3.6 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (1) research design in case of exploratory research studies; (2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies. 1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about: (a) the survey of concerning literature; (b) the experience survey and (c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypotheses, whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the researcher. 2. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: While diagnostic research studies work to ascertain the frequency with which something occurs or its relationship to another object, descriptive research studies are focused with describing the features of a certain person or group. Examples of diagnostic research studies are those that examine whether particular variables are related. In contrast, studies that make precise predictions or that recount facts and features about a single person, organisation, or circumstance are all examples of descriptive research studies. The majority of social research 51 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
falls within this area. Descriptive and diagnostic research projects can be grouped together because they both share certain requirements from the perspective of the research design. The researcher must be able to identify what he wants to measure explicitly, discover appropriate methods for measuring it, and have a precise definition of the \"population\" he wants to analyse. This is true for both descriptive and diagnostic studies. Since the goal of the aforementioned investigations is to gather complete and reliable information, the process to be employed must be properly developed. The research design must provide for adequate bias protection, maximise reliability, and take appropriate measures to ensure that the research project can be completed affordably. Such studies must have a rigid, non-flexible design that focuses on the following: (a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?) (b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be adopted?) (c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?) (d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should the data be related?) (e) Processing and analysing the data. (f) Reporting the findings. Processing and analysis of the acquired data are required. This entails actions like coding the observations, interview responses, etc.; tabulating the data; and carrying out various statistical calculations. The processing and analysis process should be carefully planned before beginning actual work, to the extent practicable. This will be cost-effective because the researcher won't have to spend time creating tables that he won't use or, on the other hand, redoing certain tables because he forgot to include important information. Coding should be done carefully to prevent coding errors, and for this reason it is important to assess the reliability of the coders. Similarly, by having a sample of the tables redone, the correctness of tabulation can be verified. When using mechanical tabulation, the material (i.e., the data or information gathered) must be put on the proper cards, typically by punching holes that match to a specific code. Punching accuracy needs to be verified and ensured. Finally, since statistical calculations are required, it is necessary to calculate averages, percentages, and different coefficients. It is 52 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
also possible to apply sampling analysis and probability. To protect the drawing of conclusions about the study, the proper statistical procedures and application of relevant tests of significance should be carried out. Thus, the research design for descriptive or diagnostic studies is a comparative design that sheds light on all of the aforementioned elements and must be designed with the study's objective(s) and available resources in mind. However, it must make sure that bias is minimised and dependability of the gathered evidence is maximised. Given that it considers all the procedures required in a survey on a phenomenon to be examined, the aforementioned design is suitably referred to as a survey design. 5. The research design for studies that test hypotheses is as follows: The purpose of hypothesis-testing research investigations, also referred to as experimental studies, is to examine potential causal links between variables. Procedures that will not only lessen bias and improve reliability but also enable making conclusions regarding causality are necessary for these investigations. Experiments typically satisfy this criteria. As a result, while discussing research design in these studies, we frequently refer to the design of experiments. 3.7 IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN Purpose of research design / Use of research designs are as follows 1) Lowers Cost: By organising the study activity in advance, research design can help lower the unnecessary expenditures in terms of time, money, and effort. 2) Encourage smooth scaling An effective study design is crucial for carrying out the scaling process effectively. It makes the research procedure successful enough to produce the most pertinent results in a simple manner. 3) Aids in the Preparing of Useful Data Collection and Analysis Methods: Research design aids researchers in planning the means of data collection and analysis in accordance with the goal of the study. Since it serves as the basis for all research, it is also accountable for producing reliable research results. A research project's integrity can be harmed if the research design is not properly planned. 53 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4) Aids in the Consistent Movement of Research Operations: To offer the research a better and more useful structure, research design is required. Research design supports the smooth flow of research operations and avoids potential complications for researchers because all decisions are decided in advance. 4) Aids in Obtaining Expert Reviews: Research design aids in creating an overview of the entire research process and, as a result, aids in obtaining comments and reviews from various experts in that field. 6) Gives Executives a Direction: The researcher and the executives involved in the research are directed by the research design to provide their pertinent support. 3.8 FACTORS AFFECTING RESEARCH DESIGN Various factors that affect research design are as follows : 1) Research Questions: When choosing a research methodology, research questions are crucial. There are many different types of study designs, each with its unique approach to data collection. A case study or a field survey, for instance, can be used to identify the firm's decision-making process, while a survey can be undertaken for the respondents to ask them descriptive or related questions. 2) Time and money restrictions: The time and money available to researchers to complete the research project are limited. When time and financial restrictions are beneficial for the researcher's extensive study, he might choose between experimental and descriptive research. If time is of the essence, an exploratory research design can be used. 2) Research Objective: Every research project aims to produce findings that will aid in the accomplishment of specific goals. The choice of study design is influenced by this research purpose. The study design chosen by the researcher should be appropriate for the research purpose and offer the best chance of producing useful results. 54 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4. Research Problem The nature of research difficulties has a significant impact on the choice of the research design. To determine the cause-and-effect relationship of the study problem, for instance, the researcher chooses an experimental research strategy. Similar to this, the researcher typically uses the experimental research design approach if the research problem requires in-depth analysis. 5) Personal Experiences: The choice of study design is also influenced by the researchers' own experiences. For instance, a researcher with statistical analysis expertise would choose quantitative research designs. Researchers that specialise in theoretical aspects of research, however, will be compelled to choose a qualitative research design. 6) Target Market: The choice of research design is greatly influenced by the sort of target audience. The target audience for whom the research is conducted must be taken into account by the researcher. The general public, business professionals, or the government may be the audiences. For instance, the researcher should choose a qualitative research design if the research is intended for the general audience. The researcher should introduce the study to the business specialists using a quantitative research design, similarly. 3.9 SUMMARY The positivist/postpositivist paradigm is typically connected with quantitative research. In order for statistical computations to be performed and conclusions to be reached, it typically entails gathering data and putting it into numerical form. A method for testing objective hypotheses by looking at the relationship between variables is quantitative research. To enable statistical analysis of numbered data, these variables can be measured, often using instruments. A variable is a concept that can have many quantitative values. As a result, variables include ideas like height, weight, and money. The existence or absence of the relevant attribute is used to quantify qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) (s). \"Continuous variables\" refer to phenomena that can have quantitatively varied values down to decimal points. However, not all variables are continuous. They are considered non- 55 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
