about research procedures. The majority of the work that is done in the name of research is not conducted in a methodologically sound manner. Many researchers, and even their guides, believe that research is primarily a cut and paste operation, with little or no insight provided into the materials gathered. The implication is self-evident, namely that research findings frequently do not correspond to or reflect reality or realities. As a result, a rigorous examination of research methodology is an important requirement. Researchers should be well-versed in all aspects of research methodology before embarking on a research endeavour. Therefore, efforts should be made to develop short- duration intensive courses to satisfy this need. 2. Between university research departments on one hand and corporate entities, government departments, and research institutions on the other hand, there is a lack of interaction between the two groups. Because of a lack of appropriate contacts, a significant amount of primary data of a non-confidential nature remains untouched/untreated by the researchers. An effort should be made to establish an acceptable working relationship among all parties involved in order to conduct more accurate and realistic research. Some methods for a university-industry interaction programme must be developed so that academics may acquire suggestions from practitioners about what needs to be investigated and practitioners can put the research that has been done by the academics to use. 3. The majority of business units in our country lack faith in the researchers' ability to use the information they provide them, and as a result, they are often hesitant to provide researchers with the information they require. According to commercial organisations in the country, the concept of secrecy is regarded as sacred to the point that it serves as an impenetrable barrier to researchers. As a result, it is necessary to instil confidence in the public that the information/data collected from a business unit will not be exploited. 26

4. Because there is a scarcity of information, researchers frequently conduct research studies that overlap with one another. As a result, there is duplication and resources are frittered away. An effective solution to this problem can be achieved through the proper preparation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and locations where research is currently being conducted. It is essential to pay close attention to the identification of research challenges in many disciplines of applied science that are of direct interest to industry. 5. There is no code of conduct for researchers, and conflicts between universities and across departments are fairly frequent in academia. In order to overcome this challenge, it is necessary to design a code of behaviour for researchers that can be observed and adhered to with sincerity. 6. Many researchers in our country are also confronted with the challenge of obtaining enough and timely secretarial aid, which may include computer assistance. Because of this, research investigations are delayed in their completion, which is unnecessary. All reasonable efforts should be made in this direction so that researchers have access to effective secretarial help, and that this assistance is delivered on time. To overcome this challenge, the University Grants Commission must act quickly and effectively. 7. Many libraries lack adequate administration and functioning, and researchers must spend a significant amount of time and energy locating books, journals, reports, and other relevant materials rather than locating useful content from them, which wastes valuable time and energy. 8. The problem of not being able to obtain timely copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports, and other government publications is also an issue for many of our libraries. This challenge is felt more acutely in libraries that are located in areas that are remote from Delhi and/or state capitals. As a result, efforts should be taken to ensure that all government publications are sent to our libraries on a regular and timely basis. 9. There is also the issue of timely availability of public data from the numerous government and non-government organisations that perform this function in our country. Additionally, researchers confront difficulties due to the fact that released data might range greatly from one source to another due to variances in coverage by the various organisations involved. 10. It is possible that problems with conceptualization, as well as problems with the data gathering procedure and other related issues, will arise at various periods. Steps for conducting Market Research Having a plan in place for dealing with a variety of situations that may happen during the study will save the researcher time and help to reduce difficulties. Market research survey software is used by today's successful businesses to perform thorough research under a unified platform and, as a result, produce actionable insights much more quickly and with fewer hassles. 27

1.12 SUMMARY  A research need not lead to ideal solution, but it may give rise to new problems which may require further research. In other words, research is not an end to a problem since every research gives birth to a new question. It is carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of old ones.  Business research refers to systematic collection and analysis of data with the purpose of finding answers to problems facing management. It can be carried out with the objective to explore, to describe or to diagnose a phenomenon  One or more of the following reasons for conducting research may be the driving force behind the endeavour:  Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.  Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiate’s research.  Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.  Desire to be of service to society.  Desire to get respectability.  Managers have access to information that is not derived through business research, such as market data.  Goals  Decision Support  Business Intelligence  Strategy  Tactics  Research methods and research methodology are two terms that are frequently used interchangeably and are meant to mean the same thing. They are not identical, and there are differences between them, according to strict definitions. 1.13 KEYWORDS  Research: Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions collecting, organising and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions; to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.  Business research: Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities and problems, generating and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and organizational performance. Business research is more than conducting surveys 28

 The scientific method: Business research is the way researchers go about using knowledge and evidence to reach objective conclusions about the real world. The scientific method is the same in social sciences, such as business, as in physical sciences, such as physics.  Relevance is the characteristics of data reflecting how pertinent these particular facts are to the situation at hand  Qualitative research: Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.  Quantitative research: Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic. 1.14 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. As area sales manager for a company manufacturing and marketing outboard engines, you have been assigned theresponsibility of conducting a research study to estimate the sales potential of your products in the domestic (U.S. or Canadian) market. Discuss key issues and concerns arising from the fact that you, the manager, are also the researcher ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 1.15 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Define Research. 2. What is the motivation of the research? 3. Identify the criteria for a good research. 4. What do you mean by design of the research project? 5. What is business research? Why should there be any question about the definition of research? Long Questions 1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process. 2. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times. 3. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology 4. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an experiment and a survey. 5. Elucidate the correlation of Managers and Research. 29

