CU-MA English-SEM III-Specialization I-Postcolonial Theory

MASTER OF ARTS ENGLISH SEMESTER-III SPECIALIZATION: IPOSTCOLONIAL THEORY MAE-616

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Bawa Pro Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director – IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director – CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Coordinator – Dr. Rupali Arora Coordinator – Dr. Simran Jewandah Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Coordinator – Dr. Raju Kumar Coordinator – Dr. Manisha Malhotra Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Coordinator – Dr. Aman Jindal Coordinator – Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel &TourismManagement) Coordinator – Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Coordinator – Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Coordinator – Dr. Ashita Chadha Coordinator – Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) R. M. Bhagat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Executive Director – Sciences Registrar Prof. (Dr.) Manaswini Acharya Prof. (Dr.) Gurpreet Singh Executive Director – Liberal Arts Director – IDOL © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: TeamLease EdtechLimited www.teamleaseedtech.com CONTACT NO:01133002345 For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY 2 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM) Institute of Distance and Online Learning

First Published in 2021 All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from Chandigarh University. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this book may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This book is meant for educational and learning purpose. The authors of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event, Authors has/ have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. 3 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENT Unit 1: Introduction To Postcolonial Theory ......................................................................... 5 Unit 2: The Empire Writes Back – A Compilation Of Significant Literatures Relating To The Post-Colonial Period ........................................................................................................... 44 Unit 3: Ashcroft, Bill, Et Al., “Rethinking The Post-Colonial: Post-Colonialism In The Twenty First Century” In The Empire Writes Back: Theory And Practice In Post-Colonial Literatures........................................................................................................................... 70 Unit 4: Ernest Renan, ‘What Is A Nation?’ In Homi K. Bhabha, Ed. In Nation And Narration ........................................................................................................................................... 94 Unit 5: Literary Terms: Colonialism, Post Colonialism, Diaspora, Hybridity, Hegemony, Ideology, Orientalism, Other, Race, Subaltern, Nation/Nation-State.................................. 115 Unit 6: ‘Pitfalls Of National Consciousness’ And ‘On National Culture’ From The Wrteched Of The Earth ..................................................................................................................... 159 Unit 7: Gayatri Spivak: Can The Subalteran Speak? .......................................................... 177 Unit 8: Introducing Homi Bhabha: Concepts Of Ambivalence And Hybridity ................... 194 Unit 9: Locations Of Culture: The Commitment To Theory’ From Location Of Culture.... 226 Unit 10: ‘Stereotype Discrimination And The Discourse Of Colonialism’ And ‘The Ambivalence Of Colonial Discourse’ From Location Of Culture....................................... 251 4 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO POSTCOLONIAL THEORY Structure 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 After Colonialism 1.3 Post-Colonialism and Post-Colonial Theory 1.4 Postcolonial Literatures 1.5 Summary 1.6 Keywords 1.7 Learning Activity 1.8 Unit End Questions 1.9 References 1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, student will be able to:  Explain the basic concepts connected to postcolonial texts and theory.  Describe the history of postcolonial thought.  Identify various themes in postcolonial literature. 1.1 INTRODUCTION It can be said that more than three quarters of the world has been influenced directly or indirectly by the process of colonisation. The ideas of war and invasions are not new to the history of humankind. Colonialization occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it. The period of recent colonialism began around the 1500s, and Europe emerged as the colonisers of large regions across the globe around the 20th century. What started as trade slowly began to result into political annexation and settlement. It also led to the forceful acceptance of cultural values and languages. Hence, colonisation, as a concept, has a close connection to the concept of imperialism. Imperialism 5 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

refers to the policy of utilising influence and power for subduing another country and its people. Colonisation justified these deeds by asserting the necessity of civilising the ‘barbarians and savages’, and ‘enlightening’ them with Western wisdom. But often, violent methods were used to suppress the so-called uncivilised nations. The colonisers, however, tended to justify their actions by suggesting that they only had the best interests of the subdued countries in mind.Regardless, even centuries-old imperial power could not handle the resistance from the colonies. This resulted in several nations gaining independence by the mid- and late-20th century. As per Robert J. C. Young, imperialism is functional as a state-operated policy, since it has the backing of excessive power that controls everything within and without, local boundaries. Analysts of imperialism view it as a concept that owes its existence to exploitation, partnership, and acquisition. Analysts of colonialism denote it as a practice. This practice enables colonial masters to keep the colonies bound to their rule under the guise of encouraging economic advantages. It is why the concept of colonialism should be explored in connection with imperialism and capitalism. After all, this was the first chapter of commercial ventures that Western nations had been practicing during the 15th and 16th centuries. It was also the time of the European colonies in power, as well as the importance given to voyages of discovery. Travellers, such as Amerigo Vespuchi and Christopher Columbus used the excuse of their travels to garner large amounts of wealth to fulfil the objectives and goals of colonialism. In turn, natural resources existing in the colonies underwent exploitation. Even the disenfranchised populations surviving in these colonies suffered exploitation. John McLeod provides the real picture in his book, Beginning Post Colonialism. It suggests that colonialism was a lucrative practice since it brought in tremendous material wealth to the Western countries via exploitation of several subdued nations. The rich persecuted the poor, only for economic gains. Thus, colonialism bonded well with capitalism, each offering the other, good support. The slave trade over Atlantic waters only served to help colonialism to flourish even more. Millions of captured Africans became the slaves of American and European households. They became indentured labourers. As for the Asians, many of them made their way to the Caribbean Islands. The outcome was migration. The natives in the Caribbean Islands, North America, etc., found themselves displaced, thanks to large-scale advent of immigrants. 1.2 AFTER COLONIALISM By the time the world made an entry into the 20th century, the British Kingdom had stretched to cover vast areas of the Caribbean, Africa, Canada, Asia, and Australia. However, by the 6 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

end of the century, the concept of colonialism no longer held much importance. In fact, decolonisation flourished. Europeans, specifically the British, had ventured into areas beyond the boundaries of Europe. They had benefitted both, geographically and demographically. Colonisation began with the seizure of native terrain. After the taking over of land, there would be the conquering of the natives. Finally, there would be disenfranchising of the people residing on those lands. As a result, colonialism tended to transform the original look of the place via reorganisation and restructuring of existing environments. Even people’s personalities had to undergo changes. Thus, colonialization showed up in diverse forms, and created varying effects across the globe. According to Frantz Fanon, the author of The Wretched of the Earth, suggested that the world was being split up into compartments. The Martinican intellectual even stated that the world was being halved, wherein a different species occupied each half. Due to the divisions of native territories, the impact of colonialism came clearly to the fore. It became highly evident that wherever they came from, including Europe, colonial masters exhibited a lack of humanity and refused to award the original settlers any kind of rights. The natives retaliated by considering these foreigners as ‘Other’. Those, who travelled to foreign shores in order to establish colonies there, used machines and guns to subdue the natives. True, they succeeded in transplanting themselves at these locations. Regardless, the original settlers refused to view them as anything, but foreigners. The colonisers did not become the governing class via ownership of factories/estates, or by possessing healthy bank balances. Instead, they became so by appearing as travellers from other shores. Therefore, the original inhabitants did not take to them, but treated the governing class as the others. No other region has suffered such devastating exploitation, marginalisation, and oppression as the Caribbean has. The authors of The Empire Writes Back stress heavily on this aspect. As per Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin, the imperial European colonialists made sure they would combine the worst practices of colonialism from across the globe and display it in the Caribbean region. Ever since Columbus discovered Hispaniola in 1492, the Caribbean region has suffered 550 years of dislocation and displacement. The torture continued right into the 1960s. Thus, colonialism might be observed as the historical showcase of imperialism. Elleke Boehmer, the author of Colonial and Post-colonial Literature, has given a splendid definition of colonialism, which is highly relevant to the context. She states that colonialism is settling down onto alien territory, exploiting or developing the existing resources there, and striving to take control over the indigenous inhabitants of those captured lands. A distinct difference showed up during colonisation. The colonisers considered self as civilised, while the colonised were given the tag of ‘barbaric’. The colonisers were learned, rational, cultured, and sensible. In contrast, the colonised were scoffed at as ignorant, irrational, uncultured, and insensible. The European colonial masters desired to have greater 7 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

power, such that they appeared different from the colonised at all times. The idea was to create a group of people, who would not mind catering to the colonisers’ needs, and fulfilling their requirements. They knew that unless the natives exerted themselves, the concept of colonialism would fail. Only their indigenous knowledge, energies, and skills could help colonies to survive. Evidence of what the colonisers wanted to do, was expressed succinctly by Thomas Macaulay, the British intellectual and politician, while the British were ruling India. According to Ashcroft et al.’s book, Macaulay had recommended that the British create a class of Indians, who would act as suitable interpreters between the colonial masters and the millions that they controlled. This class of Indians would be native in colour and in blood, but English in intellect, opinions, taste, and morals. This statement suffices to convey the vast extent to which transformation of identities occurred during colonialism. There was equal growth of colonialists and the colonised. However, people across the globe began to resist British colonialism, later on. Some of the rebels were the natives, whose lands the British had captured. Others belonged to European communities that had relocated overseas and had no desire to grant more power to the imperial ruler in their respective motherlands. Therefore, decolonisation took over. The countries suffering colonisation began to demand their rights. They wished to oversee their own affairs without foreign help. Decolonisation refers to the process, where colonial power reveals itself in all forms, and the natives begin dismantling these forms. Even those aspects of the cultural and institutional forces that had remained hidden, had to undergo dismantling. These forces had sustained colonialism, and if allowed to remain after a nation had achieved political independence, would only cause further harm. Several colonised locations across the globe adopted a specific method of resistance, initially. They utilised institutions or terms that were actually an integral part of the colonising culture. It was because the early nationalists had been led to believe that they were potential heirs to Europe’s cultural models and political systems. The method of resistance came into display in settler colonies, wherein the elite (White populations) were the direct products of colonialism. The method also came into display in non-settler colonies too, wherein aliens had occupied the lands forcibly. As mentioned before, Macaulay had proposed the creation of a class of brown people, who respected the White/European culture more than they did their own. This was in alignment with his 1835 Minute on Indian Education. His infamous locus classicus was evidence of how the European colonists practiced hegemonic control in India, and other parts of the world, including the West Indies and Africa. Several of the suppressed people announced themselves as nationalists, during the 19th and the early 20th centuries. They exhibited a 8 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

reluctance to adopt the cultural practices initiated by their colonial masters. Instead, they exhibited open rejection of them. Therefore, they became renowned as modernisers. Historians refer to this action as ‘broker the age’, wherein the suppressed rebelled at both, cultural and political dominance. In other words, the engagement of the nationalists with the imperial powers, was for gaining independence from colonialism. As a result, they expressed certain attitudes and engaged in specific practices, which they believed to represent that of a civilised and modern state. These attitudes and practices reflected the social and cultural values that had been in evidence during the long years of colonial rule. Therefore, although the nationalists acquired political independence, they could not completely free themselves from keeping colonist values. Even after gaining independence, the hitherto suppressed nations retained some part of the colonial models. They were unable to gain wholesale freedom from the colonial models with regard to culture, economics, and politics. North America came into being in 1776, separating itself from the British Empire. Around 13 colonies that had been at war with Great Britain, set up themselves as independent states. Soon after that, the dominions emerged. It was towards the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. The dominions (hitherto controlled by the British empire) included the settler countries of South Africa, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. They desired to govern themselves and demanded political autonomy. Thus, these dominions, along with Ireland, finally gained complete government control. This was followed by a third period of decolonisation at the end of World War II. Colonies in the Caribbean Islands, Asia, and other parts of Africa began to rebel. Anti-colonial nationalism became the talk of the day, as these colonies engaged in military struggles with their colonial masters. The nations of India and Pakistan became free in 1947. Sri Lanka followed them in 1948. Ghana became independent in 1957, and Nigeria, in 1960. Later on, Trinidad and Tobago, as well as Jamaica (Caribbean islands) became free from colonial rule. Thus, the 20th century was witness to large-scale decolonisation across the globe. The British empire began to lose its importance. There were several reasons for the advent of decolonisation. For one thing, nationalist movements caught on like fire, across the globe. They engaged in widespread campaigns, protesting against the colonial authority initiated by the British empire. Another reason for the decline of the empire’s position as the most powerful economy in the world, was World War II. Both, the USA and the U.S.S.R strove to exhibit their military strengths to the rest of the world. Therefore, post-World War II, these two nations became the superpowers of the world. Although other colonies gained independence, these two nations continued to dominate the cultural and historical scenarios during the 20th century too. However, the exploiters and oppressors from Europe strove to counter decolonisation via newer methods. They desired to enhance their ambitions and fortunes, even without resorting to creating colonies. In contemporary times, colonialism has taken a rebirth in novel ways. The evidence 9 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