continuous variables, or \"discrete variables\" in statistical parlance, if they can only be stated as integer values. Research design aids researchers in planning the means of data collection and analysis in accordance with the goal of the study. Since it serves as the basis for all research, it is also accountable for producing reliable research results. A research project's integrity can be harmed if the research design is not properly planned The most suitable research design must be flexible enough to allow for the analysis of many various elements of a phenomenon if the research study is exploratory or formulative, where the main focus is on the discovery of ideas and insights. However, accuracy becomes a crucial factor when a study's goal is an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables (or in what are known as the descriptive studies), and a research design that minimises bias and increases the reliability of the evidence collected is considered to be a good design. A good study design is thought to minimise the biasness while maximising the dependability of the data being gathered and analysed. The opportunity should be offered in accordance with the numerous parts of the study challenge in a solid research design. It should deliver the most information while minimising experimental error. Thus, it can be inferred that the choice of research design depends on the nature of the research and the research topic 3.10 KEYWORDS Research Design: Research Design is important as it guides the researcher to identify the correct methods of data collection and analysis, conditions in which the activity of research shall be carried out and approximation of the funds to be utilized for it; maintaining its connectivity to the purpose of research. A good research design is characterized by its flexibility, effectiveness and suitability etc. Generalizability: A research strategy is said to be generalizable if the findings are applicable to a larger population than the one from which the sample was drawn. By carefully defining the population, choosing the sample, conducting the required statistical analysis, and methodologically developing the study design, a research 56 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
design can be made generalizable. Therefore, the research strategy is more effective the more generalizable the results are. Suggestion for Further Research: This section helps the researcher to make the readers understand the broader scope of research that may be taken up next. It also brings forward the unanswered questions, new questions about the study, newer scopes, and the findings that may seem inconclusive. Confidentiality: Sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes other than research is unethical. Identification of study population to put the findings into context may be important but then it has to be assured that the information provided by respondents remains anonymous Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes. Data collection is a component of research in all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, and business. It is a component of research in all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, and business. 3.11LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define Research design ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the different research designs ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. What are the features of research design? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. Explain the importance of Research design. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 57 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3.12UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions: 1. Define research design? 2. Explain what is dependent variable? 3. Describe briefly about independent variable? 4. What do you understand by extraneous variable? Long Questions: 1. Explain the various features of Research deisgn. 2. Explain in detail about various research design 3. What are the importance of research design? 4. What are the factors affecting research design? 5. Write a note on developing research approach. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. The positivist/postpositivist paradigm is typically connected with _______ research. a. quantitative b. Quantitative c. Research design d. None of the above 2. The ability of the research tools to produce conclusions free from the observer's individual biases is referred to as ______ a. Objectivity b. Productivity c. Reliability d. Validity 58 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3. ________ research is an approach to inquiry that involves collecting both quantitative and qualitative data a. Mixed methods b. Qualitative c. Quantitative d. Fundamental 4. A ________ is a concept that can have many quantitative values a. Variable b. Subjective c. Design d. General behaviour Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-a, 4-a 3.13 REFERENCES References book Shukla, Satishprakash, (2020) Research Methodology and Statistics. Ahmedabad: Rishit Publications. Shukla, Satishprakash, (2014) Research – An Introduction (Gujarati) Ahmedabad: KshitiPrakashan Kothari C.R. : Research Methodology, New Age International, 2011. Shajahan S. : Research Methods for Management, 2004. Thanulingom N : Research Methodology, Himalaya Publishing C. Rajendar Kumar : Research Methodology , APH Publishing Kumar Ranjit: Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners, Sage Publication, 2014 Website https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research-design/#: https://leverageedu.com/blog/research-design/ 59 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT - 4RESEARCH DESIGN -II STRUCTURE 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Research process 4.3 Research methods 4.4 Summary 4.5 Keywords 4.6 Learning Activity 4.7 Unit End Questions 4.8 References 4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe research process Identify scope of research methods 4.1 INTRODUCTION When a research project is carried out, it adheres to a clear pattern or plan of action from problem identification to report preparation and presentation. The term \"research design\" refers to this specific pattern or course of activity. It serves as a road map for the researcher as they gather and examine the data. In other words, the study design serves as a guide for conducting the research. For instance, without knowing the construction of a building, it cannot be built. Until a builder is aware of the structure of a building, such as an office building, school, residence, etc., he cannot place orders for raw materials or set deadlines. Definition of Research Design: According to William Zikmund : \"Research design is defined as a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collection and analyzing the needed information.\" 60 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
According to Kerlinger : \"Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance\". Research design is necessary because it makes it easier for the many research activities to go smoothly, which maximises the amount of information that can be obtained with the least amount of work, time, and money. We need a research design or a plan before we collect and analyse the data for our research project, just as we need a well-thought-out and prepared blueprint (also known as the map of the house) for better, more affordable, and appealing house construction. Research design refers to the early planning of the approaches to be taken for gathering the pertinent data and the approaches to be utilised for their analysis, bearing in mind the goal of the research and the resources (people, time, and money) that are available. The research design should be created with extreme care because any mistakes could derail the project as a whole. The research exercise could become pointless if the research endeavour was designed carelessly. Therefore, creating an effective and appropriate design before beginning research operations is essential. The design aids the researcher in structuring his thoughts so that he can examine them for shortcomings and inadequacies. Even others may be given access to such a design for feedback and critique. It will be challenging for the critic to give a thorough critique of the planned study in the absence of such a course of action. 4.2 RESEARCH PROCESS As a means for advancement, research satisfies the human race's insatiable curiosity. Whether you are a student in high school or college, you must complete a research topic in order to receive your diploma. Here are the seven steps in the research process to lessen your workload: 1. Identification of a research problem Always begin your research with a well-chosen problem. To identify the study question that is best for you, you can read print materials, visit locations, observe people or objects, go on field trips, or consult specialists. Your hypothesis and interpretation of your findings are 61 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