B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Social research refers to research conducted by ______ a. Social Scientist b. Social Worker c. Social writer d. Social performer 2. _______ refers to systematic collection and analysis of data with the purpose of finding answers to problems facing management a. Research b. Business Research c. Market Research d. Product Research 3. Abbreviate DSS a. Decision support system b. Decision support service c. Development support system d. Decision service system 4. _______ is to provide a detailed description of the current state of affairs. a. Analytical Research b. Descriptive Research c. Empirical Research d. Fundamental Research 5. _______is defined as study that is directed toward specific conclusions in the context of a concrete social or business problem. a. Descriptive Research b. Empirical Research c. Fundamental Research d. Applied Research Answers 1-a, 2-b, 3-a. 4-b, 5-d 30

1.16 REFERENCES References book  R1, Business Research Methods – Alan Bryman& Emma Bell, Oxford University Press.  R2, Research Methodology - C.R. Kothari  R3, Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, Levine Stephan, Krehbiel Berenson Textbook references  T1, SPSSExplained,ISBN:9780415274104,Publisher:TataMcgrawHill  T2, Sancheti&Kapoor,BusinessMathematics,SultanChand,NewDelhi 31

UNIT 2: RESEARCH PROCESS STRUCTURE 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Ethics in Research 2.1.1 Ethical treatment of Participants 2.1.2 Ethics and Sponsor 2.1.3 Researchers and Team Members 2.1.4 Resources for Ethical Awareness 2.2 Research and scientific method 2.3 The Language of Research 2.3.1 Concepts 2.3.2 Constructs 2.3.3 Definitions 2.3.4 Variables 2.3.5 Propositions and Hypotheses Theory 2.3.6 Models 2.4 The Research process 2.4.1 Clarifying the Research Question 2.4.2 Proposing Research 2.4.2.1 Resource Allocation and Budgets 2.4.2.2 Valuing Research Information 2.4.2.3 The Research Proposal 2.4.3 Designing the Research 2.4.4 Data Collection and Preparation 2.4.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation 2.4.6 Reporting the Results 2.5 Research Process Issues 2.5.1 The Favoured-Technique Syndrome 2.5.2 Company Database Strip-Mining 32

2.5.3 Un researchable Questions 2.5.4 Ill-Defined Management Problems 2.5.5 Politically Motivated Research 2.6 Summary 2.7 Keywords 2.8 Learning Activity 2.9 Unit End Questions 2.10 References 2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  What are the ethical practices that are to be followed in Research?  Explain about the Research Process.  What are the tips to be followed in the language of Research?  Discuss the issues in Research Process.  Explain about the research and the scientific method 2.1 ETHICS IN RESEARCH 2.1.1 Ethical treatment of participants Whenever a researcher has direct contact with a participant, he or she should share the study's benefits with them, taking care not to exaggerate or understate the importance of the benefits. When conducting an interview, an interviewer should begin by introducing himself or herself, followed by the name of the research organisation and a brief explanation of the aim and benefit of the research. This puts participants at ease, allows them to understand to whom they are speaking, and encourages them to answer questions honestly and candidly during the interview. 1. Explain study benefits. 2. Explain participant rights and protections. 3. Obtain informed consent. Benefits Whenever a researcher has direct contact with a participant, he or she should share the study's benefits with them, taking care not to exaggerate or understate the importance of the benefits. When conducting an interview, an interviewer should begin by introducing himself or herself, 33

followed by the name of the research organisation and a brief explanation of the aim and benefit of the research. This puts participants at ease, allows them to understand to whom they are speaking, and encourages them to answer questions honestly and candidly during the interview. Deception When participants are only told a portion of the truth, or when the truth is completely compromised, deception has occurred on their behalf. Some people believe that something like this should never happen. Others propose two reasons for deception: (1) To prevent participants from biassing the results of a survey or experiment before it takes place, and (2) To safeguard the confidentiality of a third party (e.g., the sponsor). It is not recommended to use deception in an attempt to increase response rates. Benefits derived from deception should be weighed against the hazards posed to those who participate in the scheme. When it is practicable, an experiment or interview should be altered in order to lessen the reliance on deception and other deceptive techniques. In addition, the rights and well-being of the participants must be effectively safeguarded and maintained. Informed Consent Obtaining informed consent from participants is simply a question of thoroughly disclosing the methods of the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed with the study, as explained in the next section. There are some circumstances in which a signed consent form is required. When working with minors, it is advisable for the researcher to have a parent or other legal representative sign a consent form on their behalf. Debriefing Participants Following the acquisition of data, debriefing entails a number of tasks, including: • A detailed explanation of any deceptions. • A description of the hypothesis, the goal, or the purpose of the investigation. • Results of the study are shared with participants once it has concluded. • Medical or psychological follow-up after the trial has concluded. First, the researcher informs the participants of the truth about any deception they have been subjected to, as well as the rationale for utilising deception in the context of the study's objectives. Whenever extreme reactions occur, it is important to give follow-up medical or psychiatric care to ensure that the volunteers do not suffer any long-term consequences as a result of the research. 34