is there in economic and political scenarios across the globe. For instance, the continent of Africa continues to remain backward, as it struggles with poverty, political coups and unrest (West Africa), spread of disease, etc. As for the rest of the world, it strives to survive in an environment of rapidly spreading liberalisation and globalisation. In turn, economic inequalities continue to persist amongst nations. The militaristic style of conducting war on global terrorists also takes a toll on a nation’s political and economic strengths. Earlier, the process of colonisation was more cultural in nature, albeit subtle in action. However, in the long run, it managed to hurt the psyche of the suppressed populations, to a great extent. Culture restricts its existence to anthropological, social, and historical matters of the world. According to Edward Said, culture could become responsible for encouraging, normalising, and legitimising European colonialism. His words carry weight, for he has been one of the foremost supporters of the theory connecting to post-colonialism. He is the author of Culture and Imperialism. The book suggests that colonialism or imperialism cannot be regarded as simple strategies for acquiring and accumulating. Instead, both of them receive support, and possibly encouragement, from noteworthy ideological formations. These formations include countries/territories, wherein the populations seem to request domination, albeit silently. It could also be that these populations need varied forms of knowledge, even if they come through dominating educators. It is why the imperial rulers of the 19th century have filled their dictionaries with specific concepts and words. A few examples are dependency, inferior, authority, subject races, expansion, subordinate peoples, etc. The concept of culture encompassed paintings, literature, music, and art. They were representations of the ideological values instilled in the imperial colonists. In fact, the spread of culture went hand-in-hand with the agenda of the imperialists. They used it to spread diverse kinds of knowledge, thereby ensuring that everyone remained aware of how the imperialists viewed the world. Churches and schools came into play for integrating the cultural values of the West into the social fabric of the dominated-populations’ traditional cultures. They established cultural dominance in a smooth manner. Churches and schools spread knowledge in alignment with a curriculum that was completely Europeanised. Everything, including literature, geography, and history was designed in accordance with Western perspectives in mind. Travelogues and publications on travel contributed majorly to disseminating the colonists’ versions of culture, geography, and history. They even went out of the way to propagate all manner of myths about the subdued populations, thereby encouraging them to feel inferior and develop psychological complexities. Admittedly, the imperialists took recourse to their literatures for creating awareness about Western ideology and culture in various colonies. They also hoped that their actions would make the natives back at home feel proud about how they had gone about utilising the phenomena of subjugation and imperialism elsewhere. British publications stressed heavily 10 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

on the adventurous and imperialistic mindsets of their countrymen. They applauded the desire to explore the world and rule it. A major theme was that the world was full of barbaric populations, who needed the control of the knowledgeable British to subdue them. This theme was heavily in vogue during the Victorian period. Rudyard Kipling provided the ultimate blow by glorifying imperialism. He believed that the White man carried the burden of civilising the rest of the world. Naturally, the intellectuals of the Third World and the subdued elites residing in colonies, found it necessary to protest against the domination of their colonial masters. This protest arrived in the form of nationalist writings, which aimed to throw over the hegemony of Western culture. Prior to post-colonialism, many nations possessing a colonial history, had come up with writings that were the offspring of literature from the Commonwealth. The authors of these writings were from the nations of South Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean. Their works became a part of the group of literatures provided by settler communities in Europe, as well as by 29 other nations that became independent of British rule. The outcome of this whole operation was that several writers contributed to a growing body of publications, all written in the English language. They included Chinua Achebe, George Lamming, R. K. Narayan, Katherine Mansfield, and Salman Rushdie. There is a mention of this in the book authored by Ashcroft et al. The Key Concepts in Post- Colonial Studies section explains that post-colonial points towards publications that were written in English by non-British authors. These authors were from former colonies (India and others), nations that dependent upon the British, and those still residing in colonies. Thus, Commonwealth literature had a link only with specific nations that had suffered colonialism. Theeconomic aspects of colonisation are quite evident as the resources of the countries suffering colonisation had been exploited by the colonisers. However, there were several other features of this process that contained more to it than what meets the eye. Literature offers new perspectives on this highly complex process and often the colonial experience has been expressed through various art forms such as writing, painting, music, dance and various other forms. The realities of the entanglement with colonialism are like an intricate web with layers of meaning; hence, the ‘post-colonial’ theory emerged. Post-colonialism emphasised the impact of colonisation on communities and their respective cultures. The meaning of this term was very clear. In other words, it harped on the period following independence. Since the late 1970s, critics have been using the term to indicate the negative impact of colonisation on indigenous cultures. The term has also come into play while discussing the cultural, political, and linguistic experiences of communities that had gained independence from colonial rule. After all, colonial populations were victims of subjugation while the Europeans were progressing across the globe. Thus, post-colonialism, as a term, brings the cultural processes that came into being during colonisation, under one umbrella. The events cover the beginning of colonisation, until the present day. Ashcroft et 11 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

al. have elaborated upon the definition of this term in Key Concepts to Post-colonial Studies. They suggest that it has a wider and more diverse meaning to it, in today’s times. There is the inclusion of the research and analysis of the territorial conquests undertaken by Europeans; the manner in which the British empire carried out discursive operations; the diverse establishments of European colonialisms; 18 subtleties that are responsible for construction of subjects for colonial discussions; and these subjects’ resistance. There are also the variations in response to these incursions. Finally, there are the colonial legacies in contemporary times, pertaining to both, pre-independence and post-independence communities/nations. Modern critics of literature feel that the theory related to postcolonialism is that arena of cultural and literary research, which desires to resist the former coloniser quite strongly. This theory has come into existence as an outcome of the Western mindset during the post 1960d, when thoughts tended to move towards decentring. The theory also assumes that those authors who communicate with the centre are genuine representatives of their respective communities. According to Dennis Walder, post-colonial theory adopts a subversive attitude with regard to the canon. It celebrates the plight of those, who are marginalised/neglected. Therefore, it carries along a specific geography, politics, and history. A significant impact of criticism and theory related to post-colonial times is the weakening of the global claims made about literature. The liberal-minded and humane critics had made these claims earlier. People preferred to adhere to a lone global standard while judging all kinds of literature. They wished to avoid bringing national, social, regional, and cultural variations with regard to experiences and opinions, into the picture. Post-colonial theory refuses to limit itself to literature alone. It strives to include other arenas for observation, such as film, art, performance, and media. 1.3 POSTCOLONIALISM AND POST-COLONIAL THEORY European theory was unable to handle the complexities of writings related to post- colonialism. It could not tackle the diversity in cultural provenance of literatures dealing with post-colonialism either. The outcome of these inadequacies was the birth of the post-colonial literary theory. Even European theory, or rather theories, owe its/their birth to certain cultural traditions. These traditions have hitherto remained hidden, thanks to the false ideas about ‘the universal’. In actuality, practices that link to post-colonial literature wonder about various things. The radical questioning is about value systems, theories connected to genre and style, epistemologies, and assumptions that link to the universal aspects of language. The necessity of addressing such a diverse practice has promoted the movement of post-colonial theory. The diversities in cultural traditions have resulted in the development of indigenous theories. There is also the desire to showcase a comparison between the various aspects that exist 12 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

across these cultural traditions. The outcome of Europe’s philosophical traditions and the representative systems that followed, was the emergence of the colonial enterprise’s cultural and political monocentric. Imperial expansion referred to Europeans moving into a world beyond the borders of their own continent. The expansion had begun during the time of the early Renaissance but culminated in the 19th century. However, the assumptions mentioned above, caused the underpinning of the expansion in a complex manner. For one thing, there came into being practices related to cultural subordination. A post-colonial critic termed this as the cultural cringe. This was followed by the birth of indigenous theories. It was possible to identify these theories. As a result, these theories proved to be important for the development of particular regional and national consciousnesses. Regardless, expansion did not have the positive effect that the imperialists hoped for, specifically on their power and preoccupations. Instead, there was destabilisation, and in a radical manner too. The centre was obsessed with thrusting colonies towards the boundaries of experience. As a result, consciousness suffered too. It was impossible to force people to unquestioningly accept the monocentric in every region of thought. This meant that the process of alienation that had initially sufficed to push the post- colonial world towards the periphery, had backfired. Instead, the process had used a mental barrier to position the world in a different way. All the experiences that could be perceived from this position, proved to be multifarious, non-centred, and pluralistic. Without the imperialists realising it, marginality proved to be useful for producing imaginative energy. Throughout history, European thought has granted great emphasis on pluralism and decentring. The latest entrant to this development process is post-structuralism. However, the marginalised status of cultures and communities permitted the imperialists to reach this position quite early, and in quite a direct manner. The post-colonial publications imply that such notions have been in evidence from the beginning of colonialism until the present day. If one were to go back to Black Skin, and White Masks and The Wretched of the Earth, both authored by Frantz Fanon, it would be easy to discover the origin of post-colonialism theory and post-colonialism criticism.These books were published in 1952 and 1961. They were in the French language. The books displayed the viewpoint of colonised subjects moving towards decolonisation. Martinique-born Fanon, the anti-colonialist intellectual and psychiatrist, addressed other issues of colonialism too. The cultural feature of the colonial, as well as the post-colonial history, remained the central theme of his debate. Several theories against colonialism have managed to influence the subjugated populations across the globe. However, no other anti-colonial publication has provided greater support for the colonised than The Wretched of the Earth has done. Its articulation is extremely effective, lasting, and profound in nature. Jean-Paul Sartre has written an introduction for this book. However, his introduction is controversial in that it declares the thesis as a supporter of violence. Many people consider this book to be one amongst the canonical literatures, for it focuses on the 13 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

struggles of the Blacks striving to liberate themselves, back in the 1960s. Fanon works within a Marxist framework. His style of writing is non-sentimental and cutting. The writing is littered with the terrible experiences that he had while Algeria was waging its war of independence against France. Fanon discusses how violence has a role to play in decolonisation. He also talks about the roles played by diverse elements while setting up and maintaining the national consciousness of a new nation. These elements refer to the challenges of bringing about political organisation, the class of collisions, and queries about cultural hegemony. Concerning Violence is a book that focuses on colonialism. Its first chapter is rather caustic in condemning colonialism and the legacy it planned to leave behind. The book also suggests that violence could be the pathway to liberation. It is rather cathartic for the suppressed populations. According to Fanon, the bringing down of colonial structures, and the uprising resulting in the birth of a new nation, are the outcomes of either of two causes. It could be that the subjugated populations are engaged in a violent war on their own. It could be that the onlookers, who feel sorry for the colonised, who resort to actions that checks the behaviour of the concerned imperial regime. Other revolutionary leaders took inspiration from The Wretched of the Earth. They were Steve Biko (South Africa), Earnesto Che Guevara (Cuba), Ali-Shariati (Iran), and Malcolm X (the USA). Biko and Shariati were keen on studying Fanon’s views about the Black consciousness and the new man, respectively. Guevara was interested in the theories connected to violence. Even Palestinians, Americans,Tamils, Africans, etc., who were initiating their own movements were liberation, took courage from Fanon’s work. His writing discusses power, identity, and justice within the framework of various ideologies. It is possible to comprehend them better when viewed in the context of the colonial rulers and the natives. Fanon has taken care to grant both the groups clear-cut identities. To the natives, their colonial rulers will always remain as the ‘others’. After all, they had travelled over from Europe, and grabbed the lands of the natives. They had turned them into slaves within their own society and within their own nation. They took away individual rights and forced them to lead a life of subjugation. The colonists presented themselves as the upper classes. The subjugated populations were designated to the lower classes. Thus, the upper classes outlined the history of the suppressed populations. There is only one way to push a suppressed population into making history. Individuals must have the courage to put into written format, what they have heard or witnessed. Fanon, to some extent, derived inspiration from the Negritude movement that came into being in Paris. A number of Francophone authors were responsible for this 1930s movement. There were important nationalist authors, who were part of this movement too. They included Leon Damas (French Guiana), Aim’e C’esaire (Martinique), and Leopol Senghar (Senegal). The movement strove to identify, as well as affirm, an entire set of Black literary and cultural behaviour. This attitude included displaying anger, protesting, and celebrating the ‘primitive’. 14 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