guided by the research problem so that you can reach the appropriate conclusion. Because it serves as the foundation for all of the subsequent research activities you plan to conduct, a strong research problem is crucial. Finding a solid research problem requires taking into account a number of factors, including your area of interest, financial resources, the socioeconomic importance of the study, and the safety precautions you need to take. The most crucial and crucial step in the study design process is the definition of the research problem. Providing the management with the information they need is part of defining the research problem. It is impossible for the researcher to draw reliable conclusions without properly identifying the research problem. When defining the research question, the researchers first analyse the management issues or opportunities before analysing the context. To ensure that the research topic is accurately portrayed and the management choice is accurately described, the research challenge must be made clear. Following a situation analysis, they create a research model that aids in the specification of information, the following phase. 2. Formulation of Hypothesis Developing your own hypothesis is the next step after identifying your research challenge. A theoretical assertion used to resolve a logical relationship between variables is known as a hypothesis. If your hypothesis turns out to be false after the experiment, don't be concerned because it was simply an educated estimate. Always keep in mind that your hypothesis should be founded on the problem being addressed by the research. A research problem is often tackled based on some kind of knowledge. These facts come from both past experiences and additional sources. Some early conclusions about the research problem are drawn in light of this data. Additional information is always required and is always available without cost or delay, but it might be challenging to wait and pay for the useful information. A vehicle manufacturing industry, for instance, would be worried about a decline in sales of a certain model. A researcher will examine many factors in an effort to find the answers. For this, the researcher must continuously gather a large amount of data, analyse it by comprehending its value, and eliminate irrelevant data. 62 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3. Review of Related Literature A research problem is first ambiguous. You should read a variety of publications or browse the internet to learn about the earlier efforts done in order to get a clear image of the entire research. In doing so, it can inspire a notion that will become the focus of your inquiry. Science books, magazines, journals, newspapers, and even the internet can be used to review related literature. 4. Preparation of Research Design A research design serves as the general framework for the investigation you plan to conduct. It acts as the overall study's work plan because it details both the resources required for the research and how those resources will be used. 5. Actual experimentation The research design is put into practise in actual experiments. When you actually do an experiment, you have to demonstrate that your hypothesis is correct. The research methodology you used is an example of an actual experiment. Prior to conducting the experiment, the approach should be thoroughly planned to guarantee the reliability of the findings. After collecting data, the measurement technique for the collected data is selected. The major measurement techniques used in research are as follows : i) Questionnaire : Questionnaire is a formal structure which contains questions to collect the information from the respondents regarding his attitude, beliefs, behavior, knowledge, etc. ii) Attitude Scales : Attitude scales are used to extract the beliefs and feelings of the respondents regarding an object or issue. iii) Observation : It is the monitoring of behaviors and psychological changes of the respondents. It is widely used in research. 6. Results and Discussion 63 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Because this is where the research's findings are located, it is the central component of the research process. To interpret the findings of your investigation, use a table (not the kitchen table) and a graph. 7. Development of Conclusions and Suggestions The conclusion is a statement in which, in light of the research's findings, you will offer a solution to the issue that was raised. They are connected to the issues being looked into. If your experiment was successful or not will be evident in your conclusion. Your research question and hypothesis should be addressed. You can also deduce the potential social advantages of your findings in your concluding remark. Describe any future plans you may have to focus on further aspects of your field of study. We must keep in mind that conclusions are based on findings, and findings are based on conclusions. Making a study proposal is the last step in the research design process. The operation and control of research involve creating a research proposal or a research design. Before the actual research is conducted, a strong research proposal is created. 4.3 RESEARCH METHODS Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question: Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of words or numbers? Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else? Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment? Second, decide how you will analyze the data. For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables. For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data. 64 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
1. Descriptive Analysis A type of research called descriptive research combines surveys with various kinds of fact- finding inquiries. This type of research focuses on describing the current situation as it is. Ex post facto research is another name for descriptive research. Since the researcher cannot influence the variables at play in this research design, they can only report the facts exactly as they occurred or are occurring. When doing research to identify traits, frequencies, or trends, researchers frequently employ a descriptive study approach. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The descriptive research methods are mainly, observations, surveys as well as case studies. 2. Analytical Study In analytical research, the researcher must make do with the facts and data that are at their disposal and interpret them in order to carry out a thorough review of the data. Researchers frequently do this type of research to find supporting data that strengthens and authenticates their earlier findings. It is also done to come up with new concepts related to the subject of the investigation. There are numerous ways to conduct this research, including by conducting meta analyses, literary studies, scientific trials, and polling the public. 3. Applied Study Applied research is the type of study that steps in to help when a firm, or let's say the society, is faced with a problem that needs an urgent answer or resolution. We generally employ applied research to address problems that affect our daily lives, our jobs, our health, or our welfare. This form of study is carried out to find solutions for problems linked to many industries, such as education, engineering, psychology, or business.For instance, a business might hire an applied researcher to determine the best method for choosing individuals who would be the best fit for particular roles within the business. The main goal of applied research is to identify a solution to a particular, pressing practical problem. 