Rights to Privacy The privacy regulations in the United States are taken very seriously by the government. All persons have the right to remain anonymous, and researchers must adhere to this principle. An illustration of the significance of the right to privacy is provided through the use of an example. In addition to being an employee of Monster Video, a huge video production company, the individual is also a student at a nearby institution. This student and his team members plan to conduct a study project in which they would compare the video-viewing habits of a sample of clients. The students begin their investigation by conducting telephone interviews. When the students have finished enquiring about people's viewing patterns and the frequency with which they rent versus buy films, they move on to the genres of films they see. The confidentiality guarantee is necessary not just to maintain the validity of the research but also to protect the participants' personal information. Consider the potential harm that could be produced by disclosing information about the watching habits of some persons in the above illustration. Without a doubt, maintaining the secrecy of survey responses is a vital facet of participants' right to privacy. Once a confidentiality assurance has been provided, it is critical that that confidentiality be maintained. There are numerous ways in which the researcher maintains the confidentiality of participants: • Obtaining nondisclosure agreements that have been signed. • Restricting access to participant identity information is another option.  It is only with written authorization that participant information can be revealed.  Limiting access to data instruments in which the participant's identity can be determined. • Withholding some data subsets. It is possible to use one's right to privacy by refusing to be interviewed or refusing to answer any questions that are asked during an interview. Potential participants have the right to privacy in their own houses, which includes the ability to refuse to allow researchers inside their homes and the right to not answer their phones. Aside from that, they have the freedom to conduct themselves privately in private areas without fear of being observed. Following are some of the actions taken by ethical researchers to address these rights: • Inform participants that they have the freedom to refuse to answer any questions or to take part in the study if they so want. • Obtain permission from participants before conducting interviews. • Arrange for in-person and telephone interviews. 35

• Keep the amount of time necessary for participation to a minimum. • Limit the scope of observation to solely public behaviour. Data Collection in Cyberspace Others say that the very activity that causes participants to object interference in their lives, invasion of their privacy, violation of their rights has motivated academics to explore issues online that have traditionally been the primary commodity of offline examination. Researchers have been drawn to cyberspace in pursuit of vast data sources because of the novelty and simplicity of connecting through computers. The expansion of cyberstudies, whether we refer to it as the \"wired society,\" \"digital life,\" \"computer-mediated communication,\" or \"cyberculture,\" leads us to rethink how we obtain data online, interact with participants, and communicate results. In a special ethics issue of Information Society,scholars involved in cyberspace research concluded: All participants agree that research in cyberspace provides no special dispensation to ignore ethical precepts. Researchers are obligated to protect human subjects and “do right” in electronic venues as in more conventional ones. Second, each participant recognizes that cyberspace poses complex ethical issues that may lack exact analogues in other types of inquiry. The ease of covert observation, the occasional blurry distinction between public and private venues, and the difficulty of obtaining the informed consent of subjects make cyber-research particularly vulnerable to ethical breaches by even the most scrupulous scholars. Third, all recognize that because research procedures or activities may be permissible or not precluded by law or policy, it does not follow that they are necessarily ethical or allowable. Fourth, all agree that the individual researcher has the ultimate responsibility for assuring that inquiry is not only done honestly but done with ethical integrity. Data mining is a subset of issues connected to cyberspace in scientific research. The information gathering devices that are available now were originally only available to spies, science fiction protagonists, and superheroes, among other people. Modern organisations use a variety of technological tools to track and understand their employees, customers, and suppliers, including smart cards, biometrics (fingerprinting, retinal scans, and facial recognition), electronic monitoring (closed-circuit television, digital camera monitoring), global surveillance, and genetic identification (DNA). These are just a few of the technological tools that are being used to track and understand employees, customers, and suppliers. The data mining of all of this information, which has been gathered from advanced 36

and not always obvious sources, opens the door to an infinite number of opportunities for study misuse. Data Mining Ethics Privacy and consent are the two most important ethical considerations while mining data in cyberspace. Using smart cards, the ubiquitous credit card–sized devices that store personal information on a computer chip that can be matched with data on purchases, employment, or other activity patterns, researchers can obtain an implicit agreement from participants for participant surveillance. Nonetheless, the benefits of card use may be sufficient to conceal from an uninformed user the fact that the card is being used for data mining. For example, The Kroger Co., one of the major supermarkets in the United States, offers significant savings to customers who enroll in its Kroger Plus Shopper's Card programme, which is currently in its third year. Smart cards or their equivalents are used by a variety of businesses, including retailers, wholesalers, medical and legal service providers, schools, government agencies, and resorts, to mention a few. The majority of the time, participants submit the personal information asked by enrolment procedures, albeit reluctantly at times. However, in other cases, enrolment is required, such as when smart cards are used with people convicted of crimes and sentenced to municipal or state correctional facilities, or when smart cards are used with those enrolled in specific educational programmes. In other cases, mandatory sharing of information is originally required for your own personal welfare and safety, such as when you submit yourself to a medical procedure and provide extensive information about medications you are taking or previous surgery you have had. However, in others, enrolment is for less critical but potentially enticing monetary benefits, such as free car care services when a smart card is provided with the keys to a new vehicle when a new vehicle is purchased. Overall, the company obtaining the knowledge obtains a significant advantage, including the possibility for improved understanding and competitive advantage. European Union General privacy regulations may not be sufficient to protect the unwary in the world of data collection that exists in the cyberspace sphere. The European Commission's Data Protection Directive was passed by the 15 member countries of the European Union (EU) to usher in the new millennium. Under the directive, commissioners have the authority to penalise firms and prohibit websites that fail to adhere to the high privacy criteria set forth in the directive. To be more specific, the directive restricts the sending of names, addresses, ethnicity, and other personal information to any nation that does not guarantee effective data protection under the data protection legislation. Direct mail lists, hotel and vacation reservations, medical and work data, and product orders are just a few examples of the types of information that can be collected. 9 Industry and 37