They were apt for several central beliefs regarding the myth of a country. The Negritude movement aimed to be pan-national in presentation. The outcome was that it created the pathway for writings with a nationalist flavour to them. Furthermore, they encouraged powerful resistance to colonial regimes. The movement also wished to bring together nations across the globe, since several of them displayed common origins and a common ancestry. The French awarded Aim’e C’esaire (French Caribbean colony, Martinique), and Senghor (French African colony, Senegal) the title of French n’egres. This was similar to ‘niggers’ in the English language. Obviously, the term was meant to be insulting and derogatory. The Negritude movement was incensed at the insensitivity of the French, with their oriental attitudes. It refused to accept France’s disgraceful attitude towards the Blacks. To the people associated with the movement, this was highly unacceptable, and it fought back. Colonial literatures declared that the Blacks had no culture of their own, were intellectually inferior to them, and primitive in behaviour. Senghor and C’esaire retaliated by praising Black culture and the praiseworthy qualities of the Black people, in their writings. Thanks to the Negritude movement, the Black culture received value and dignity. Blackness was no longer regarded as negative. Descendants of Black Africans were encouraged to take pride in all aspects of the African soul. They were urged to live with dignity and pride. Senghor and C’esaire were passionate and humane. They felt that the Negritude movement operated with the long-term goal of emancipating not only Blacks, but also the rest of the human race, from undergoing humiliation at the hands of colonial thought processes. Nonetheless, this movement has not escaped widespread criticism. There is the belief that the Negritude movement grants support to separatist theoretical opposites, such as distinguishing between European and African, Black and White, etc. Nonetheless, the movement has given an impetus to the nationalist representations within the post-colonial scenario. Fanon did have a soft corner for the Negritude movement. Regardless, he refused to encourage the joyous presentation of an African past that was purely mythicalin nature, to become the central theme of Negritude literatures. His writings about his people’s sufferings were in alignment with Marx’s thought processes regarding economics and class struggles. Marx’s writings influenced his literary output to a great extent. Additionally, his theory about the growing antipathy towards colonialism did not agree with the universal definition of the Negro. It did not agree with the Negritude movement’s pan-national aspirations either. Fanon was a qualified psychiatrist. Naturally, he understood the effects on the psyche that were brought about by colonists who realised that decolonisation was about to happen. According to him, the sadistic colonists had initiated the colonial system on a foundation of racism. They strove to revenge themselves on the colonised populations by initiating atrocities against them. There is a commonality to the central themes of both theories – poststructuralist and racial. Rudimentary to this commonality is an attempt to accept the disjuncture that exists 15 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

between the faith in non-discrimination and progress, and a community that is unable to promise either of them. As per David Caute, colonialism’s inclination towards exploitation and oppression has resulted in The Castaways, The Wretched of the Earth, and The Untouchables. Earlier, the outcomes of colonialism were Gandhi (due to British imperialism), Karl Marx (due to capitalistic exploitation), Fanon (due to racism by the Whites), Garibaldi (due to Sicilian poverty), and Lenin (due to Russian autocracy). The founder of the Anglophone theory related to post-colonialism, is Edward Said. He is also the author of Orientalism, a magnum opus. The book explores the manner in which generations of scholars and authors have contributed to Western thought processes about the Orient. In other words, these scholars and authors gave a legal flavour to the imperialists’ entry into alien lands and taking charge of the natives. To him, Orientalism refers to the Western attitude of subduing, restructuring, and establishing control over the Orient. Said’s book is founded on certain extracts derived from Western Orientalists. It gives no importance to the manner in which the works of Max Muller, William Jones, etc, have presented the Orient. Instead, he criticises Western Orientalists for refusing to let the Orient stand up for itself. Said’s writings were highly influenced by Michel Foucault (French poststructuralist) and Antonio Gramsci (Italian Marxist cultural critic). They offered the theory that power internalises itself by taking away other people’s powers via language, ideology, or discourse. Said does not believe that the West had the monopoly over humanistic principles. He believes that the Western Orientalists were responsible for providing guidance to the colonists on how to handle the subjugated populations. He also declares that Ferdinand de Lesseps and Napoleon, who possessed imperial powers, took inspiration from Western Orientalists. Additionally, they took guidance from books authored in alignment with the French Orientalism, whenever they wished to add to their knowledge of the Orient.Said stated that it was not easy to dismiss a publication that claimed to display information about something factual/real and was the outcome of circumstances that were just like the ones that he had presented. Obviously, it has some expertise attached to it. It is possible to enhance its expertise with the aid of the authority exhibited by governments, academics, and institutions. As a result, it gains in prestige, regardless of whether it experiences practical success or not. Above all, such literatures tend to create and increase knowledge, as well as help visualise the exact realities that they seem to describe. Said presents an analysis of the major dogmas attached to Orientalism. He suggests that Orientalists from the West disseminated false information about the Orient in several ways.  As per assumptions, the Orient was underdeveloped, and diverged from an acceptable standard. It was inferior to the West, which was superior and well developed. Additionally, the West was more humane and rational in behaviour. 16 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Western Orientalists referred to the classical literatures for guidance in interacting with the Orient. They refused to accept the modern realities that connected with the Orient.  The Orient was keen to remain unchanged. It was always uniform.  The Orient had no idea of how to define itself. Therefore, only Western Orientalists had the capacity to engage in objective examinations and conclusions about the East. Said points out that the West had always considered the East as inferior and the ‘other’. This was something like a cultural tradition that European Orientals practiced. The Western mindsets believed the Orient to be akin to a surrogate. In other words, they felt that the East represented all those features about themselves, which the West refused to acknowledge openly. These features included laziness, sensuality, cruelty, decadence, etc. Paradoxically, non-Westerners find the East fascinating. They feel that the East is a region of seductiveness, exoticism, and mystique. Here, the populations operate as anonymous groups, and not as individuals. All their actions are governed by highly-identifiable emotions, such as fury, lust, terror, etc. The status of the individual or his personal circumstances do not enter the picture, whenever a crowd reacts or expresses some kind of an emotion. Instead, racial feelings gain prominence during ‘group’ behaviour. The West derives its information about the Eastern part of the world from typical presuppositions. It does not bother to access facts or observe reality closely. The preconceptions suggest that one Eastern society is fundamentally as good as another. However, there is fundamental dissimilarity between the Eastern and the Western society. In other words, the East and the West are antithetical to one another. When Said was writing his book, he took inspiration from Antonio Gramsci’s explanation of hegemony. Basically, hegemony refers to the imperial power’s ability to influence other populations to believe that the dominating class’s interests are equivalent to the interests of the whole world. Political domination does not carry as much weight as cultural domination and ideological domination do. Therefore, hegemony is crucial for impacting the thought processes of the colonised. Furthermore, hegemony is an extremely potent, as well as sustainable operation that an imperial regime can indulge in. This is useful for handling colonised populations. Gauri Viswanathan offers an excellent illustration of hegemonic control and its operations. She elaborates that there are humanistic operations that go hand-in-hand with the explorations of literatures. Some examples of this traditional association, are the disciplines connected with ethical thinking, the shaping of a person’s character, the developing of a sense of aesthetics, etc. Such an association may prove crucial for the development of socio-political domination. Intellectuals from India were thrilled with the advent of Orientalism since it arrived in the wake of their nation’s cultural history. According to them, their British rulers had utilised English writings as a powerful weapon for wielding their authority over Indians. 17 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

One of the pioneering critics of postcolonialism is Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Her location proves useful for her to problematise the post-colonial scenario, as well as to comprehend why the domination from the West continues to exist. Her labels for herself, include deconstructivist, Marxist, and feminist. She has serious concerns about the West’s usage of neo-capitalist marketing techniques and imperialistic behaviour, to exploit, control, and manipulate the populations of the Third World. Her major concern is for women. She is vociferous about the manner in which they are subdued and exploited via both, the patriarchal and colonial systems. They suffer from double bondage. Spivak’s stresses that all kinds of experiences – aesthetic, personal, and emotional – should undergo materialistic grounding. She compares the issues that exploited and oppressed women face within the framework of a patriarchal system, with political and economic systems. Her personal experiences of facing marginality comes to the fore during a seminar. This talk is available in her popular essay, Explanation and Culture: Marginalia. People acknowledge that Third World nations’ writers are the voices echoing from the margin. In other words, margin and otherness go hand-in- hand. The centre demanding a margin that is identifiable, is Europe. Spivak suggests that the presumed centre desires to choose certain residents of the margin, such that it can find a better way to exclude the margin itself. Marginality is akin to something of a stigma, and the critics of post-colonialism hope to find a way to destroy this stigma. According to Spivak, Eurocentric mindsets look only for such authors who can write, keeping the concept of marginality in their consciousness. They christen these authors as Third World writers. Spivak has offered a theory in relation to the West’s construction of knowledge. This theory is extremely relevant for post-colonialism. According to her, the First World uses relevant knowledge to behave as an explanation for the other. The USA and the Western world follow a curriculum in Humanities, which has become the scaffold for building up knowledge about the post-colonial world, including the East and Asia. Spivak has only criticism to offer for this building of knowledge, and the utilisation of technology for disseminating the constructed information. High-level technological tools come into play for producing, as well as for disbursing knowledge. However, there is no knowledge that has been created with a neutral perspective. Obviously, this kind of knowledge is for the fulfilment of a particular political issue. The colonists even have a justification for it. For instance, the literature might demand an explanation regarding the advancement of technology, the culture of consumerism, and elite fashions. Even Edward Said has stated that the building up of Orientalism took place under the direction of the Western colonists between the 16th and 18thcenturies when colonial expansion was taking place. According to Spivak and other critics from the post-colonial scenario, the building up of knowledge in the Western universities and the centres leads to the rise of a particular culture, which prescribes, writes, and defines the scholars. It also gives rise to the power equation. 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Homi K. Bhabha, Spivak, and Said belong to the category of diasporic writers. Bhabha is responsible for popularising the post-colonial theory via his books. They are The Location of Culture, and Nation and Narration. He is also responsible for awarding currency to novel words, such as otherness, hybridity, and mimicry. These terms have come into play for explaining what is meant by colonised in an era of post-colonialism, as well as the post- colonial theory. According to him, the word, post-colonial is being used quite frequently to award a description to a particular kind of social criticism. This criticism is directed towards the uneven and unequal manner in which people represent everything connected with the Third World. This has an impact upon how the Western world views the historical experiences of Third World countries that had formerly been colonised. Bhabha grants great importance to the term, mimicry, as far as post-colonial theory is concerned. It is because the term is apt for presenting the ambivalent connection between the dominated and the dominating. Colonial discourses urge colonised subjects to imitate the colonisers by following their institutions, values, and cultural habits. The outcome would be a blurred imitation of the coloniser. According to Bhabha, the author of Location of Culture, colonial mimicry refers to the wish to have a recognisable, yet reformed, ‘Other’ in place. This other should be almost similar, but not exactly so. Therefore, the element of difference, even if slight, should be visible. Homi Bhabha is also the author of Mimicry and Man. Christopher Bracken pays deep attention to the term, mimicry. According to him, the author of the book reveals that colonial discourses tend to be self-destructive and ironic in structure. English administrators had been dreaming of making India a Christian nation by the end of the 18th century. At the same time, they were not keen to have the colonial subjects becoming either too Indian or too Christian. Instead, the discussions concluded that there should be colonised mimics in place. They would be similar to the colonists, yet different. However, Indians mimicked their rulers so well that it became rather difficult to distinguish between the dominated and the dominating. It seemed as if India would not be anglicised; instead, the Englishness would lose value by acquiring an Indian flavour. The colonists could not tolerate this kind of reversal. Therefore, mimicry refers to an ambivalent state, wherein the declarations made by colonial discourses become undermined. Furthermore, it becomes impossible to separate the radicalised essence of the coloniser from the colonised. Similar to Said, Bhabha believes that colonialism rests on a bed of assumptions. These assumptions strive to prove that they are legally entitled to control other populations and their native lands, as well as nurture specific viewpoints about them. Bhabha feels that the major aim of colonial discourses is to present the colonised populations as degenerates in accordance with their racial origins. This opinion serves to justify their ideas of conquest, as well as set up unique systems of instruction and administration. 19 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

It is why colonial stereotypes have come to the fore. They are representations of the colonised populations, albeit in diverse derogatory ways. Bhabha does not agree with the concept of Orientalism proposed by Said. Instead, he comes up with the argument that the colonialism discourse does not go in accordance with what is expected of it, and therefore, fails to fulfil this aim. Orientals are radical in thought processes. They are highly curious and concerned. However, the colonialism discourse strives to bring a sense of domesticity to colonised subjects, thereby destroying their sense of radical otherness. In turn, the colonised subjects become involved with Western understanding. Bhabha explains that colonial discourse depicts the colonised as being highly visible and knowledgeable. At the same time, the colonised seem to be a social reality, which is also a representation of the ‘other’. Bhabha states that the coloniser and the colonised enter into a type of negotiation called hybridity. He strongly believes that there is both, cultural and political interdependence between the coloniser and the colonised. He also has a definition for ‘otherness’. It goes in alignment with the ‘other’ described by Lacan and Fanon. It is the binary opposition that exists between the Blacks and the Whites. Research into post-colonialism frequently tend to go in for a lengthy engagement with certain issues. They include knowledge, construction of knowledge, power, resistance to power, people and relationships, representation and culture, historical continuity and change, wealth, and terrain. Ashcroft et al. considered post- colonialism as the coloniser’s discourse. Regardless, it is capable of gathering together new societies possessing ethical and political commitment, which aids in questioning and challenging practices, such as authoritarianism and subjugation. Post-colonialism owes its development to the influential role that theories connected to colonial discourses play. These theories observe the manner in which representations and methods of perception come into play. Colonists use them as the basic weapons of power for keeping the colonial populations subjugated. Colonialism aims to emphasise that the colonisers have every right to control other people and strive to colonise their mindsets. It is the colonial birth right to do so. Towards this end, the colonisers urge the colonised to accept their masters’ logic, internalise it, and speak the colonists’ language. In actuality, language has managed to play a highly important role in the colonisation process. The Tempest by Shakespeare is a depiction of the coloniser-colonised paradigm. Here. Prospero represents the coloniser, whereas Caliban takes up the role of the colonised. His allegorical name probably implies that Prospero has a beneficent nature. Accordingly, he is vigorously involved in the activity of creating happiness. However, the truth is that only his daughter and he gain happiness. He avoids making his slave, Caliban happy, for the slave has tried to become better than his master. Therefore, Prospero, the coloniser deems Caliban to be a devil, or rather, a born devil. The finale of the play focuses on reconciliation. It is a suggestion that the colonisation has ended. An act of virtue is rare. In The Tempest, Prospero’s people are supposed to be virtuous. The colonised are not deemed to be so. 20 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Prospero refuses to feel repentant or ask the colonisers to forgive him. Instead, he exhibits arrogance and audaciousness in his behaviour. He declares that Caliban is disproportioned in both, shape and manners. The publications from the English canon proved to be the greatest medium of influence with regard to the mission of civilising the colonies. Leela Gandhi has something to say about this, in her book on Post-Colonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. She gives the example of the infamous Macaulay’s speech in 1835, to substantiate the above- mentioned argument. According to her, critics often go back to Macaulay’s infamous speech, wherein he gave his justification for the setting up of English Education in British-dominated India. He believed that the Indians would benefit more via a lone shelf displaying books from a famous European library, rather than through the reading of native literatures from Arabia and India. His unfailing support for English literature, even if it affected the popularity of indigenous writings, is a paradigmatic example of the formation of the canon. He placed English literatures at the top of the hierarchy. He believed that these literatures had tremendous value. It was the very embodiment of morality, beauty, and truth. These texts set up a standard that reinforced the inferiority and marginality of both, the literatures and the cultures of indigenous populations. Examples of post-colonial canonised literatures include Heart of Darkness, The Tempest, and Robinson Crusoe. 1.4 POSTCOLONIAL LITERATURES Writings during the post-colonial period serve to reject the English canon (group of literary works). Readers have begun to comprehend that the literary output from the earlier colonies in Europe is not in alignment with canonical literatures. They have even begun to treat them with indifference. In fact, post-colonial literatures have become the perfect instrument to get back their beloved traditions that had almost been completely destroyed by the imperial rulers. These literatures strive to revise concepts and publications associated with the canon. Readers have realised that these literatures aim to criticise Western tradition via the rewriting of particular books, such as the Heart of Darkness and the Tempest. Post-colonial is a phrase aiming to encompass the entire culture that has suffered an impact due to the imperial process, right from the beginning of colonisation until the present day. It is because, as history reveals, the aggressive European imperialists had become responsible for perpetuating one preoccupation after another. Experts accept this as a highly appropriate term since it depicts the recent emergence of the novel criticism for cross cultures. The term is also a reflection of the discussion via which this has been constituted. Therefore, the writings of several countries fall under the umbrella of post-colonial literatures. The list of nations include Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Malta, Caribbean countries, South Pacific Island countries, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, and African nations. Even the writings from U.S. authors may come into this category. It could be 21 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