65 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4. Fundamental Analysis This type of research is focused on developing a theory or comprehending a specific natural occurrence. The goal of fundamental research is to unearth knowledge that has a wide range of applications and supplements preexisting ideas in a particular subject or industry. Other examples of fundamental research include research on the study of pure mathematics or research on the generalisation of human behaviour. Research of this kind is mostly conducted in the fields of science, psychology, and education.For instance, basic research in psychology helps the person or the business understand certain behaviours better, such as understanding how caffeine consumption may affect a student's ability to pay attention or how cultural prejudices may lead to sadness. 5. Quantitative Analysis As the name implies, quantitative research is based on the measurement of a certain quantity or amount of a specific occurrence. It focuses on collecting and analysing numerical data and can be used to find averages, patterns, or to forecast the future. This type of research is quantitative and falls within the two primary categories of research. To arrive at a conclusion, it uses graphs, tables, and data. Unlike the results of qualitative research, those produced by this study may be measured and replicated. This form of research is primarily used for scientific and field-based studies. Quantitative research generally involves a large number of people and a huge section of data and has a lot of scope for accuracy in it. These research methods can be adopted for approaches like descriptive, correlational or experimental research. Descriptive research - The study variables are analyzed and a summary of the same is seeked. Correlational Research - The relationship between the study variables is analyzed. Experimental Research - It is deciphered to analyse whether a cause and effect relationship between the variables exists. 6. Qualitative Research As the name implies, this type of research focuses more on the characteristics of a certain phenomena and explores both the \"what\" and the \"why.\" Consider, for illustration, a business that sells clothing for both sexes yet sees more women than males. 66 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
By conducting in-depth interviews with certain potential customers in this group, qualitative research might ascertain why males aren't frequenting the business. This type of research is interested in discovering the driving forces behind human behaviour, i.e., why people act in a given way or think in a certain way. The elements that affect people's preferences for particular things or that cause them to behave in a certain way can be understood through this research. An example of Qualitative Research would be Motivation Research. This research focuses on deciphering the rooted motives or desires through intricate methods like in depth interviews. It involves several tests like story completion or word association. Another example would be Opinion Research. This type of research is carried out to discover the opinion and perspective of people regarding a certain subject or phenomenon. This is a theory based form of research and it works by describing an issue by taking into account the prior concepts, ideas and studies. The experience of the researcher plays an integral role here. 7. Conceptual analysis This study relates to a hypothesis or an ethereal idea. Thinkers and philosophers use it to either create new concepts or reevaluate ones that already exist. The fundamental definition of conceptual research is a process in which the study is carried out by observing and evaluating the information that is already available on a certain topic. It excludes performing any real-world experiments Famous philosophers like Aristotle, Copernicus, Einstein, and Newton frequently used this process to produce original theories and insights about how the universe functions as well as to examine preexisting ones from various angles. The ideas were developed by philosophers to investigate their surroundings and to categorise, delve into, and summarise the material at their disposal. 8. Empirical Study This research methodology ignores theory and system in favour of concentrating only on elements like observation and experience. It is based on data and capable of producing 67 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
conclusions that can be validated or confirmed by experiment and observation. Empirical research is mostly carried out to find evidence that particular factors are affecting the others in a specific way. Experimental research is another name for this type of study. In order for the researcher to actively carry out the actions and alter the relevant materials to obtain the knowledge he needs, it is crucial that all the facts in this research be obtained personally, directly from the source. 4.4 SUMMARY Research design is necessary because it makes it easier for the many research activities to go smoothly, which maximises the amount of information that can be obtained with the least amount of work, time, and money. We need a research design or a plan before we collect and analyse the data for our research project, just as we need a well-thought-out and prepared blueprint (also known as the map of the house) for better, more affordable, and appealing house construction. A type of research called descriptive research combines surveys with various kinds of fact-finding inquiries. This type of research focuses on describing the current situation as it is. Ex post facto research is another name for descriptive research. Since the researcher cannot influence the variables at play in this research design, they can only report the facts exactly as they occurred or are occurring. When doing research to identify traits, frequencies, or trends, researchers frequently employ a descriptive study approach. Research design aids researchers in planning the means of data collection and analysis in accordance with the goal of the study. Since it serves as the basis for all research, it is also accountable for producing reliable research results. A research project's integrity can be harmed if the research design is not properly planned A research problem is often tackled based on some kind of knowledge. These facts come from both past experiences and additional sources. Some early conclusions about the research problem are drawn in light of this data. Additional information is always required and is always available without cost or delay, but it might be challenging to wait and pay for the useful information. 68 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
A good study design is thought to minimise the biasness while maximising the dependability of the data being gathered and analysed. The opportunity should be offered in accordance with the numerous parts of the study challenge in a solid research design. It should deliver the most information while minimising experimental error. Thus, it can be inferred that the choice of research design depends on the nature of the research and the research topic 4.5 KEYWORDS Research Design: This section assists the other researchers to follow and replicate the study being presented. All the practical methods used to select the population, area, collecting the data, selecting the respondents, selecting sample sizes, and methods of analysis used for these are presented in research design. Suggestion for Further Research: This section helps the researcher to make the readers understand the broader scope of research that may be taken up next. It also brings forward the unanswered questions, new questions about the study, newer scopes, and the findings that may seem inconclusive. Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature: This section covers the sources of information and background research done by referring to the literature available. A good researcher keeps the details of all the sources and literature referred and should ensure giving suitable references wherever necessary to avoid being accused for plagiarism i.e. breach of copyrights, unauthorized copying, or illegal use of information. The Harvard System is generally used to quote reference to a particular book, a chapter in the book, or an article in the journal. Data Analysis and Interpretation: This is one of the most important sections of the report as it contains all the relevant information pertaining to the presentation of data in the study conducted e.g. tables, charts, graphs, statistical data charts, figures etc when it is quantitative research and a narrative prose or write uo describing the findings if it‘s a qualitative research 69 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