government institutions in the United States have resisted attempts to regulate data transmission. However, the EU maintains that all persons have the right to know what information about themselves is stored in a database and to remedy any errors that may exist. There are only a few companies in the United States because of the high cost, they would be willing to provide access; The difficulty people have in correcting erroneous credit reports, especially when the information is based on stolen personal identification or credit card activities, is a clear illustration of this reluctance. 2.1.2 Ethics and sponsor Additionally, when engaging with a research client or sponsor, it is important to keep ethical considerations in mind as well. The right to ethically performed research is guaranteed to sponsors who engage in product, market, people, financial, or other types of research. Confidentiality Some sponsors are interested in doing research without disclosing their identities. These individuals have a legal right to several sorts of confidentiality, including sponsor nondisclosure, purpose nondisclosure, and findings nondisclosure. Companies have the right to withdraw their support from a research project for which they have provided sponsorship. Sponsor nondisclosure is the term used to describe this form of confidentiality. Because of the sensitive nature of the management challenge or the research subject, sponsors may choose to outsource the completion of research projects to an outside consulting or research firm. The practise is commonly used when companies are researching new product ideas in order to prevent potential customers from being influenced by the company's current image or industry standing. It is also used when companies are contemplating entering new markets and do not want their plans to be known by the competition. As a result, it is the researcher's job to honour this request and design a plan that protects the identity of both the study sponsor and the research participants. The term \"purpose nondisclosure\" refers to the act of keeping the study's purpose or details secret. It is possible that a research sponsor is testing a new idea that has not yet been trademarked and does not want the competition to be aware of its intentions. It could be that the company is investigating employee complaints and does not want to arouse union activity, or that the sponsor is contemplating a new public stock offering in which advance disclosure would arouse the attention of authorities or result in the company losing thousands or millions of dollars in potential losses. In the end, even if a sponsor does not feel the need to conceal its identity or the study's aim, the vast majority of sponsors prefer that the research data and findings remain confidential, at least until a management decision is taken on the study. As a result, sponsors typically seek 38

and receive nondisclosure agreements between themselves or their researchers and any interested but unapproved third parties based on their findings. The Sponsor–Researcher Relationship A researcher should consider the sponsoring manager to be a client when working in an organisational environment. An effective sponsor–researcher relationship cannot be established unless both parties fulfil their respective responsibilities and a number of essential obstacles are removed. Managers have an obligation to clearly define their challenges and to offer researchers with appropriate background knowledge as well as access to company information gatekeepers in order for them to be successful. Managers are frequently more effective when they express their difficulties in terms of the decision options that they must make rather than the information that they wish to have. The management and the researcher will be able to jointly determine what information is required if this is done. Researchers are also subject to certain responsibilities. The expectation of their employers is that they will construct an innovative research design that will provide answers to critical business concerns. Researchers should not only offer data that has been studied in terms of the problem that has been described, but they should also point out any restrictions that may have affected the results. It is possible that a conflict will occur between what the decision maker wants and what the researcher can supply ethically or believes should be provided during the course of the process. The sponsor is looking for certainty and straightforward, unequivocal recommendations, whereas the researcher is frequently only able to provide probabilities and hedged interpretations. This tension is inherent in their separate responsibilities and cannot be resolved in a straightforward manner. However, if each individual is sensitive to the expectations, ethical limitations, and restrictions put on the other, a reasonable equilibrium can typically be achieved in most situations. The following are examples of sources of manager–researcher conflict: • There is a gap in knowledge between the researcher and the manager. • Job status, as well as internal and political coalitions to keep one's position. • Research that is either unnecessary or unsuitable. • The right to access to high-quality research. Knowledge Gap Some of the disagreements that have arisen between decision makers and researchers can be traced back to management's poor knowledge of research. Neither formal training in research technique nor knowledge of the many facets of research ethics are commonly found among 39