that the post-colonial nature of the USA has not been awarded recognition. This is because it has hitherto exhibited a powerful status to the world, as well as played a neo-colonising role. However, the nation has had a connection with the evolution of the metropolitan centre over the last couple of centuries. This relationship has been paradigmatic, specifically for post- colonial writings everywhere. Each type of writing possesses its own distinctive and particular regional features. At the same time, all the literatures display a common aspect. They represent themselves in their existing form as the outcome of the experiences gained through being colonised. Furthermore, they have managed to assert themselves via foregrounding the tense relationship that they had with the power of the colonists. Another factor is the outlining of differences between reality and the assumptions made by the colonial rulers. This is what makes these literatures so very post-colonial in nature. Soon after the power and impact of the British in the colonies began to reduce, new literary outputs came to the fore. They comprised of works from the now-independent nations of South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria, and Australia. These works acquired importance beyond their local boundaries. Imperial strength received a severe beating during the post-war period. Nationalist feelings sufficed to demote it completely, specifically after India gained independence, and the Suez crisis was resolved successfully in 1956. Post-independence feelings took the form of cultural and literary outputs. These expressions showed up while decolonisation was in process. Of course, the process took a long time to be completed. During this time, some of the best writings in English were published. India’s famous novelists included Raja Rao and Mulk Raj Anand. Africa’s representatives were Wole Soyinka (Nigeria), Kofi Awoonor (Ghana), Ngugiwa Thiong’o (Kenya), and Chris Okigbo (Nigeria). All the poetry, fiction, and drama from Africa garnered public attention during the 1950s. Indian writers gained fame during the 1930s. Leeds University was host to the initial group of Commonwealth Literature, in 1964. Enthusiasts from this University convened the very first Commonwealth Literature Conference. The world recognised Achebe and Mulk Raj Anand as splendid writers. This led to the emergence of a new type of literary research. Appreciation for those great writers who communicated in English, despite being outside the USA and Great Britain, arrived from the verbalisations of William Walsh, a professor at Leeds. He took charge of Education and was also a Commonwealth Literature Fellow. His book, A Manifold Voice: Studies in Commonwealth Literature, suggested that these ‘greats’ had contributed well to the English canon of literature. His book comprises of research conducted on good writers. These writers were Chinua Achebe, R. K. Narayan, Katherine Mansfield, V. S. Naipaul, Nirad Chaudhuri, Anand, and Patrick White. The colonial began to move towards Commonwealth. Maybe, it referred to a historical version, wherein the position of nations undergoing colonisation, shifted from subjugation to equality. The literature of the Commonwealth took note of six 22 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

categories of literatures. They included novel writings from New Zealand, Australia, India, West Indies, Africa, and Canada. A new term came into being for identifying these literatures – New Literatures. Later on, the term was replaced by post-colonial writings. Quite frequently, post-colonialism invites discourses of diverse experiences. They include migration, place, slavery, race, suppression, difference, resistance, and gender. Post- colonialism also encourages responses to discussions connected to the imperialism that Europe had practised. They include linguistics, history, anthropology, and philosophy. Thus, the term encompasses two things. One of them is the conditions that existed during the height of colonialism and imperialism. The second is related to the conditions that came to the fore during the historical conclusion of colonialism. Several writers from Canada, the Caribbean, Australia, Africa, Canada, etc., have taken the trouble to highlight the hangover and trauma that persisted after the end of colonialism, via their creative narratives. Post-colonial critics are beset by another great concern too. They are worried about the racial minorities settled in Western nations. These minorities include the Aborigines in Canada and Australia, African-Caribbean populations and British-Asians in the United Kingdom, African-Americans and Native Americans in the USA, etc. Such aspects permit post- colonialism to encompass a great range of applications. These applications reveal a continuous interplay, as well as slippage, amongst three elements. These elements are an earth-shaking configuration, a socio-cultural area, and an awareness of a historical transition. It was only during the latter half of the 1970s and the earlier part of the 1980s that post- colonial literatures began to acquire a certain shape. However, plenty of novelists tried their hand at offering writings soon after the conclusion of the second world war. Things Fall Apart (Chinua Achebe) was one of the novels that emerged during these post-war decades. It was highly significant in that it remains an integral part of many curricula linked to Anglophone fiction courses, even today. It gained immense importance and publicity soon after it was published towards the end of the 1950s. Achebe based his writing on what happened when British colonialism ended in Nigeria. However, he also emphasised upon an earlier event that had occurred in the history of Nigeria. The novel is about Okonkwo, a fictitious character, who lived during the late 19th century. He was the ruler of the Igbo village. The entry of colonialism led to the tragic destruction of the village’s native culture. Nigeria remained under imperial rule, right up to 1960. Things Fall Apart was published in 1958 and was one amongst the early set of literatures centring on post-colonialism. Critics took to analysis Chinua Achebe’s book, soon after it was published. Additionally, it captured the attention of readers across Africa, as well as, 23 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

across the globe. Therefore, it would not be unreasonable to state that this book stands head and shoulders above many other examples of literature, specifically in contemporary times. Even sixty years after its first publication, it remains tremendously popular. The novel has undergone translations into 60 languages. It has sold around 20 million copies across the globe. This suffices to justify its place and significance in the modern world’s canon of literature. The minds of contemporary readers developed a rather chaotic and loathsome impression of the African nations, thanks to the manner in which the West strove to overturn the African culture. Therefore, Achebe decided that it was his responsibility to reveal the truth to the world. Therefore, he took up the role of a post-colonial writer. Achebe has a connection to the decolonising stage of Africa. He does not really have a first-hand picture of colonialism when it was prevalent in his country. Therefore, he had to undertake historical investigations for reconstructing the past. Writers dealing with history must take two elements into consideration. One is that history relies on facts that can be verified. Second, it presents the facts in the form of a narrative. Since he was a writer who had a clear purpose in mind, he could have created an ideal or romantic picture of Africa. He does this by scratching through the rubble. Achebe’s novel is an attempt to display the pre-colonial situation prevailing in the Igbo community. However, the author stays with a simple style of presentation, wherein he emphasises upon the manner in which the Igbo community conducts its day-to-day affairs. It is easy to comprehend this world. At the same time, the manner in which the content moves from Africa as it was in its pre-colonial days towards the advent of the Europeans, is remarkable in style. As yet, the community had remained untainted by Western culture or Western civilisations. The novel has an Igbo individual as its central character. This person views the advent of colonialism, with trepidation, not only into his own community, but also into the neighbouring communities as well. Achebe names this individual, Okonkwo. He also builds up a personal account of this central character. The cross-cultural confrontation has a strong influence upon him, finally leading to a tragic demise. Achebe also takes care to highlight the norms and customs of the Igbo community. The European invaders felt that the Africans lacked a language, since the Igbo community did not appear to have a highly visible culture or exhibit great signs of civilisation. Achebe strove to prove that this was a misconception on the part of the invaders. His book gives importance to several Igbo proverbs. Achebe has woven them splendidly into Okonkwo’s patterns of speech. He has done the same for other members of the Igbo community. To illustrate, one proverb declares that if an individual awards respect to great people, he/she creates the pathway for his/her own greatness to show up. Achebe resorts to the usage of a native dialect for lucid presentation of Okonkwo’s life. The author believes that languages depict a community’s pride in itself. He also gives an additional definition to the term, self- 24 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

pride. Self-pride is responsible for sustaining a community’s culture. Should it ever disappear, the community’s culture also disappears. Then, there is no option but to rely on past relics. Achebe has highlighted the positive aspects of the Igbo community’s culture in his novel. However, he exposes the superstitious beliefs of the community too. He highlights them, because they prove apt weapons in the hands of the Europeans, for destroying communal harmony. The White man took the greatest advantage of these superstitions and community break-ups. The title of Achebe’s book is both, ironic and symbolic. He found the title for his novel in W. B. Yeats’ poem, The Second Coming. The poet expresses his sorrow over the destruction of European civilisation. He also laments that Christianity, which had been a cohesive force earlier, was now breaking apart. Yeats also comments that the falconer is out of reach of the falcon, things are falling apart, and the centre cannot hold on any longer. Thus, the original social order tends to break down. It is ironical that the Europeans, who pride themselves as being orderly and organised, are themselves responsible for things falling apart. Achebe ridicules the European colonists’ patronising behaviour towards African clans. He suggests that the African clans could boast of a refined heritage and an equally refined culture. In actuality, Achebe’s book may be perfectly suitable for probing the relevant aspects of his discourse on anti-colonialism, too. His writings have led to the coining of the term, Achebeism. This term is an integral part of African publications. This kind of success may be attributed to Achebe’s splendid grasp of the appropriate language. It is a language that has the capacity to present the life of Nigeria at its best. The language also serves to discard the search for an identity during these three phases – pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial. Finally, the language manages to impress upon readers the impact of the changes that occurred in Nigeria at different times, over the years. Achebe’s novel, Things Fall Apart, comes at a significant time. Furthermore, there is a proffering of a vast array of ideas in the critical perusals of this book. Achebe’s first book had led to plenty of criticism. By viewing it from a different perspective, it becomes possible to enhance these boundaries of criticism. In this case, it is necessary to explore the major aspects of Achebe’s discourse and language. It becomes possible to define them well by using a few of the theories offered by Mikhail Bakhtin and Homi Bhabha. The most important characteristic of a verbal or a written discussion is the grammatical and semantic stipulations of the tonguethat generates it. Subsequently, there is no denying the fact that the most important function of language is to create an identity, as well as national writings. Now, the African demand for independence was gaining momentum during the 1950s and the 1960s. At this time, the idea of having a suitable African language for creating literary works, gained momentum too. It was necessary to fill the gap that had come into being through the absence of samples of literatures in writing, or any kind of literary history. 25 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The lack could be attributed to the fact that oral literatures in Africa had progressed on a completely different pathway, in alignment with African tradition. The movement was at variance from the direction in which popular contemporary literature had progressed in Europe. In actuality, that condition was the outcome of what the people who lacked clarity regarding the literary background of the Africans prior to the advent of colonialism, had done. They had foisted the non-African benchmark for criticism onto the vocal backdrop of Africa. Therefore, it should not prove too difficult to work out why Achebe’s major endeavour (via his writings) was to make people understand why they had to search for an appropriate language to publish Africa’s literary works and make it easy for critics to do their work. He desired to provide an insight into the world of literature, to readers from Africa and other countries, authors, and critics. Achebe has been successful with regard to an appropriate language. He has exhibited lucid understanding of the uniqueness of Nigeria’s oral traditions, as well as the capacities of Africans. Then again, he has expressed comprehension about the disjunction that came into play due to the confrontation between traditions belonging to pre- colonial times and those that arrived in the name of modern civilisation via the White colonists. This conflict resulted in a certain type of oblivion for all those Africans, who had been residing in the areas that had earlier belonged to the established oral African literature. It is to be noted that Achebe was amongst the first literary figures from Nigeria, who took upon himself the task of educating readers from Africa. He wanted to create an awareness about the true state of things. They had to know that their past had not been perfect. Yet, it was definitely not a lengthy duration of savagery either. Therefore, they should not believe that the earliest colonists, declaring themselves to be missionaries representing God, had done them good by delivering them from this savagery. It is why Achebe feels that the novelist is also a tutor. This tutor has the job of offering readers an opportunity to think on different lines, albeit on the basis of an appropriate language. Achebe’s Things Fall Apart came up with a well-designed and particular language. This language was extensively successful, since it helped to bring several controversial discussions revolving around the appropriate language for African literatures, to an end. Ngugi and Wali, critics by profession, had urged that the colonists’ language be discarded as quickly as possible. They encouraged people to adhere to ethnic languages as the most suitable medium for showcasing African literatures. Achebe’s article, The African Writer and the English Language, also has something to assert. In fact, it may serve as excellent proof for discrediting the arguments put forth by certain critics during a debate on discarding European languages altogether. Achebe brings out the differences between national literature and ethnic literature. He also suggests that people use English as a tool for bringing about unity during discourses. It could prove to be the device that gathered the African’s potential for oral literature and translated it into a written format that promised unity. This unity would not limit itself to a sole province. Instead, it would attract an audience across the nation. This audience would comprise of believers, as well as 26 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