4.6 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define research process ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the Identification of a research problem ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. What is Descriptive Analysis? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. What is Applied Study? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS 70 A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions: 1. What is Analytical Study? 2. What is research design? 3. What is Fundamental Analysis? 4. List the steps of research process. Long Questions: 1. Explain in detail about Research process. 2. Explain the research problem. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
3. Explain Formulation of Hypothesis 4. Explain in detail various types of Research methods. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. A _______ is often tackled based on some kind of knowledge. a. research problem b. research process c. analytical study d. fundamental analysis 2. ________ research is the type of study that steps in to help when a firm a. Applied b. fundamental c. pure d. problematic 3. __________ is a formal structure which contains questions to collect the information from the respondents regarding his attitude, beliefs, behavior, knowledge. a. Questionnaire b. interviews c. fundamental d. formal 4. A type of research called __________ research combines surveys with various kinds of fact-finding inquiries a. descriptive b. analytical 71 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
c. fundamental d. interview Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-a, 4-a 2.8 REFERENCES References book Shukla, Satishprakash, (2020) Research Methodology and Statistics. Ahmedabad: Rishit Publications. Shukla, Satishprakash, (2014) Research – An Introduction (Gujarati) Ahmedabad: KshitiPrakashan Kothari C.R. : Research Methodology, New Age International, 2011. Shajahan S. : Research Methods for Management, 2004. Thanulingom N : Research Methodology, Himalaya Publishing C. Rajendar Kumar : Research Methodology , APH Publishing Kumar Ranjit: Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners, Sage Publication, 2014 Website https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/ https://www.iedunote.com/research-process https://www.slideshare.net/aditigarg.aditigarg/research-process-14719283 72 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT - 5SAMPLING-I STRUCTURE 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Advantages of sampling 5.3 Problem identification and formulation 5.4 Summary 5.5 Keywords 5.6 Learning Activity 5.7 Unit End Questions 5.8 References 5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe nature of Sampling Identify scope of problem idenfication in research State the need and importance of sampling 5.1 INTRODUCTION Sampling is a strategy for choosing specific individuals or a subset of the population in order to draw conclusions from them statistically and estimate the characteristics of the entire population. Researchers frequently utilise various sampling techniques in market research so they do not have to study the full community in order to gather useful information. It serves as the foundation of any research design because it is also a time- and money- efficient strategy. For the best derivation, sampling techniques can be utilised in research survey software. It is nearly impossible to perform a research study that includes every member of the population, for instance, if a pharmaceutical company wants to investigate the negative side effects of a drug on the populace of the nation. In this situation, the researcher chooses a sample of individuals from each demographic and then conducts research on them, providing indicative input on the behaviour of the drug. 73 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
How you choose your sample will have a big impact on how accurate your results are. Any sampling plan's fundamental goal is to reduce, within the constraints of cost, the discrepancy between the values acquired from your sample and those common in the research population. The fundamental idea behind sampling is that a relatively small number of units, if carefully chosen to accurately reflect the study population, can offer - with a high enough degree of probability - a fairly correct depiction of the sample population that is being examined. The avoidance of bias in sample selection and the achievement of the highest level of precision for a given resource expenditure should be your two main sampling goals. Random/probability sampling designs, non-random/non-probability sampling designs, and \"mixed\" sampling designs are the three kinds of sample design The first two categories contain various sampling techniques. To choose the sampling design that is best for your study, you must be familiar with each one's advantages and disadvantages as well as the circumstances in which they may or cannot be used. Your ability to extrapolate sample results about the study population and the kinds of statistical tests you can run on the data will be influenced by the sampling approach you employ. A \"sample\" is a small sample taken from or representing a larger group or aggregate. In other words, the sample serves as a representative representation of a bigger total. The \"population\" or \"universe\" is the name given to this greater entity. This term is used more broadly in research; it refers to a clearly defined group that can include people, things, human traits, or even the actions of inanimate objects like the tossing of a coin or the roll of a die. A sample should not only be representative but also sufficient to provide its characteristics stability. So what is the perfect sample size? A sufficient sample is one that has a sufficient number of cases to guarantee accurate results. In the event that the population being studied is homogeneous, a small sample is adequate. However, if there is more variation in the population's units, a considerably bigger sample is required. As a result, the method for selecting the sample size differs depending on the type of attributes being studied and how they are distributed in the population. 74 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
5.2 ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING 1. Reduced cost & time: Utilizing a sample cuts down on the number of people that need to be contacted, which cuts down on both cost and time. Comparing research with a population of millions to research utilizing a sample, consider the time savings. 2. Reduced resource deployment: It stands to reason that if the sample size of a research project results in a significantly smaller number of participants, the resources required will likewise be substantially smaller. Compared to studying the entire population, a lot smaller workforce is required for the research on the sample. 3. Data accuracy: Since the sample is representative of the population, the information gathered is correct. Additionally, the survey dropout rate is significantly lower because the respondent is willing to participate, improving the validity and quality of the data. 4. Intensive & exhaustive data: Data that is intense and thorough because there are fewer respondents: Data that is intense and thorough since there are fewer respondents. Instead of needing to gather data from many respondents, more time and effort is given to each one. 5. Applying properties to a larger population: Because the sample is representative of the overall population, it is reasonable to assume that the information gathered and examined from the sample can be applied to the larger population and would hold true. 5.3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND FORMULATION The term \"identification of research problem\" refers to the knowledge of a persistent social issue, a social phenomena, or a notion that merits investigation in order to be understood. 75 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Such a study problem is discovered by the researcher by observation, knowledge, wisdom, and abilities. Research problem types In the social sciences, there are four common conceptualizations of a research problem: 1. Casuist Research Problem – This sort of problem pertains to the judgment of right and wrong in matters of behavior or conscience by evaluating moral conundrums through the application of basic principles and the careful differentiation of special circumstances. 2. Distinction Is there a difference between two or more groups or treatments? is a common research problem. When a researcher contrasts or compares two or more phenomena, they utilize this form of problem statement. In the clinical social sciences or behavioral sciences, this is a typical method of problem definition. 3. The objective of a descriptive research problem is to characterize the relevance of a certain circumstance, condition, or occurrence of a particular phenomena. This issue frequently exposes unrecognized or unstudied problems. 4. A relationship of some kind between two or more of the variables being studied is suggested by the term \"relational research problem.\" The overarching goal is to look into particular traits or qualities that might be related in some way. Sources of Problems The identification of a problem to study can be challenging, not because there's a lack of issues that could be investigated, but due to the challenge of formulating an academically relevant and researchable problem which is unique and does not simply duplicate the work of others. To facilitate how you might select a problem from which to build a research study, consider these sources of inspiration: Inferences from Theory This relates to inferences drawn from social philosophy or generalizations present in the researcher's knowledge of life and society. Then, through research, these inferences from human behavior are set inside an empirical frame of reference. The researcher can develop a research problem or hypothesis from a theory that specifies the anticipated outcomes in particular empirical circumstances. What link between variables will be seen if theory 76 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