managers, who instead rely on their own research competence and experience. Furthermore, as more complex investigation approaches have been available as a result of the rapid expansion of research technology in recent years, a knowledge gap has developed between managers and research specialists. As a result, the research specialist forces the manager out of his or her comfort zone: the manager must now place his or her faith, and perhaps even his or her career, in the understanding and adherence to ethical standards of the research specialist. Job Status and Internal Coalitions Furthermore, research people are frequently perceived as a danger to the personal prestige of managers. Managers still consider management to be the domain of the \"intuitive artist,\" who is considered to be the best in the field. They may assume that a request for research aid suggests that they are incompetent to do the assignment themselves. These anxieties are frequently well-founded. It is the researcher's responsibility to put both old and new ideas to the test. The researcher appears to be a potential competitor to the insecure manager. In any firm, the researcher will unavoidably have to take into account the corporate culture and political conditions that evolve through time. It is the members' goal to preserve their niches and, in some cases, to gain dominance over their colleagues. People establish coalitions and engage in a variety of self-serving acts, both overt and covert, in order to further their own interests. As a result, research is halted, or the findings or objectives of the research are skewed to serve the interests of the individual who initiated the research. Allowing one's operations to be scrutinized with a critical eye may be a recipe for disaster if one's competitors for promotion, resources, or other kinds of organisational authority are watching one's back. Unneeded or Inappropriate Research Not every administrative choice necessitates the use of research. Business research has intrinsic value solely to the extent that it aids management in making better decisions about their operations. Even though it is pleasant to have interesting information about customers, staff, or competitors, its usefulness is limited if the information cannot be used to a vital decision. If a study does not assist management in selecting more efficient, less dangerous, or more profitable choices than would otherwise be the case, the researcher has an ethical obligation to call into question the study's effectiveness. Right to Quality of Research The right of the sponsor to high-quality research is a significant ethical factor for both the researcher and the sponsoring organisation. This right implies the following obligations: • Establishing a research plan that is appropriate for the study question. • Increasing the value of the sponsor in relation to the resources invested. 40

Making data-handling and data-reporting strategies available that are appropriate for the data being collected The researcher advises the sponsor on the appropriate approaches and interpretations throughout the process, from the proposal through the design to the data analysis and final reporting. When a sophisticated data-handling technology is mentioned, sponsors frequently request that it be implemented, even when it is inappropriate for the situation at hand. The researcher should provide guidance to the sponsor to ensure that this does not happen. Ideally, the researcher will offer the design that is most appropriate for the situation at hand. The researcher should refrain from proposing activities that are intended to enhance researcher earnings while simultaneously minimizing researcher effort at the expense of the sponsor. Finally, we have all heard the phrase, \"With statistics, you can tell the truth.\" It is the researcher's obligation to ensure that this does not happen in the future. The ethical researcher always adheres to the analytical rules and conditions that are necessary for accurate results. The ethical researcher provides findings in such a way that the possibility of forming incorrect inferences is minimized. In addition, the ethical researcher uses charts, graphs, and tables to present the data objectively, regardless of the sponsor's preferred conclusions for the study. The Sponsor's Code of Conduct Researchers may be approached by sponsors and asked to take part in unethical research practises on a rare occasion. Compliance on the part of the researcher would constitute a violation of ethical standards. Here are a few examples of things to avoid: • Breaching the confidentiality of participants. • Changing data or producing false data in order to achieve a desired result is called data manipulation. • Changing the way data is presented or interpreted. • Applying a skewed viewpoint to data interpretation. • Excluding sections of the data analysis and conclusions from the document. • Making recommendations that go beyond the limits of the information gathered. Let's take a look at the consequences of complying with different sorts of pressure. A sponsor may offer a promotion, future contracts, or a higher pay out for a current research contract; alternatively, the sponsor may threaten to fire the researcher or ruin the researcher's image if the researcher does not comply with the sponsor's demands. 41

2.1.3 Researchers and team members Additionally, when engaging with a research client or sponsor, it is important to keep ethical considerations in mind as well. The right to ethically performed research is guaranteed to sponsors who engage in product, market, people, financial, or other types of research. Confidentiality Some sponsors are interested in doing research without disclosing their identities. These individuals have a legal right to several sorts of confidentiality, including sponsor nondisclosure, purpose nondisclosure, and findings nondisclosure. Companies have the right to withdraw their support from a research project for which they have provided sponsorship. Sponsor nondisclosure is the term used to describe this form of confidentiality. Because of the sensitive nature of the management challenge or the research subject, sponsors may choose to outsource the completion of research projects to an outside consulting or research firm. The practise is commonly used when companies are researching new product ideas in order to prevent potential customers from being influenced by the company's current image or industry standing. It is also used when companies are contemplating entering new markets and do not want their plans to be known by the competition. As a result, it is the researcher's job to honour this request and design a plan that protects the identity of both the study sponsor and the research participants. The term \"purpose nondisclosure\" refers to the act of keeping the study's purpose or details secret. It is possible that a research sponsor is testing a new idea that has not yet been trademarked and does not want the competition to be aware of its intentions. It could be that the company is investigating employee complaints and does not want to arouse union activity, or that the sponsor is contemplating a new public stock offering in which advance disclosure would arouse the attention of authorities or result in the company losing thousands or millions of dollars in potential losses. In the end, even if a sponsor does not feel the need to conceal its identity or the study's aim, the vast majority of sponsors prefer that the research data and findings remain confidential, at least until a management decision is taken on the study. As a result, sponsors typically seek and receive nondisclosure agreements between themselves or their researchers and any interested but unapproved third parties based on their findings. The Sponsor–Researcher Relationship A researcher should consider the sponsoring manager to be a client when working in an organisational environment. An effective sponsor–researcher relationship cannot be established unless both parties fulfil their respective responsibilities, and a number of essential obstacles are removed. Managers have an obligation to clearly define their challenges and to offer researchers with appropriate background knowledge as well as access 42