non-believers who would readily convert. Thus, Achebe’s insistence on using English, suggests that he has greater consciousness in comparison to other critics of those times. Achebe is capable of making sense of the real pictures offered by colonial history in various parts of Africa, including Nigeria. A query may come to the fore at this moment. The reader may wonder what kind of English Achebe favour would if he truly desired to adopt this language for publicising African national writings. Alternatively, the question could be framed in this way – Why are so many readers enraptured by the English that Achebe used in his book, Things Fall Apart, and why do the majority of them view the novel as the earliest instance of Nigerian literature focussing on anti-colonialism? The reply to the query/question demands an investigation into the manner in which Achebe strove to give some kind of a shape to his discussion in Things Fall Apart, by depending upon the language used by the colonists. Carey Snyder explains the strength of Achebe’s tactic in using English to maximum advantage in his novel. She emphasises that Achebe has a penchant for indigenising the alien language, thereby displaying attributes of the oral tradition of the Africans. In fact, despite the way in which he uses English, Achebe’s work has no relation to the ethnographical nature of the White man’s literature that talks about Nigeria and her people. Thus, Achebe strives to adhere to the format, viewing it as a tool for destruction. He uses the colonists’ language in his book, in order to criticise the literature of the British. This literature focuses on presenting dehumanising narratives of the colonised. The British writers strove to show up Africa as a primitive continent with no history of its own. Achebe combats this by bringing in the idea of historicity as the first characteristic, in his book. He feels it is imperative that he present Africa and its people in a more humanised form via his usage of English. In fact, he considers this task to be of paramount importance, as the Western ethnographical heritage harboured a group of unshakeable beliefs about Africa and its people. The British tradition was as ancient as the ethnological records of the Romans and the Greeks. The fixed ideas of the British resulted in stock pictures of Africa circulating in the world. To illustrate, the central theme ore presumption of English literature tended to be in alignment with thenotion of handling the unknown and the strange, albeit in a purely objective view. The ethnological author from the West, therefore, presupposed that he would have to confront the ‘other’, and this had to be completely recorded, albeit from the standpoint of a disinterested individual. Thus, the thought of encountering the ‘other’, or something unusual and difficult to infer, in alignment with the logic or mentality of the West, became responsible for producing a distance in between. It had also resulted in the publishers of such works to stay on the surface, wherein they preferred to gather realist and objective records of material details. They did not wish to put in any extra efforts for providing a platform for philosophical and psychological reassessment of the fresh phenomena. Achebe decided to award a response to this form of literature, which had taken on the getup of a powerful ‘otherising’ tool in the mindsets of the imperial rulers from Britain, by presenting a 27 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

novel kind of literature. In time, this became the ethnographic novel. With regard to this, Elizabeth Ferna believes that it is the type of book that only an artist belonging to that culture can write. The outcome is a genuine presentation of that concerned culture. If a critic were to apply Ferna’s explanation of an ethnographic novel to Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, he/she would be able to comprehend why Achebe had gone all out to behave as an insider possessing objectivity in plenty. It would be equally possible to understand why the author utilised 140 pages to present a complete account of how the Igbo community lived in harmony prior to the invasion by the imperial forces from Europe. Again, the reader and critic would be able to comprehend how colonialism proved to be the major force that brought about the destruction of Okonkwo, the main protagonist of Things Fall Apart. Achebe presents Okonkwo as an individual with all his strengths and weaknesses, in order to give authenticity to the fact that Okonkwo was only human. Similar to other human beings, even the Igbo individuality or person is viewed as the principal agent who can bring about a change in society. This agent holds control over his own destiny, and also the destiny of the community. The concluding portions of the last chapter are ironic in nature. They serve to truthfully increase the impact of such a presentation. In this chapter, the district commissioner does not have the sensitivity to comprehend the motifs that go beyond Okonkwo’s simple suicide. He tackles the issue as if he were a traditional ethnographer from the West. He decides that the suicidal act can provide fresh material for an entire chapter, or even a reasonably lengthy paragraph for his book. He wishes to remove all the gory details, prior to outlining the events in The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the Lower Niger. A highly conspicuous verbose aspect of Things Fall Apart has its origin in the artistic presentation of the proverbs used by the Igbo community. The author manages literal translations, without moving away from the usage of standard English. Achebe has taken care to adhere to highly detailed syntactic adjustments and a healthy selection of vocabulary. As a result, the even the estrangement has not dampened the meaningful depiction of Igbo proverbs. Therefore, even those, who do not belong to the Igbo community, but can comprehend English, are able to make sense out of these proverbs. It does not matter that they have hardly any, or absolutely no information about the culture of the Igbo community and its linguistic assets. Thus, Achebe views proverbs as discursive tools, which tend to create an illusion. This illusion is about cultural proximity. This helps in dealing with the assumptions that readers not belonging to the Igbo community make about the culture’s otherness. They meet this ‘otherness’ throughout the novel. The proverbs also serve as the pathway for illustrating and expressing thoughts in a vivid manner. Therefore, it is entirely possible that the one of the major reasons for Achebe being successful in turning the readers’ attention towards the phenomenology and cultural realities relating to the Igbo community, must be the inclusion of proverbs. Furthermore, it is possible that the repeated emphasis on proverbs leads to come kind of revitalisation, which strives to remind all the Igbo societies of the value of their innate 28 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

language and culture. These communities had lost belief in the strength that lay hidden in their mother tongue and their own traditional culture, especially after suffering decades of hegemony. The colonists had dominated over them for years, using their own language as a powerful tool. Therefore, it is not difficult to figure out why the author points towards the thematic significance and the centrality of the proverbs held dear by the Igbo community. To Achebe, they are strong rhetorical and discursive instruments, which he uses to advantage at the beginning of the book itself. The episode highlighting Unoka’s story reflects it. Okonkwo’s father tells Okoye that the Igbo community literally worships the art of conversation. Additionally, proverbs are akin to palm-oil. Words were eaten along with this oil. Chapter 16 demonstrates another bit of evidence suggesting that language is very important. In this chapter of Things Fall Apart, the content concentrates on the manner in which the White preachers of Christianity converse with the people of Umuofia. In the beginning, readers may believe that the act of Blacks laughing at an interpreter in their midst, is merely a joke. However, another perusal may suffice to convey that this encounter is not a joke, but hints at the absence of any kind of true negotiation between the people of the Igbo community and the Whites. It could also be a depiction of the absence of understanding on both sides. It is because the interpreter’s language comprises of words that behave as references to antecedents that seem to be void or have no place in the Igbo community’s lingual cosmology. Achebe emphasises that the community of Umuofia also considered the White man as the ‘other’, who possessed iron horses, and who betrayed madness through his lecture on extraordinary religious beliefs. Achebe felt that language was of great significance as a central theme in his novel. This is evident at diverse places throughout his novel. One instance is evident in chapter three of the book. Here, the reader comes across the framing of a productive social contract in the Igbo community prior to the advent of colonialism. The contract could be based on some dialogic/conversional norms and community customs, without fuss or without disturbing the Igbo community’s stability. This particular event refers to the ability of Okonkwo to persuade Nwakibie to hand over sufficient yams for use on his tenanted farm. Furthermore, Okonkwo reveals his awareness about the Igbo language and cultural customs by carrying along with him wine and kola seeds for his visit to Nwakibie’s house. He also initiates a conversation that lays emphasis on the Igbo community’s social norms, such as awarding politeness and respect. The conversation begins with a famous declaration that an individual who displays respect for the great, creates a pathway for his own greatness too. This kind of incident, as well as others that are similar (the scene at the court in chapter 10, which highlights Umuofia’s perfect language and judiciary system), acquire a dual significance in comparison to the attempts displayed in the concluding pages of the book. These attempts may be attributed to the nobility of Umuofia, who are keen to embark upon a deferential dialogue with the district commissioner regarding what occurred to the church. However, these 29 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

attempts proved to be futile. Despite the titled individuals trying their best to make their own inroads into the conversation, the district commissioner does not allow them to do so. Instead, he tricks them, and then, has them imprisoned. Similar to how he handled the proverbs, Achebe handles folklore tales too. He incorporates them into his writings, in the form of highly significant verbose elements. They aid in creating an alternative discussion to the discourse initiated by the coloniser. Shuchi Agarwal notes that stories and proverbs are both, the staple diet of the African community. It is why there are spaces set aside for the entry of stories into novels. Achebe has used this very important aspect to display the moralities and internal values of Igbo society. Furthermore, he has done so objectively, and without revealing any opposition to the culture of the Europeans. In actuality, the entire novel comes across as a comprehensive narrative of the Igbo community. It is also easy to realise that Achebe has intentionally relied on a simple style of narration and adhered to an equally simple manner of writing prose. Things Fall Apart is an attempt to bring to the forefront the traditional style of relating stories amongst the Igbo community. Additionally, the stories that form an integral part of Achebe’s novel, are excellent discursive tools that have aided in highlighting the thematic significance of Achebe’s book. To illustrate, chapter 11 is a story about a tortoise. The narrative has the theme of the strength of language, and how it can be used to persuade other individuals. Then again, the same narrative may be viewed as a lecture on the concepts of rising and falling of human beings. The rise/fall is dependent on the individual’s language, verbalisations, and participation in connection with a social dialogue. Another narrative in the novel helps its thematic significance to progress. This major story carries the title, ‘the mother kite and her daughter’. The narrator is Okonkwo’s uncle, Uchendu. Achebe has resorted to the storytelling mode here, such that it becomes possible to easily lead up to the error committed by the Mbaino community. The community has murdered a White man, who refused to say anything, or even display any harsh emotions, even while the Blacks were closing in on him. The moral of the story is that one has to fear people, who think more and chose to stay silent often. It is not necessary to fear those, who merely talk and actually do nothing. Therefore, readers can safely assume that this kind of story is to show up the complex politics that the White colonisers preferred to play. They used all manner of indirect methods to force their mastery over the Blacks. Achebe does not rely on narratives, proverbs, and idioms relevant to the Igbo community. He also takes recourse to another technique that adds to the post-colonial aspects of his discussion. This particular strategy is more straightforward in comparison to the others that have been discussed earlier. It may be recognised as hybridisation via transliteration. It is definite that Achebe’s novel is a mixture of a series of words from the Igbo language and the English language. The Igbo words need to be comprehended within the context. He has also ensured that extremely clear English referents come into play for comprehending Igbo references, in numerous zones. This referencing lucidity is in alignment with a type of 30 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

semantic translation or transition. Obviously, Achebe had some ulterior motive for doing this. In actuality, a majority of the transliterated verbalisations, which show up in italics, have connections to the social, cultural, and religious stipulations that the Umuofia community have laid down. They play the role of linguistic devices. Achebe has used them, in order to garner some type of localisation within a debate that has been framed in accordance with an alien language. Chapter 10 may be taken as an example. Here, there is a lucid picture of the highly efficacious judiciary system that the community of Umuofia adopts. People worship egwugwu. This masked individual is a representation of the ancestral spirits. Igbo language states, Umuofia kwenu! Yaa! Umuofia kwenu! Yaa! Naturally, this kind of a technique makes everything more tangible for the reader. An example is the court scene that represents pre-colonial Umuofia, which has been self-sufficient always. In contrast is the social scene that is explained in chapter seven, which focuses on a narrative about a wrestling competition. This chapter is different from the one relating the court scene. The reader comes across a poem that lavishes praise on the winner of the match. The poem is in English. For instance, the answer to the query on who would fight on behalf of the village, is Okafo. Another query is about how many men has Okafo thrown. The poet wonders if the answer is 100, but the actual reply is 400. Similarly, Okafo is supposed to have thrown, not 100 cats, but 400 cats. After receiving such replies, the community requests that he fight on behalf of them. These illustrations suggest that the visual of a court judging a case through ancestral spirits, is extremely unique, and points towards the unusual cultural traditions of the Umuofia. Therefore, Achebe had to grant it greater importance than to the scene of the wrestling match. It is possible that this uniqueness extends to several other communities too. Therefore, the author resorts to the usage of Igbo language to highlight the matter concerning egwugwu, even while depicting the scene of the wrestling competition. He presents the concluding laudatory poem in the form of a translation in English. Chapter 11 displays this accenting of egwugwu. This action seems to suggest that Achebe is reaching out to the natives reading his novel. In fact, he is urging them to remember for always Umuofia’s social systems. The natives had to remember that their community had one of the best social systems in place during pre-colonial times. This pre-colonial system was sufficient for ensuring a healthy judiciary was in place. There was no need for them to succumb to the demand of the Whites to use their courts. It only resulted in several problems, one of them being the case of land ownership. According to Reichman (55), England was supposed to have offered something invaluable to the colonised populations. It had promised to bring tolerance and reasoning into play for restoring order to utterly chaotic situations. Achebe ridiculed the colonisers’ praise for this so-called British legacy. It might be concluded that Achebe did his best to create a debate that had the capacity to highlight all the positive features of hybridity. He also expressed his thoughts on its negative backlash. This is as good as offering a replacement for colonial publications or other writings, wherein hybridity pitted 31 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