accurately captures the situation, according to the research? A systematic inquiry can then be planned and carried out to determine whether or not the theory and its underlying hypothesis are supported by empirical data. Importance of identifying and formulating the research problem: 1. Helps to understand in a better way: A research problem is the first step in carrying out a food and nutrition research study, which aids in a better understanding of the topic. You can better grasp the Research Methodology if you have a research challenge. Most researchers who are just starting out mistakenly believe that formulating a research problem is simple. To create a scientific research problem, the researcher must give the issue a lot of thought. The research challenge presented in the problem statement for the PhD thesis is simple to handle and can be resolved by scientific methods. 2. It aids in achieving the study's goal: Since you cannot choose a research approach without knowing the aim or target, the main goal of the PhD Problem Identification is to identify the intention and objective of the research in the area of food and nutrition. Researchers will find it helpful to identify each step of the research process, including the study design, sampling plan, research instrument, and research analysis procedure, with the aid of PhD dissertation problem statement experts. 3. Knowing how much time, effort, and resources are required for research is useful: The time, effort, and resources required to do the research are efficiently determined by identifying the research challenge. It operates by defining and proposing a research question for the study of food and nutrition. This step in the process of gap identification aids in the creation of appropriate prospects for good, manageable research effort. The Problem Statement for a PhD Thesis Help clarifies matters because new inquiries are raised during the study process. The researcher may get lost if there isn't a specific, well-defined problem. Additionally, for the researcher to be fully interested in your research, the clarity should be appealing. 4. Be creative with your research: The identified research issue must be novel and distinct. You can identify whether the problem has already been addressed in research using your specific sample by conducting a helpful evaluation of the literature. consulting experts Doctoral dissertation research issue Identification can shed light on a situation. The originality lies in figuring out whether a 77 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
problem that has already been solved holds true in a new population, yet replication of an earlier work calls for a discussion of value elsewhere. 5. Helps discover meaningful work: The field in which the study was conducted should be greatly impacted by your research problem. When research fills a knowledge gap and is applied directly in the field, it can be practical and advance the field. New researchers lose uniqueness in their work since they do not see this procedure as a necessary step. Finding a research gap is made easier with the help of a PhD dissertation problem statement consultation, but it also contributes significantly to the caliber of the food and nutrition research that is done. 6. To find current needs, research is required: The most difficult phase to complete is creating a dissertation research problem, however it greatly enhances the worth of conducting research. Using this approach, you can gain knowledge of current food and nutrition trends. Find out what subjects are covered in the local journals of today. Examine incoming calls from appropriate disciplinary groups. PhD Thesis Problem Identification examines your research center design, focuses on problems, and develops the best working strategy to address the issue in the food and nutrition industry. The scientific method is used to answer research problems, hence the problem's feasibility or researchability is more crucial than any of the aforementioned qualities. 5.4 SUMMARY Research design is necessary because it makes it easier for the many research activities to go smoothly, which maximises the amount of information that can be obtained with the least amount of work, time, and money. We need a research design or a plan before we collect and analyse the data for our research project, just as we need a well-thought-out and prepared blueprint (also known as the map of the house) for better, more affordable, and appealing house construction. A type of research called descriptive research combines surveys with various kinds of fact-finding inquiries. This type of research focuses on describing the current situation as it is. Ex post facto research is another name for descriptive research. Since the researcher cannot influence the variables at play in this research design, they can only report the facts exactly as they occurred or are occurring. 78 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
When doing research to identify traits, frequencies, or trends, researchers frequently employ a descriptive study approach. Research design aids researchers in planning the means of data collection and analysis in accordance with the goal of the study. Since it serves as the basis for all research, it is also accountable for producing reliable research results. A research project's integrity can be harmed if the research design is not properly planned A research problem is often tackled based on some kind of knowledge. These facts come from both past experiences and additional sources. Some early conclusions about the research problem are drawn in light of this data. Additional information is always required and is always available without cost or delay, but it might be challenging to wait and pay for the useful information. A good study design is thought to minimise the biasness while maximising the dependability of the data being gathered and analysed. The opportunity should be offered in accordance with the numerous parts of the study challenge in a solid research design. It should deliver the most information while minimising experimental error. Thus, it can be inferred that the choice of research design depends on the nature of the research and the research topic 5.5 KEYWORDS Probability: Probability is the ratio of the number of ways in which a favoured way can occur to the total number of ways the event can occur. It may range from zero, when there is no chance whatever, of the favoured event, to 1.0, where there is absolute certainty that nothing else could happen. Probability sampling: In probability sampling, the units of a population are not selected at the discretion of the researcher but by means of certain procedures which ensure that every unit of the population has one fixed probability of being included in the sample. It is a procedure of drawing the units of a population in such a way that every unit has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. This section helps the researcher to make the readers understand the broader scope of research that may be taken up next. It also brings forward the unanswered questions, 79 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