to company information gatekeepers in order for them to be successful. Managers are frequently more effective when they express their difficulties in terms of the decision options that they must make rather than the information that they wish to have. The management and the researcher will be able to jointly determine what information is required if this is done. Researchers are also subject to certain responsibilities. The expectation of their employers is that they will construct an innovative research design that will provide answers to critical business concerns. Researchers should not only offer data that has been studied in terms of the problem that has been described, but they should also point out any restrictions that may have affected the results. It is possible that a conflict will occur between what the decision maker wants and what the researcher can supply ethically or believes should be provided during the course of the process. The sponsor is looking for certainty and straightforward, unequivocal recommendations, whereas the researcher is frequently only able to provide probabilities and hedged interpretations. This tension is inherent in their separate responsibilities and cannot be resolved in a straightforward manner. However, if each individual is sensitive to the expectations, ethical limitations, and restrictions put on the other, a reasonable equilibrium can typically be achieved in most situations. The following are examples of sources of manager–researcher conflict: • There is a gap in knowledge between the researcher and the manager. • Job status, as well as internal and political coalitions to keep one's position. • Research that is either unnecessary or unsuitable. • The right to access to high-quality research. Knowledge Gap Some of the disagreements that have arisen between decision makers and researchers can be traced back to management's poor knowledge of research. Neither formal training in research technique nor knowledge of the many facets of research ethics are commonly found among managers, who instead rely on their own research competence and experience. Furthermore, as more complex investigation approaches have been available as a result of the rapid expansion of research technology in recent years, a knowledge gap has developed between managers and research specialists. As a result, the research specialist forces the manager out of his or her comfort zone: the manager must now place his or her faith, and perhaps even his or her career, in the understanding and adherence to ethical standards of the research specialist. 43

Job Status and Internal Coalitions Furthermore, research people are frequently perceived as a danger to the personal prestige of managers. Managers still consider management to be the domain of the \"intuitive artist,\" who is considered to be the best in the field. They may assume that a request for research aid suggests that they are incompetent to do the assignment themselves. These anxieties are frequently well-founded. It is the researcher's responsibility to put both old and new ideas to the test. The researcher appears to be a potential competitor to the insecure manager. In any firm, the researcher will unavoidably have to take into account the corporate culture and political conditions that evolve through time. It is the members' goal to preserve their niches and, in some cases, to gain dominance over their colleagues. People establish coalitions and engage in a variety of self-serving acts, both overt and covert, in order to further their own interests. As a result, research is halted, or the findings or objectives of the research are skewed to serve the interests of the individual who initiated the research. Allowing one's operations to be scrutinized with a critical eye may be a recipe for disaster if one's competitors for promotion, resources, or other kinds of organisational authority are watching one's back. Unneeded or Inappropriate Research Not every administrative choice necessitates the use of research. Business research has intrinsic value solely to the extent that it aids management in making better decisions about their operations. Even though it is pleasant to have interesting information about customers, staff, or competitors, its usefulness is limited if the information cannot be used to a vital decision. If a study does not assist management in selecting more efficient, less dangerous, or more profitable choices than would otherwise be the case, the researcher has an ethical obligation to call into question the study's effectiveness. Right to Quality of Research The right of the sponsor to high-quality research is a significant ethical factor for both the researcher and the sponsoring organisation. This right implies the following obligations: • Establishing a research plan that is appropriate for the study question. • Increasing the value of the sponsor in relation to the resources invested. Making data-handling and data-reporting strategies available that are appropriate for the data being collected The researcher advises the sponsor on the appropriate approaches and interpretations throughout the process, from the proposal through the design to the data analysis and final reporting. When a sophisticated data-handling technology is mentioned, sponsors frequently request that it be implemented, even when it is inappropriate for the situation at hand. The 44

researcher should provide guidance to the sponsor to ensure that this does not happen. Ideally, the researcher will offer the design that is most appropriate for the situation at hand. The researcher should refrain from proposing activities that are intended to enhance researcher earnings while simultaneously minimising researcher effort at the expense of the sponsor. Finally, we have all heard the phrase, \"With statistics, you can tell the truth.\" It is the researcher's obligation to ensure that this does not happen in the future. The ethical researcher always adheres to the analytical rules and conditions that are necessary for accurate results. The ethical researcher provides findings in such a way that the possibility of forming incorrect inferences is minimised. In addition, the ethical researcher use charts, graphs, and tables to present the data objectively, regardless of the sponsor's preferred conclusions for the study. The Sponsor's Code of Conduct Researchers may be approached by sponsors and asked to take part in unethical research practises on a rare occasion. Compliance on the part of the researcher would constitute a violation of ethical standards. Here are a few examples of things to avoid: • Breaching the confidentiality of participants. • Changing data or producing false data in order to achieve a desired result is called data manipulation. • Changing the way data is presented or interpreted. • Applying a skewed viewpoint to data interpretation. • Excluding sections of the data analysis and conclusions from the document. • Making recommendations that go beyond the limits of the information gathered. Let's take a look at the consequences of complying with different sorts of pressure. A sponsor may offer a promotion, future contracts, or a higher payout for a current research contract; alternatively, the sponsor may threaten to fire the researcher or ruin the researcher's image if the researcher does not comply with the sponsor's demands. 2.1.4 Resources for ethical awareness There is reason to be optimistic about the advancement of ethical awareness. More than a third of Fortune 500 businesses now have ethics officers, according to the Center for Business Ethics at Bentley College. This represents a significant increase from the previous year. Ethics programmes are now offered by nearly 90 percent of business schools, up from a few just a few years ago. The Loyola Marymount University Center for Ethics and Business provides an online forum for addressing problems relating to the necessity, difficulty, costs, and benefits of conducting business responsibly. The Center for Ethics and Business is a 45