against homogeneity with regard to language. It could also be a sign of granting a chance for expressing oneself to the indistinguishable ‘other’. Regardless, it seems as if the reader has to concentrate on more than just on language, if he/she has to comprehend Achebe’s thoughts in Things Fall Apart. The reader has to understand that the novel is an alternative to the discourse initiated by the colonists, as well as a model for the output of national writings from Nigeria. It is essential to be precise. Towards this end, there must be an analysis of how Achebe has managed to be successful in designing a heteroglossia that is in alignment with Bakhtin’s postulations. This heteroglossia serves to depict the manner in which diverse voices of the Igbo community, despite having their own complexities, and despite the White man’s complexities coming in the way, reach out to each other. Additionally, it must be evident that the Igbo community engages in struggles/negotiations, all in the name of empirical self- poisoning, and within the framework of colonialism. It is essential for the reader to comprehend how these struggles/negotiations have been formed, and how the narrator’s voice portrays them. While concentrating on the content matter of the novel, it becomes evident that the voice that stands out amongst all the other voices, in Things Fall Apart, is that of Okonkwo. This aspect serves to bring into focus the sectoral implications of all the voices that get involved in the discussion. This matter comes to the fore when it is defined in different ways. For instance, there is the dialogic connection with the voice of Okonkwo. Then again, there is the conditioning via the narrator’s voice, which is in support of, or against, Okonkwo’s voice. Undoubtedly, the voices within the novel may go into five major categories. They include the voices of Okonkwo, the voice of the narrator, the collective voices of the Igbo community, the voices of the Imperial colonisers, and the voice of Osu. At the same time, it is not possible to ignore the fact that each category may be subdivided into various constituents. In reality, this aspect has its origin in the subtle voice that the theory of polyphony reflects. Bakhtin espouses a book, wherein there is an in-depth clarification about the manner in which hybridity comes into display within a dialogue. Things Fall Apart reveals that Okonkwo, the protagonist’s voice rises above all other voices. By universal consensus, various studies have given Okonkwo the title of ‘tragic hero’. They have used his story to highlight how the entry of fresh value systems leads to the shattering or destruction of old ones. These new ideas bring the downfall of traditions too. However, the majority of these publications have not granted importance to the fact that generic categorisations are the outcome of conforming to the criteria set by the Europeans, and which will benefit only them. As a result, they are not really capable of empathising with the events that overtook a personality like Okonkwo’s, specifically in the African context. This prevents them from offering an all-inclusive scrutiny. The aspect that it is not possible to deny the evidence of tragic elements in this novel, does not help either. True, Eurocentric thoughts refer to Okonkwo as merely an Aristotelian tragic hero, thereby creating limitations. Nonetheless, it 32 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

is necessary for the reader to understand, as well as develop a more sympathetic attitude towards the events that brought about the downfall of the tragic hero. It is possible to do so via analysis of whatever Okonkwo’s voice conveys. In the early pages of the novel, the narrative voice reveals that Okonkwo loathed Unoka, his father. It was because his father had died without access to a title and was also greatly in debt. Umuofia was the example of a patriarchal community. Therefore, one could get hold of titles, only if one had the requisite prosperity to do so. Okonkwo had been depending upon this aspect as a suitable channel for attaining self-actualisation. In other words, this channel, amongst a few others, would suffice to give stability to his voice while participating in social discussions. His father’s socioeconomic status leads to the development of an inferiority complex within Okonkwo. In turn, it causes Okonkwo to nurture deep hatred for whatever society chose to label or define as feminine. Thus, the inferiority complex is the psychological stressor that dictates Okonkwo’s mindset. It also explains why Okonkwo displays a certain kind of rigidity in thought about what constitutes masculinity and gender roles. He takes out his frustrations on Nwoye, his son, and berates him for his assumed femaleness/sissiness. Okonkwo’s attitude may prove to be exactly why he tended to suppress certain principles or voices internally, because they seem feminine in nature. The Igbo community, however, despite its patriarchal mindset, believed that there had to be a healthy balance between feminine and masculine principles within each member. Okonkwo is unable to be like the other members of the community. He is even displayed as an individual who is incapable of containing his wrath. He even resorts to beating one amongst his several wives, despite it being the Week of Peace. He sins against the Goddess of Earth, by doing so. At the same time, he is fearful of losing his position in the community or revealing himself to be a weak personality. Therefore, he thinks nothing of ignoring the wisdom of what Obrieka and Ezedu say. They advise him not to participate in a sacrifice that has been determined by the mystic. The oracle tells Okonkwo to sacrifice a boy, Ikemefuna. Okonkwo had brought up the boy within his clan, and the boy looked upon Okonkwo as his own father. Viewed from a different perspective, Okonkwo’s downfall may also be attributed towards his inability to display the internal voices contradicting what was happening. If he had found these voices, he would have been able to possess an understanding of what was valid and truthful. They would also have helped him to progress towards self-actualisation. It is the reason why he is unable to think on the same lines as Obrieka, his friend, does. Okonkwo does not give the requisite attention to the changes making their way into Igbo society through the entry of the colonisers. Instead, he merely views these invaders as threats that cause him to lose his voice (not literally) when the social discussion is going on. Nonetheless, if the reader were to look beyond the surface, and also grant due respect to the narrative voice, he/she may discover that the highlighting of Okonkwo’s voice does not mean that the entire story is moving towards reflection of the circumstances surrounding that voice. This means that Achebe had no intention of limiting 33 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

his story to the outlining of how Okonkwo’s tragic downfall took place. He did not even intend to overuse Aristotelian terms to emphasise the downfall. Instead, his intention was to go beyond the layer of individuality and agree with the collective nature of the Igbo community, as it existed in pre-colonial times. Achebe achieved this via an objective or omniscient narrative. Therefore, readers may conclude that if there had to be a narration about an African tragedy, it would have to be related in the context of a communal downfall. The majority of the Igbo community were unable to express themselves since the imperial centre drowned out their voices via their own powerful one. The Westerners were unbending in their attitude, determined to impose their viewpoints upon the suppressed in the harshest way possible. Finally, the old value systems had to take a backseat forever. Okonkwo comes across as a tragic hero, because of his Achilles Heel. He is unable to understand all the aspects of the new type of social discussion that is emerging slowly. He is also unable to comprehend how he might create a stable status for himself via his real voice. Therefore, he goes on the wrong path. He kills himself. His religion deems this as an unforgiveable sin. Thus, he had his shortcomings. Regardless, the reader might remember that colonial intolerance, according to Levine (96), was the real cause of this tragedy. Such intolerance did not allow the open expression of the Igbo voices. Another important aspect is the collective voice of the Igbo community. Admittedly, the purpose of this book was to highlight the life and lifestyle of the Igbo community as it existed prior to colonialism. Achebe wanted to record everything in as comprehensive and objective manner as possible, in order that it would prompt his fellow citizens to strive for a recovery of national identity. He believed that national identity was essential in order to initiate a struggle for independence. In actuality, the identity of the Igbo community, prior to the advent of colonialism, was extremely dependent upon the members of the community. The liveliness of the social discussion was the outcome of space given over to each voice to express itself, despite being under the guardianship of the judiciary, religion, and society. Achebe’s discussion in his novel, found it necessary to outline the collective voice of the Igbo community. It may be concluded that he has completed this self-given task in a highly satisfactory manner by depending upon some ritualistic features of the Igbo culture that is rather metaphoric. The glossary outlined at the conclusion of the story awards egwugwu the definition of a masquerader taking up the role of one amongst the ancestral spirits haunting the village. As the reader peruses the story, he/she will be able to grasp the symbolic significance that egwugwu’s voice expresses. It is deemed as a cardinal sin to remove the mask from an individual’s personality. It is equally sinful to link that voice to the voice of an individual on earth, even if the one on earth carries a title and is wearing a mask. Viewed as an analogy, it seems to be the communal verbalisation of the ancestors, and not the titled person with a mask. The masked, titled person has good knowledge of social and religious rules, which enable him to observe court scenes, rituals, or consult meetings. 34 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The 13th chapter of Achebe’s novel emphasises upon a judgement case. The author draws upon it in an extremely graceful manner. The third section of this chapter highlights how a newly-converted Christian Igbo unmasks an egwugwu. However, it will become very clear to the reader about why Achebe uses this tactic. It is possible to view this act symbolically. It is the facilitator for the destruction of the collective values held so dear by the Igbo community prior to the inception of colonialism. The community had managed to remain united through their history, heritages, and ideology. Christianity had used a process that seemed close to transubstantiation, to concentrate everything into a lone voice. The voice of Osu is next in line for elaboration. This outcast’s voice was important too, amongst the polyphony of all the voices highlighted in Things Fall Apart. The community had dedicated Osu to a God. Therefore, he did not have permission to mingle with, or negotiate with the other members of the Igbo community. He could not mix with the freeborn too, in any event. Sara Talis O’Brien believes that Osu serves as a contradiction to the ideology practised by the Igbo society. This notion would prove forceful for moving through a system, wherein the garnering of titles would enable people to climb right to the top of the Igbo community. An exception was the event, wherein twin infants were left to die in an evil forest, since Earth found them to be offensive to the land. Therefore, they had to be destroyed. Achebe has permitted the first half of his book to focus on Osu’s life, or from another viewpoint, on the ‘other’ prevalent inside the Igbo community. This is extremely meaningful, justifying the events that will reveal how the White colonisers will treat these outcasts after they enter the premises of the Igbo village. It suffices to reinforce Achebe’s endeavour to offer a morbid perusal of the reasons for things falling apart. The endeavour strove to avoid being subjective in its portrayal. Towards this end, it cannot stop itself from giving voice to the ‘voices’ that the Igbo community had itself suppressed during its historical journey. Therefore, it becomes essential to find out how the narrator’s voice comes through while at work. Several readers have managed to grasp the crucial role that the narrator’s voice takes up in Things Fall Apart. They have suggested diverse ideas about the controlling mechanism. Sometimes, these ideas seem contradictory in nature. Regardless, it may be safe to declare that the narrator’s voice is highly significant, especially in this particular novel. It aims to improve the polyphonic aspects, as desired by Achebe. It does this by moving through various narrative structures on various pages of the novel. Thereby, it destroys the boundary that exists between non- omniscient and omniscient. In turn, this progresses to an improved observation of the Igbo voices that existed in pre-colonial times. These voices had participated actively in diverse acts of the social discussion. There had also been an encounter between the old and the new voices (White’s voices), leading to the emergence of a new discussion. However, this debate about voices in Achebe’s novel will remain incomplete, if the colonisers’ voices are not included. In actuality, Achebe’s intention has been to offer sufficient space for each reader to listen to all the voices, without giving in to any presumptions or prejudices. He outlines the 35 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