new questions about the study, newer scopes, and the findings that may seem inconclusive. Nonprobability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the units are selected at the discretion of the researcher. The researcher uses his/her judgement or experience while selecting the sample. Sampling frame: A complete, accurate, and up-to-date list of all the units in a population is called a sampling frame. 4.6LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define Sampling ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the advantages of sampling. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. What is problem identification? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. What is Importance of identifying and formulating the research problem? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 5.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions: 1. List the advantages of sampling 2. What is problem identification and formulation? 3. Whatis sampling? 80 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Long Questions: 1. What is sampling? 2. What are the various types of sampling? 3. Explain in detail about problem identification and formulation. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. A \"_________\" is a small sample taken from or representing a larger group or aggregate. In other words, the sample serves as a representative representation of a bigger total a. sample b. sampling c. identification d. formulation 2. ________ research is the type of study that steps in to help when a firm a. Applied b. fundamental c. pure d. problematic 3. __________ is a formal structure which contains questions to collect the information from the respondents regarding his attitude, beliefs, behavior, knowledge. a. Questionnaire b. interviews c. fundamental d. formal 4. A type of research called __________ research combines surveys with various kinds of fact-finding inquiries 81 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
a. descriptive b. analytical c. fundamental d. interview Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-a, 4-a 5.8 REFERENCES References book Shukla, Satishprakash, (2020) Research Methodology and Statistics. Ahmedabad: Rishit Publications. Shukla, Satishprakash, (2014) Research – An Introduction (Gujarati) Ahmedabad: KshitiPrakashan Kothari C.R. : Research Methodology, New Age International, 2011. Shajahan S. : Research Methods for Management, 2004. Thanulingom N : Research Methodology, Himalaya Publishing C. Rajendar Kumar : Research Methodology , APH Publishing Kumar Ranjit: Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners, Sage Publication, 2014 Website https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41951/1/Unit-1.pdf https://www.iedunote.com/research-process https://www.slideshare.net/aditigarg.aditigarg/research-process-14719283 82 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT - 6SAMPLING-II STRUCTURE 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction to statistical population and sample 6.2 Sampling frame 6.3 Summary 6.4 Keywords 6.5 Learning Activity 6.6 Unit End Questions 6.7 References 6.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe sample Identify scope of statistical population State the need and importance of sampling frame List the characteristics of sampling frame 6.1 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL POPULATION AND SAMPLE For a variety of reasons, researchers typically are unable to conduct direct observations of every component of the population they are investigating. Instead, they gather information from a sample of the population in order to draw conclusions about the full population. In a perfect world, a sample's features would match the traits of the population it was taken from. In that circumstance, general population inferences gained from a sample are likely applicable. We'll talk about sampling fundamentals, specifically how to conduct a sample that's representative of the general population. It covers various sample-drawing techniques that, depending on the situation, might help save a lot of time, money, and labor. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, and quota sampling as well as non-random sampling techniques such as stratified sampling, systematic sampling, multistage sampling, 83 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
and simple random sampling. The benefits and drawbacks of sampling and census are discussed. Additionally covered how to estimate the sample size for a certain population. Let's use an example to try and understand what the phrases \"census\" and \"sample\" mean. If you wanted to research the effect of television commercials on children in Delhi, you would have to gather pertinent data from the city's young viewers. Alternately, we may refer to this as the population (statistical jargon) for your investigation. The Census method of data gathering is used if you get information from every single one of them without omitting even a single youngster. This entails researching the entire population. Otherwise, it is known as a sample for data gathering if you only select some of the children from among them to acquire the needed information about the study because it is not practical to gather the information from all of the children. Therefore, a sample is a subset of a statistical population whose features are examined to learn more about the population as a whole. It can be described as a group of respondents (people) chosen from a population for the purpose of a survey when discussing people. A population is a collection of distinct individuals, things, or other units from which samples are drawn for measurement. The numerical characteristics of a population are called parameters. They are fixed and typically of arbitrary size. One population parameter is the average height of all male adult Indians. Sample statistics are indeed the numerical properties of the sample data, such as the mean, variance, or proportion. Estimates of the appropriate parameters of the population can be derived from it. A sample statistic would be, for instance, the average (x) height of a sample of 1000 Indian male adults living in Delhi. Sampling is the method of choosing a representative sample with the intention of determining the characteristics of the entire population. Webster defines a survey as ‘the action of ascertaining facts regarding conditions or the condition of something to provide exact information especially to persons responsible or interested’ and as ‘a systematic collection and analysis of data on some aspect of an area or group’. The data cannot be turned into precise knowledge unless the researcher undertakes a collection of information, followed by meticulous analysis and interpretation of the data. On the basis of overall depth, surveys can be categorized into two groups: census and sample survey. A census is a comprehensive survey of the people. Covering the entire population's responders, items, or units is required. For instance, one method is to gather information on the pay of each and every worker in the textile sector in order to understand the wage structure of the nation's textile industry. A sample, however, is a representative portion of the 84 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
population. As a result, in a sample survey, we only include a sample of respondents, objects, or demographic units that interest us before drawing conclusions about the entire population. The benefits of census are as follows: 1) Every person who responds to a census is taken into account, and data on numerous population factors is produced. 2) Information derived from census data is more trustworthy and accurate. It is a common technique for gathering information on unusual topics like child labor, sex distribution, average educational attainment, etc. 3) A census can be used in place of a sample survey if it is your first time conducting a survey. Future studies will use the data gathered using this census method as a foundation. The only way to gather population statistics for some really important investigations, for example, is through a census. A study cannot contain every component of a population in order to get a reliable result. Additionally, because populations are frequently very big, it would be difficult, time- consuming, and expensive to research every single unit. For instance, there are more than 50,000 undergraduate students enrolled in universities. It is impossible to gather data on all of these pupils' study habits for our research. A researcher will therefore need to choose a sample of the population, or a representative few, for the survey. Sampling is the procedure in question here. 85 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Table No 6.1 Population Vs Sample When your research issue calls for or allows you access to data from every member of the population, populations are utilised. Data collection from a large population is typically only simple when the population is small, approachable, and cooperative. Example: A high school administrator wants to analyze the final exam scores of all graduating seniors to see if there is a trend. Since they are only interested in applying their findings to the graduating seniors in this high school, they use the whole population dataset. It is frequently difficult or impossible to collect data from every person in larger and more dispersed groups. For instance, the US federal government uses the US Census to attempt to count every person residing in the nation once every ten years. To disperse funding across the country, this information is used. However, historically, it has been challenging to reach out to, locate, and promote involvement from low-income and underrepresented communities. The population census is incomplete and slanted towards specific groups as a result of non-responses, which causes disparate funding across the nation. 86 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