collaborative effort between faculty and students. Its website provides a list of connections to resources on business and research ethics. 2.2 RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD Good business research is based on sound reasoning and is therefore more effective. The thinking habits of competent researchers and astute managers are the same: finding correct premises, testing connections between their facts and assumptions, and making claims based on sufficient evidence are all practises that reflect sound reasoning. A systematic approach to reasoning can be taken when combining inductive and deductive reasoning, observation, and hypothesis testing. Throughout this chapter, we will demonstrate how this works as well as why careful reasoning is required for the production of scientific results. If the scientific mind is represented by the tools of thinking, then the scientific attitude is represented by the spirit. An attitude of scientific curiosity stimulates the creative impulse that makes discovery possible. Crick, Watson, and Pauling (who developed DNA structure's foundations), among others, are profiled in this book as they tell their stories of imagination, intuition, curiosity, suspicion, anguish, a burning desire to know and self-doubt about their discoveries during the twentieth century. These essential characteristics of a good business researcher must also be present as well. It is necessary for each to use their imagination during the discovery process, whether it is capturing the most important aspect of the problem or selecting a technique that reveals the phenomenon in its most natural state. Curiosity manifests itself in a variety of ways, and it is what drives the ongoing effort to comprehend relationships. Consider, for example, the Hawthorne studies, which discovered a relationship between the seemingly unrelated entities of productivity and the amount of light available in the office environment. Exemplars in organisational studies such as Weber, Taylor, Fayol, Gulick, Mayo, Maslow, McGregor, Argyris, Simon, Likert, Katz, and Kahn (among others) have all typified the curiosity to ask questions combined with the passion not to give up and a discomfort with existing answers, among other characteristics. From applied researchers who address the practical needs of managers to academics who are fascinated by the construction of grand theories, the attitude of science is the spirit of discovery that allows for new discoveries to be made. Our approach to problem solving is guided by the scientific method, which is commonly used in business research. The following are the fundamental principles of the scientific method:  Observation of phenomena in their natural environment.  Variables, methods, and procedures that are clearly defined  Hypotheses that can be empirically tested  The capability of ruling out competing hypotheses. 46

 The use of statistical rather than linguistic evidence to support conclusions.  Self-correction is a process that occurs automatically. The term empirical is included in this list because it is important. Experimental testing, also known as empiricism, is defined as “observations and propositions based on sensory experience and/or derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic, including mathematics and statistics.” Empiricism is defined as “observations and propositions based on sensory experience and/or derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic, including mathematics and statistics.” 10 Researchers who employ this method attempt to describe, explain, and make predictions by relying on information gathered through observation and experimentation. For the most part, this book is concerned with empiricism—the design of procedures to gather factual information about hypothesised relationships that can be used to determine whether a particular understanding of a problem and its possible solution is correct. As a puzzle-solving activity, the scientific method, and scientific inquiry in general, are described in popular culture. Puzzles, in the eyes of the researcher, are solvable problems that can be clarified or resolved through the use of reasoning processes. Observable events can be analysed in several ways, and the steps that follow represent one approach to determining the validity of conclusions about them. Business researchers who draw their conclusions from empirical data will find them to be particularly useful in this context. The researcher explains: 1. Comes across something that piques their interest, raises a question, creates a barrier, raises suspicion, or creates an obstacle. 2. Deliberately attempts to define the problem by asking questions, considering existing knowledge, gathering facts, and progressing from an emotional to an intellectual confrontation with the issue at hand. 3. Develops a hypothesis, or a plausible explanation, to explain a set of facts that are believed to be logically related to the problem at hand 4. Determines the outcomes or consequences of the hypothesis—makes an attempt to determine what will happen if the results are in the opposite direction of what was predicted, or if the results confirm the expectations. 5. Develops a number of competing hypotheses. 6. Constructs and executes a critical empirical test with a variety of possible outcomes, each of which excludes one or more hypotheses selectively. 7. Seventh, draws a conclusion (an inductive inference) based on the hypothesis' acceptance or rejection. 8. Incorporate the new information into the original problem, modifying it as necessary based on the strength of the evidence. 47