vitality of foregrounding the issues of hybridity and variety with regard to voices. The author also outlines how the adopting of novel positions at varied times during an ongoing discussion, makes it possible for every voice to harmonise a different result. Taking this into account, it becomes possible to discover what Achebe’s major task has been while in the role of the post-colonial writer. It could be that he wants to relate how the invading White’s voices managed to impose novel discursive roles on the voices of the Igbo community members. The colonists then conditioned the Igbo community to bow to hegemony. At the same time, the reader must remember that Achebe has also successfully displayed an alternative. He reveals the possibility of progressing towards a novel liminal space, wherein the community may negotiate for a better future. The reader may comprehend this only after scrutinising deeply the conflict between the colonisers’ voices and the Igbo people’s voices. The reader may also understand this after viewing the confrontation between discourses possessing diverse natures. Admittedly, this matter conveys the importance of Achebe’s novel. He has taken up the task of carefully bringing to the forefront, all the diverse voices that can be heard in the context of a colonial discussion. The reader may go through the third section of the novel, and the discursive relevance of these voices. They include the voices emanating from British commissioners, churches, and the individuals who have undergone conversion. It is obvious that the English language has a strong affiliation with the culture and politics of a developing nation. It is a kind of phenomenon. Here, both, language and literature come into play for urging the emergence of a cocooning and scholarly nationalism. In the Britain of the 19th century, academic establishments considered English as an elite subject. Only academicians and scholars could be comfortable with it. The syllabi at Cambridge and Oxford proved to be sufficient evidence for this inclusion of English as a separate and elite subject for perusal. The Newbolt Report of 1921 reaffirmed this thought process. Hitherto, the Classics had occupied the throne of humanistic studies. Now, the imperial regime of the 19th century wished to replace them with English as the focal point of intellectual enterprise. However, even after this occurred, those who favoured English as a better discipline, took recourse to the methodology of teaching the Classics for promoting English too. The Classics had emphasised upon historical background, scholarship, and philology. Therefore, the proponents of English strove to fix the literature in alignment with a historical timeline. They also engaged in a thorough search for resources that would supply an agreed, single, and unified meaning. Thus, that particular historical moment (19th century) when English received acceptance as an academic discipline, was also the moment when the world witnessed the emergence of the colonial form of that witnessed the emergence of 19th century imperialism, albeit in a colonial shape. 36 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Gauri Viswanathan’s powerful arguments apply to the institutionalisation and accompanying admiration for the study of English literature. These components permitted the study to be in alignment with the ideological writings and a shape that was typical to the colonial context. India was victim to this phenomenon. In India, the colonists faced dual problems. On the one hand, they were encouraged by missionaries. On the other, they feared that the natives would show insubordination. Therefore, they used English literature as a supportive friend, for retaining control over Indians, all under the guise of offering a liberal education. Critics may argue that a lone ideological climate was responsible for the progress of Imperial rule and the study of the English language. They could also argue that development in one area often led to development in the other. Both areas had an intrinsic bonding, at the level of simple usefulness (example – propaganda), as well as at the level of the unconscious. This led to the naturalising of the fabricated values examples – humanity, civilisation). Paradoxically, there was also the establishment of primitive, savagery, native, etc, as the antitheses of the fabricated values. They became the objects of those possessing a zeal to reform others. When English Studies came into being, a ‘privileging standard’ remained at the heart of its inception. This norm was the template, which refused to accept that uncanonised, peripheral, or marginal had anything of value to offer. Literature was at the heart of the Empire’s cultural endeavour. This was similar to monarchy being central to political establishment. Therefore, when the concepts of margin and periphery posed a threat to the exclusivity of the centre, the colonists had them incorporated, and speedily. As per Edward Said, this was an operation, where conscious affiliation seemed to be moving forward under the pretence of filiation. In other words, it was a mimicry of the imperial throne, moving in alignment with the wish to be accepted, adopted, and absorbed. As a result, the people from the periphery strove to make the foreign culture their own. This caused them to deny their origins, and in fact, to become more English than the colonists themselves. Post-colonial communities strove to keep their identities different from Great Britain. Those nations that realised the link between cultural incorporation, education, and language, tried to dispose of the connection between the study of literature and language. They accomplished this by doing away with the English departments present in universities. These departments became separate institutions, some for Literature, and some for Linguistics. The project offered these institutions to view everything with a national or international flavour. All the argumentative debates involving Africa, come to the fore via an illuminating description in this essay, On the Abolition of the English Department, authored by Ngugi. Another essay, The Neo-Colonial Assumption in the University Teaching of English, authored by John Docker, talks about similar issues within the framework of a settler colony. The essay offers a description of a scenario, wherein there is hardly any authentic decolonisation in evidence. This is in contrast to the situation in Kenya. Docker’s essay clarifies that in the majority of 37 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

post-colonial countries, including India and the West Indies, the British culture had continued to remain so strong, that efforts to destroy this domination had failed badly. Another hindrance to the dismantling of colonialism, had been the great power that flowed through the English language and literature. Of course, these attempts began to succeed afterwards. Regardless, the English literatures, the canonical nature of these works, and the values that these literatures stood for in the eyes of the colonists, continued to enjoy an enviable status. Therefore, they became a part of the culture and ideology of establishments that focussed on literature and education, even in newly-independent nations. The potency of colonialism still remained. Nonetheless, the growth of post-colonial writings encouraged people to question several of the assumptions that formed the basis of studying the English language. 1.5 SUMMARY  The theory on Postcolonialism is built from the colonial experiences of people who engaged in liberation struggles across the globe, and particularly in the tricontinental countries in Africa, south-east Asia and south Asia, and Latin America.  The theory has witnessed the emergence of a continual stream of cultural forces that desired representation. It permits people, who have been freeing themselves from the economic and socio-political authoritarianism exerted by colonialism, to negotiate for equality in the global environment.  The theory is not at war with past events, even within the framework of a dislocated culture. Instead, it offers a challenge to the outcomes of exploitation that had occurred in the past. Thus, it focuses on the psyche of the dominator and the dominated whilst decolonisation is taking place.  Both, the populations engaging in imperialism and colonisation, and the people suffering the impact of imperialism and colonisation, become consciously responsible, as cultural revolution refuses to go hand-in-hand with subjugation. In fact, the theory of postcolonialism enhances the level of self-consciousness. In turn, this brings about a novel reaction in the mindsets of both, the dominating and the dominated. They desire to set up a community where greater value is given to equality and liberty.  Some post-colonial communities grant importance to alternatives. Therefore, experts recommend that it would be healthy to go back to indigenous languages. This would help in restructuring existing attitudes to both, indigenous cultures and local cultures. It would also serve to create an efficacious bridge between the native populations and outsiders. After all, a major part of the native population has styled their lives to be in alignment with their native tongues.  The stress for returning to indigenous languages gathered steam during the process of decolonisation. The processes of decolonisation have been associated with specific 38 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

social and cultural programmes. The former aimed to democratise culture, while the latter aimed to re-evaluate and recoup culture.  There is great similarity between studies on culture and criticism offered by post- colonial processes. However, this criticism has a unique take on politics and literary output. Therefore, it deserves a separate debate.  The critics of the post-colonial period are generally concerned with the publications that came into being via the minds of imperial powers, and those that the colonised produced/are producing. The theory of post-colonialism observes elements like religion, economics, power, culture, and politics. It strives to figure out how they operate in connection with colonial hegemony. This hegemony refers to colonisers from the West dominating populations from elsewhere.  A critic from post-colonial times would exhibit interest in the character of Robinson Crusoe. This central character from Daniel Defoe’s book of the same name, expresses a colonial ideology while dealing with Blacks. He dominates the Black slave, giving him a name, such as Friday. He also colonises the land where he has been shipwrecked. Similarly, Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness reveals an anti-colonial theme. According to post-colonial theory, the book does suggest that the colonised population lends itself to a kind of savagery that is in contrast to European behaviour in general.  The criticism awarded to colonialism is also expressed through literature. Post- colonial authors exhibited criticism of the hegemony that the Europeans practiced at the height of colonialism.  Ngugi we Thiong (Kenya) and Chinua Achebe(Nigerian) are seminal writers from the post-colonial period. They have emphasised upon the sufferings of colonised populations in many of their writings. To illustrate, Achebe outlines the conflicts and devastation that followed the movement of British colonists from the Nigerian coast towards the interior. This story is part of Things Fall Apart.  Achebe does not grant importance to the adventurous spirit or the exploratory mindset of the European colonists as they set about expanding their captured territories. Instead, the author stresses upon the damaging occurrences, which caused the enslavement and death of a large number of Nigerians. It led to the establishment of the imperial regime in Nigeria. Thanks to the forceful insertion of Western economics and religion into Nigerian culture, the natives began to develop new identities and cultural practices. Thus, the effects of colonisation were negative.  Critics of post-colonialism also wonder about the role played by Western history and literature in colonisation. They acted as dominant types of knowledge making. The Westerners decided that they deserved the position of First World, as their cultures 39 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

were superior. They awarded the labels of Second World, Third World, and Fourth World to colonised nations. Post-colonial critics find this abhorrent.  The criticism highlights the written perceptions of the First World populations with regard to their literature and history. In other words, the critic from post-colonial times might decide to question the publications forming part of the literature canon. It is because the canon avoids including works that come from writers, who are not part of the Western cultures.  Additionally, similar to Joseph Conrad, the canon’s authors stress upon the hegemonic ideology nurtured by colonists. True, critics from the Western world might express the idea that Heart of Darkness criticises the behaviour of colonists, quite adequately. However, authors and theorists from the post-colonial years might refuse to agree with such critics. Chinua Achebe emphasises that the novel refers to Africans as savages, even while seeming to criticise Europeans. The novel suggests that Europeans merely exhibit a thin veneer of civilisation. In reality, they are the equivalent of barbaric Africans. Conrad indicates that Africans belong to pre- historical times. Therefore, they are incomprehensible, howling, and frenzied in their behaviour.  Hence, one can see how postcolonial studies several facets has as it covers spaces and identities across the globe, which have been touched profoundly by the experience of colonisation, and subsequent efforts at decolonisation as well. 1.6 KEYWORDS  Colonialism: It refers to the practice/policy of one nation taking over partial/complete control of another one. The invaders settle down on the captured lands, converting themselves into settlers, who go in for economic exploitation of the invaded territories.  Postcolonialism: It refers to academic research, albeit in a critical manner. The research covers the cultural legacy left behind by imperialism and colonialism. The critique stresses upon the impact created upon the dominated populations and their lands via exploitation and control.  Postcolonial Theory: The theory focusses on elements, such as religion, power, politics, culture, and economics. It also strives to comprehend how the elements operate in connection with imperial hegemony.  Imperialism: It is a policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonisation, use of military force, or other means.  Decolonisation: The action or process of a state withdrawing from a former colony, leaving it independent. 40 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.7 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Other colonial narratives include Aphra Behn’s Oronooko and other travel writing by European writers. One can even give a postcolonial reading of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s story, A Sign of Four (The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes). ……………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2. The politics and issues regarding the usage of language to subjugate as elucidated by Macaulay can be witnessed in Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. ……………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3. Chinua Achebe’s criticism on Heart of Darkness as a ‘racist’ text may be perused to comprehend how subconsciously Eurocentric ideas come up in seemingly sympathetic narratives. Joseph Conrad’s portrayal of African landscape and populations may be compared to the narratives written by African writers like Achebe, Nguigi and Soyinka. ……………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 1.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Briefly trace the background of colonisation. 2. From which colonised spaces have postcolonial literatures emerged? 3. What do you understand by ‘postcolonial reading’ of texts? 4. Identify critics and authors who have talked about post-colonial literature and theory. 5. Define postcolonial identity. Long Questions 1. Trace the brief background of colonialism, and the birth of a post-colonial mindset. 2. What are the various challenges faced by postcolonial writers as they seek to debunk imperialist ideologies? 3. What is postcolonial theory? How do the various theories create an improved comprehension of literature that engages with postcolonialism? 41 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4. Elucidate on the theories formulated by the seminal critics of the theory related to post-colonialism. 5. Read any ‘colonial narrative’ and critically analyse it. B.Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which country among these was primarily responsible for the colonisation of Africa and India? a. Russia b. England c. China d. Japan 2. When was American Independence declared? a. 1776 b. 1778 c. 1780 d. 1802 3. The action of ‘breaking away’ from colonial rule and ideology is called- a. Independence b. Appropriation c. Abrogation d. Decolonisation 4. Who is the author of Things Fall Apart? a. Nguigi Wa’Thiongo b. Chinua Achebe c. Mulk Raj Anand d. V S Naipaul 5. Who was the theoretician who authored The Wretched of the Earth? a. Bill Ashcroft b. Gayatri Spivak c. Frantz Fanon d. Homi K Bhabha Answers 1-(b), 2-(a), 3-(d), 4-(b), 5-(c) 42 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.9 REFERENCES Textbooks  Ashcroft et al, (2002) The Empire Writes Back. Routledge, Oxon.  Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers.  Loomba, Ania, (2005) Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge, Oxon.  Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism.  Young, R. J. C. (2003) Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Reference Books  John McLeod, (2000), Beginning Postcolonialism, Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press.  Ania Loomba, (1998), Colonialism/Postcolonialism, London and New York: Routledge.  Rumina Sethi, (2011) The Politics of Postcolonialism: Empire, Nation and Resistance, London: Pluto. Websites  https://www.researchgate.net/  http://www.limag.com/Cours/  https://ecumenico.org/ 43 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 2: THE EMPIRE WRITES BACK – A COMPILATION OF SIGNIFICANT LITERATURES RELATING TO THE POST-COLONIAL PERIOD Structure 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Identification and Implementation of the Four Important Models of the Postcolonial Theory 2.3 Summary 2.4 Keywords 2.5 Learning Activity 2.6 Unit End Questions 2.7 References 2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, the student will be able to:  Describe post-colonial theory’s four models as elucidated by Ashcroft et al.  Recognize and explain the implementation of the four models in literature.  Explain models of syncreticity and hybridity. 2.1 INTRODUCTION Ashcroft et al. were the first to offer majorly significant literature regarding post-colonialism in the form of The Empire Writes Back. The theoretical account is a compilation of texts related to the post-colonial period. This account displays the connection between these texts and the large-scale issues surrounding the culture during this period. Ashford et al. refers to three authors, renowned for their knowledge regarding studies related to post-colonialism. They reveal their expertise via the initiation of open debates regarding the relationships existing between the various literatures harping on that period. They also explore the strong forces influencing the language that comes to play in the post-colonial content. Finally, they point out how the textual matter serves to criticise Eurocentric ideas about language and 44 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

literature in a radical manner. The three authors comprise of Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. Ashcroft holds the position of a teacher in Australia (University of New South Wales). Griffiths works at the University of Albany in the U.S. Tiffin’s place of work is Australia (University of Queensland). Each of the three teachers has several individual publications to his/her credit. Together, they have provided editing expertise for the Post- Colonial Studies Reader in 1994. This publication had already achieved fame for its ground- breaking research. Finally, the three teachers worked together on Key Concepts in Post- Colonial Studies in 1998. Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin provide an account of how postcolonial societies have expressed their thoughts in a written format to the masters of the empire. The book urges to examine discourses or counter-discourses penned by the marginalised writers. They have written or told stories via the medium of re-writing/presenting history, myth, gender and genre, diaspora space etc. Outlining past events in the form of original writing, rewriting, or narration is akin to providing a response to the centre. Even fictional writing based on events from history performs the same function. Marginalised writers suggest that a Centre does not exist now. In fact, the colonisers or the masters and the colonised or the subdued seem to be a part of the same writing, which takes from a centre or place. This writing focuses on the post- colonial period that revealed the crises or after-effects coming into play after decolonisation taking place within the country. The literatures even seem akin to assaults upon the colonisers, albeit in their own language, suggesting that they should give back the land to the natives. A particular essay in The Empire Writes Back identifies the four models that link to the post- colonial theory. Ashford et al. are the investigators of this theory. 2.2 THE IDENTIFICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FOURIMPORTANT MODELS OF THE POSTCOLONIAL THEORY The unique character of the written discourses of post-colonialism prompted both, critics and writers to give serious thought to the development of a specific model that would suffice to represent them. As a result, four significant models have come to light. The first one comprises of regional/national models. They highlight the distinctive aspects of the concerned regional/national culture. The second model focuses on race. It ferrets out shared characteristics that exist in diverse national texts. For instance, the Black writing model is typical to African literatures. This diaspora grants great importance to racial inheritance. Such inheritance is common amongst Africans. The third model is given to comparison of a couple or more literatures pertaining to the post-colonial period. It seeks to examine the cultural, linguistic, and historical aspects stressed by these writings. Since it is for comparison, the model may be sub-divided to provided models of diverse complexity. The fourth model also 45 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

focuses on comparison. However, the comparative models are far more comprehensive than those witnessed in the third type. Here, these models concentrate on elements like syncretistic and hybridity. They are constitutive elements that exist in all literatures linked to post- colonialism. Syncretism refers to the merger of unique linguistic categories or extended cultural extensions, for creating a brand-new form. All the four models come into display as assumptions existing in critical practice. In general, they do not show up as discrete/specific schools of thought. Thus, more than one model comes into prominence whenever there is a debate on post-colonial literatures. Regional/National Models North America was the primary post-colonial community to create ‘national’ literature. It was distinctive during the latter part of the 18th century. However, sceptics had various questions about ‘connections’. How did the place link to literature? How did nationality connect with literature? Did certain literary forms that were inherited, suitable for the USA? Thus, there was a sprouting of ideas regarding the new types of textual matter. However, they helped, rather than hindered the optimistic movement towards nationhood. In fact, people felt that this was a potent way of differentiating themselves from the English, or rather, the USA being different from Great Britain. Charles Brockden Brown and other writers strove to depict sentimental novels and the gothic as indigenous to Britain. However, they soon understood that it was not possible to do so in a different geographical location and within a different cultural context. It was impossible to transfer concept and form from one shore to another in the absence of radical alteration. The Americans had already experienced colonialism. Their attempt to introduce a novel kind of literature post it, could have proved to be the model for the post-colonial writings that turned up later. American writings revealed that the relationship between the colonial masters and the country under their control, tended to deeply influence the post-colonial nation’s cultural and linguistic characteristics. The contrast between the frontier and the European metropolis became significantly defined too. The American Revolution had sufficed to grant emphasis to the demand for a separate nation and nationality. In turn, people began to take the political and economic successes of the newly-formed nation for granted. Thereafter, it was no big deal for American literature or the novel collection of American texts to become popular. Regardless, the tag of the texts being offshoots of the British (parent) literatures, remained. This tag expressed itself in the form of organic metaphors. They included stream- tributary, parent-child, etc. They prevented American literatures from becoming arrogant. These metaphors even served to bring out differences in tradition, age, roots, and experience. They even emphasised the link between value and antiquity. They showed up the differences between frontier and metropolis. As for the parent-child distinction, parents were obviously greatly important and experienced, in comparison to their children. Furthermore, they had 46 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

more substance in them, and tended to be less brash in behaviour, in comparison to their offspring. Parents were the origin of their offspring. Therefore, they had to have the final word with regard to value and taste. Nonetheless, American literature demanded to be independent from British literature. It strove to develop characteristics that were different from the latter. This led to the creation of literary variations between the writings of Americans and those of Great Britain. They became national literary variations. As a result, writings from nations, such as India, Nigeria, Australia, etc, entered discrete literary discussions as national formations. No one referred to them as the branches of the parent tree. These new literatures became an integral part of the political and social histories of their respective countries. Readers decided that they could serve as establishers of their respective national identities. The launch of national texts and development of constructive criticism regarding them, has been the foundation of the entire venture of post-colonial literatures. In the absence of these country-based developments, and the comparative explorations of diverse national traditions, it would have been impossible to initiate post-colonial discourses. Of course, development does not refer jumping from one platform to another. After all, post-colonial debates hinge upon literary criticism and national writings. The rejection of the centre claiming to be exclusive in nature may be attributed to the perusal of the national traditions. In fact, this study is most vital to this rejection process. Wole Soyinka, the writer from Nigeria had suggested that this was the beginning of the self-apprehension process. Modern theories that connect to a general debate on post-colonialism, wonder about essentialist expressions that could result in prejudiced and nationalist orthodoxies. However, the same theories acknowledge the vitality of maintaining the sense of particular variations found in each kind of literature. These differences are responsible for promoting the idea that each nation’s literature constitutes its identity. They also promote the native literature’s manner of self-apprehension. However, cliches and partial truths may find themselves highlighted as orthodoxies in nationalism. This is a danger that is ever present in the native’s understanding of literary output. The desire to move towards national self-realisation via crucial aspects of literature, may not always serve to curb the emergence of nationalist myth. Literature, such as that from the South Pacific or the West Indies, give rise to the idea of regional literature. It is because they incline towards being improved geographical models. They go beyond the boundaries of race, language, or nationality. This literature may also succumb to some limitations that apply to the national model. African literature, on the other hand, appeals strongly to critics and authors in varied African nations. However, it can carry the label of descriptive literature only to a limited extent. Until date, European and African 47 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

critics have come up with some national and regional literature, which suffices to display the large-scale cultural, political, and economic variations that exist amongst African nations. Obviously, certain regional groupings stand to garner regional acceptance, in comparison to others. They will also be able to benefit from the collective identity in evidence, in different ways. West Indies is an example. Here, the Federation did not come up to expectations. However, nations that have English as a national language, still go in for a regional cricket group. There are regional universities in both, the South Pacific and the West Indies. They contribute significantly to literary production and subsequent debates. In fact, literature from the West Indies possesses a regional flavour, rather than a national flavour. No one has bothered to go in for a deep study of literatures from Trinidad or Jamaica, in the name of discrete traditions. There is the development of a regional grouping, instead, which is different. This grouping places emphasis on determinants that are historical and geographical in nature, and side lined those that are linguistic in nature. The grouping also goes in for exploring literature from the Caribbean. This literature is available in English from the concerned region, but also available in French, Spanish, and other languages spoken across Europe. True, the national model has undergone modifications. Regardless, the English texts that have sprouted beyond British shores have been accepted as individual, yet national ventures. Each one reflects the concerned nation’s culture. It was inevitable that the outcome would be a slow blurring of the difference between the concepts of nationalist and national. In general, nationalism has included the rejection of the West (Great Britain and USA)’s hegemony observed in literature. The literature arena includes publishing, public sponsorship of texts, and education. However, it has often been noted that nationalist criticism has not succeeded in deviating the terms of debate within the circle of which it functions. As a result, nationalist criticism tends to be an implicit or explicit part of the debate. Paradoxically, this debate/discourse is under the exact imperial power that the nationalist criticism sought to exclude. There may be emphasis on the nationalist literature. Regardless, the value judgements, the theoretical assumptions, and the critical perspectives may be replications of the British establishment. It was not possible for models and theories related to post-colonial texts to show up, until a certain condition was fulfilled. It was necessary to observe the various colonies within a framework that focussed on their respective cultural and literary traditions. Great Britain had been exultant about the disparities existing within its empire, thereby enabling it to cut the ground. However, in striving to display its Victorian empire as the seat of adventure, exoticism, and exploitation, it created its own contradictions. The contradictions became defined within its own worldview. The diversities existing amongst colonies became relegated to the backseat, as their common variations from Britain took precedence. 48 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Therefore, even journals, such as White and Black, which dealt in comparisons of different colonies, could not truly move away from the colonial-metropolitan axis. The education systems during colonial times served to give added emphasis to this axis. They did it by offering a standard grouping of history, literature, and landscape focussing on Great Britain. Examples may be found in the Queensland Readers, Australia, or in the Royal Reader Series, West Indies. (Browning’s thoughts in exile, Wordsworth’s daffodils, Sir Philip Sidney’s chivalry) and a sprinkling of colonial adventure which often asserted British values against a hostile physical or human environment (Stanley’s explorations, Newbolt’s desperate cricketers). Nationalist traditions had to make aggressive efforts to destroy this existing pattern of always using Great Britain as a benchmark for everything. This way, it became possible to grant due consideration to the cultural and literary patterns that the diverse colonies shared amongst themselves. Then again, it has become possible to have a foundation for an authentic discourse on post- colonialism. This foundation refers to three major kinds of comparison. One set of comparisons deal with the white diaspora. The countries included in this diaspora, include New Zealand, Canada, the USA, and Australia. The other set of comparisons focus on the Black diaspora. Finally, there is a third group, which serves as a bridge between the above- mentioned diasporas. An example is the comparison of the literature of Australia and the literature of the West Indies. J. P. Mathews’ ‘Traditional Exile’ is a prime example of the first category. This important work offers a comparison between poetry in Canada and Australia in the 19th century. Tradition in Exile investigated significant similarities and important national and regional differences, and though, as the title indicates, it still alluded to the imperial connection, its investigations of developmental parallels occasioned by the transplantation of traditions and the English language into other geographical locations laid the foundations for later studies which would perceive the imperial–colonial relationship as disjunctive rather than continuous. For example, several essays in McDougall and Whitlock (1987) which focus on Canada and Australia; Jones which considers important literary–political similarities between the USA and Australia, and Kirkby which argues for the significance of American, instead of the British, influence on contemporary Australian poetry. W. H. New’s recent Dreams of Speech and Violence (1987), for instance, suggests, through an exhaustive observation of the short story in New Zealand and Canada, that these two post-colonial literatures’ relations to Britain is subversive rather than filiastic, more counter-discursive than a continuing expression of the first imperial discussion. Other critics like Moore (1969), Ngugi (1972), Griffiths (1978) concentrate on similarities between writing within the diaspora of the Blacks, comparing the writings of African 49 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

countries with those of nations connecting to the West Indies and/or with Black American writing. Less frequently, comparisons have been drawn between countries or regions across Black and white diasporas – Dorsinville’s Caliban Without Prospero (1974) which deals with the literatures of the Black diaspora and Quebec, and, more recently, comparisons of Australian convict and West Indian slave literature. Such studies, because they can deal in greater detail with two or three areas, form important bridges for the discourse of post- colonialism which deals with all areas, both Black and white. Model Dealing with ‘Black Writing’ Another grouping which traverses several of the literatures from postcolonial societies is ‘Black writing’. This proceeds from the thought of race as an important aspect of political and economic discrimination and draws together the African diaspora’s writers whatever their nationality – African Americans, Afro-Caribbean’s, and writers from African nations. The African characteristics of this particular model are important, for although the classification might be extended to include, for instance, Polynesian, Melanesian, or Australian Aboriginal writing (and even writing by whites about Africa or India as an antagonistic term), this extension has hitherto, not been enthusiastically embraced by critics outside the African diaspora. Even where the thought of Black writing has worked well, in comparing and contrasting Black American writing with that from the West Indies or from Africa, it overlooks the excessive cultural variations between literatures which are produced by a minority of Blacks in a rich and powerful white country and those produced by the Black majority population of an independent nation. This is especially so since the latter nations are often still experiencing the residual effects of foreign domination within the spheres of politics and economics. Nonetheless, the post-colonial discussions have witnessed racism in the form of criticising of writings by Black authors. There have even been instances of Europeans writing about Black communities. Therefore, regardless of the qualifications mentioned earlier, such events have been responsible for impacting thought processes. Aime Cesaire, the Martinican gave birth to the concept of Negritude in 1945. Leopold Sedar Senghor, the politician and poet from Senegal, was extremely assertive about the significantly unique qualities pertaining to the culture and identity of the Blacks. Unfortunately, such assertions also included stereotypes that seemed to reflect upon the prejudices of Europeans. The assertions/stereotypes suggested that African culture inclined towards emotionalism, rather than towards rationalism. Similarly, Black culture opted for wholeness and integration, rather than for dissection and analysis. Another idea was that Africans went in for specific temporal and rhythmic principles. As per the concept of Negritude, Africans had a distinct way of observing ethics, metaphysics, time-space relationships, and aesthetics. This viewpoint was distinctly different from that the Europeans adhered too. Europeans believed their styles and tastes to be 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)