Clearly, reasoning is critical to much of a researcher's success, including gathering facts that are consistent with the problem, proposing and eliminating competing hypotheses, deducing outcomes, developing critical empirical tests, and reaching a conclusion about the problem. Induction Inductive argument is vastly different from deductive argument. Induction does not have the same strong relationship between reasons and conclusions as deductive reasoning. In induction, you draw a conclusion from a set of facts or pieces of evidence that are specific to the situation. The conclusion provides an explanation for the facts, and the facts support the conclusion. Consider the following scenario: your company spends $1 million on a regional promotional campaign that results in no increase in sales. This is a proven fact: neither during nor after the promotional campaign, sales did not increase. When faced with such circumstances, we must ask ourselves, \"Why didn't sales increase?\" One possible response to this question is that the promotional campaign was poorly executed, which is a reasonable conclusion. As a result, we know from past experience that regional sales should increase during a promotional event. This conclusion serves as an induction. In addition, we have learned from past experience that if a promotion is poorly executed, sales will not rise as expected. Induction, on the other hand, is characterized by the fact that the conclusion is merely a hypothesis. It is one possible explanation, but there are others that are equally plausible in light of the facts. Each of the following hypotheses, for example, could explain why sales did not increase in the following ways: • Regional retailers did not have enough inventory to meet customer demand during the promotional period, and a strike by the employees of our trucking company prevented stock from being delivered in time for the promotion to be effective. • A category-five hurricane shut down all of our retail locations in the region for the duration of the promotion, which lasted ten days. Here, we can see the fundamental nature of inductive reasoning at its most basic. Because the inductive conclusion goes beyond the evidence presented, it is possible that other conclusions can explain the fact of no sales increase, despite the fact that one conclusion explains the fact. Some argue that none of the conclusions we advanced adequately explains why sales have failed to increase over the past year. Consider the situation of Tracy Nelson, a salesperson at the Square Box Company, as an additional illustration of this point. Tracy has one of the worst sales records of anyone at the organisation. Because of her unsatisfactory performance, we are compelled to ask ourselves, \"Why is she performing so poorly?\" Our understanding of Tracy's sales practises, the nature of box selling, and the market allows us to conclude (hypothesis) that her problem is that she makes too few sales calls per day to establish a solid sales record. On the basis of the 48

evidence that we have, we might come up with additional hypotheses. The following hypotheses are among those being considered: In comparison to other territories, Tracy's territory has a lower market potential, and Tracy's sales-generating skills are so underdeveloped that she is unable to close sales effectively. There are some people who simply cannot sell boxes; Tracy is one of those people. Tracy does not have the authority to lower prices, and her territory has been the scene of intense price-cutting by competitive manufacturers, causing her to lose many sales to competitors. Each of the hypotheses listed above is an induction that we might make based on the evidence of Tracy's poor sales record, as well as some assumptions or beliefs we have about her and the selling of boxes in general. Even though all of them have a chance of being correct, we would put more faith in some than others. All of them require additional confirmation before we can place our trust in them. Additional evidence is required for confirmation. The task of research is primarily to discover new information. 1. Determine the nature of the evidence needed to confirm or reject hypotheses and 2. Design methods by which to discover and measure this other evidence. Combining Induction and Deduction In research reasoning, induction and deduction are used in conjunction with one another. Dewey refers to this as the \"double movement of reflective thought\" in his description of the process. Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask, \"Why is this so?\" or \"How did this happen?\" In response to this question, we offer a rudimentary explanation (hypothesis). Whether a hypothesis is plausible depends on whether or not it adequately explains the event or condition (fact) that provoked the question. Deduction is the process by which we determine whether or not a hypothesis is capable of explaining a given fact or circumstance. 1. You advertise a product, but sales do not increase as a result. (First and most important fact) 2. You inquire as to the reason for the lack of an increase in sales. (Induction) 3. In order to answer the question, you infer a conclusion (hypothesis) from the evidence: The promotion was poorly executed. (Hypothesis) 4. You use this hypothesis to draw the conclusion (deduce) that sales will not increase as a result of a badly executed promotion. You are well aware from past experience that ineffective marketing does not result in increased sales. (Deduction 1) One of the lessons learned from this example, which is an exercise in circular reasoning, is that one must be able to deduce an initiating fact from a hypothesis advanced to explain an initiating fact. Figure 2.1 also depicts a second critical point that must be considered. To put a hypothesis to the test, one must be able to deduce other facts from it that can then be investigated further. This is exactly what scientific investigation is all about. After we have 49

deduced other specific facts or events from the hypothesis, we must collect information to determine whether or not the deductions are correct. As an illustration, consider the following: 5. We deduce that a well-executed promotion will result in increased sales. (Deduction ) 6. We run an effective promotion, and sales increase. When applied to Tracy Nelson's problem, how would the double movement of reflective thought function? Figure 2.2 depicts a flowchart of the procedure. Tracy is a slacker, according to the first observation (fact 1), which leads to hypothesis 1. From the hypothesis, we can deduce a number of additional facts. These are denoted by the numbers fact 2 and fact 3We conduct research to determine whether or not facts 2 and 3 are correct. If they are discovered to be correct, they will serve to confirm our hypothesis. As soon as they are discovered to be incorrect, our hypothesis is disproved, and we must look for an alternative explanation. For the majority of research projects, the process may be more complicated than the examples provided. Example: We frequently develop multiple hypotheses in order to provide an explanation for the problem at hand. After that, we design a study to test all of the hypotheses at the same time. Not only is this more efficient, but it is also an effective method of reducing the researcher's attachment to (and potential bias against) any given hypothesis (and vice versa). Figure 2.1 Why sales didn’t increase? 50