You must employ a sample when your population is sizable, spread geographically, or challenging to reach. Utilizing statistical analysis, you can estimate or test hypotheses regarding population statistics using sample data. A sample should ideally be drawn at random from the population and be representative of it. The danger of sample bias is decreased and internal and external validity are improved when probability sampling techniques are used, such as simple random sampling or stratified sampling. Population parameter vs. sample statistic There are several metrics and figures you can generate from data that you get from a population or a sample. An indicator of the entire population is referred to as a parameter. A measure that describes the sample is a statistic. To determine the likelihood that a sample statistic deviates from the population parameter, estimation or hypothesis testing might be used. Research example: Parameters and statistics In your study of students’ political attitudes, you ask your survey participants to rate themselves on a scale from 1, very liberal, to 7, very conservative. You find that most of your sample identifies as liberal – the mean rating on the political attitudes scale is 3.2. You can use this statistic, the sample mean of 3.2, to make a scientific guess about the population parameter – that is, to infer the mean political attitude rating of all undergraduate students in the India 6.2 SAMPLING FRAME The actual group of units is in fact referred to as the sampling frame, sometimes known as the \"sample frame\" or \"survey frame.\" This has already had a sample taken from it. Every unit in a simple random sample has an equal chance of being drawn and showing up in the sample. The sample frame and the sample of people should, in theory, correspond. a thorough list or assortment from which your sample participants will be chosen in a certain way. In some way, the list will be arranged. In other words, each person in a population will have a unique identification and a way to get in touch with others. This enables you to classify and encode information about segmentation features that is already known. 87 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
In order to collect your sample, you must have a supply—or list—of every member of the target population from which to draw a sample, as well as a method for choosing the sample. Any source that has the knowledge required to reach every member of the targeted group is considered to be a source. Determining all the modules (sometimes referred to as cases) you wish to investigate is one of the first phases in developing a research study. Units may include individuals, groups, and already existent data. The population of interest for study consists of a variety of units. It is crucial to describe the people in as much detail as you can. Characteristics of a Good Sampling Frame Be assertive when selecting lists! Make sure your sample frame is large enough for your requirements. A decent sample frame for research on living conditions, for example, might include: Everyone in the target demographic. Exclude everyone who isn’t part of the target group. A file containing factual information that may be used to reach specific people. Other considerations: Each member has a unique identification. This might be a short number code (e.g., from 1 to 3000). Make sure the frame doesn’t have any duplicates. The list should be well organized. Sort them alphabetically for better access Information should be up to date. This might need to be examined regularly (e.g., for address or contact number changes). Examples of the Sampling Frame The problem is that it's not always feasible or viable to research every individual in a group. Consider that you might be interested in finding out, for instance, what American bankers think about owning a car. It would take too long and be too expensive to collect data from every bank in the US. In circumstances like these, you can investigate a sample of the population. Choosing a sample should be deliberate, and depending on the goal of the research, you can use a variety of sampling techniques. 88 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Before selecting a sample, it would be beneficial to first create a sampling frame, which would be a list of all the units in the population of interest. Findings from your study can only be advantageous to the population represented by the sample frame. Once more, think about doing a study to figure out how many people in New Jersey might be interested in purchasing digital programs. The research team dialed 200 calls per day between the hours of 9 a.m. and 6 p.m. using a list of 1,000 randomly chosen numbers from the local phone book. The sample frame comprises just those New Jersey residents who meet all the following criteria: Owns a phone. The number is listed in the directory. Is present at home Monday through Friday from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Is not a user who refuses to take part in any telephone surveys. The sample frame in this instance is different from the population. For instance, it under- represents populations that lack access to a phone (such as the poorest people), have an unlisted number, weren't at home when calls were made (such as employed persons), or don't want to participate in phone polls (e.g., more busy and active people). The most frequent restrictions in surveys and other random sampling processes are these differences between the sample frame and the target population. A sample frame is a list or tool used by researchers to identify the population they are interested in. All units in this have an equal chance of being drawn and appearing in the sample when using a simple random sample. Units may include individuals, groups, and already existent data. It is crucial to describe the people in as much detail as you can. A good sample frame for a study on living conditions might be one that includes all members of the target group. Include no one who isn't a member of the intended audience. The sampling frame is the list from which the sample is chosen, hence the sample's quality is influenced by the sampling frame's quality. Additionally, sufficient data must be collected, weighted, and available to conduct nonresponse bias and sampling studies. The majority of nations that had numerous selection steps had multiple frames defined. The Consortium 89 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
examined the frames to make sure they contained enough trustworthy information for sampling individual units and finally locating people for the interview and evaluation. To summarize the Sampling Frame: A list or database that can be utilized as a sampling frame is called a sampling frame. A sample frame, in the context of market research, is a list of potential participants that can be used to select participants for a particular research project. This could be a sample for quantitative and/or qualitative research, including but not limited to focus groups, CATI, online surveys, and qualitative telephone interviews. These databases might originate from a range of sources, including client lists, public records, and bought contact information such phone numbers and/or email addresses. In addition to the respondents' names and suitable contact information (so they can be contacted to participate in the research), a sampling frame may also include other significant known information that may be used in the analysis stage of the research, such as age, location, or customer segmentation data. A spreadsheet made in Excel or a similar program is frequently where this data is kept. Depending on the sample source, huge databases can frequently contain errors, such as outdated information about former customers or employees or duplicate data entries. Sampling frames must be carefully examined before being used. The end client can supply sampling frames to a market research firm for a particular project, but they can also be acquired from other sources, such as but not limited to third party sample businesses (including online panels, telephone and email lists). 6.3 SUMMARY The sample frame in this instance is different from the population. For instance, it under-represents populations that lack access to a phone (such as the poorest people), have an unlisted number, weren't at home when calls were made (such as employed persons), or don't want to participate in phone polls (e.g., more busy and active people). The most frequent restrictions in surveys and other random sampling processes are these differences between the sample frame and the target population. A sample frame is a list or tool used by researchers to identify the population they are interested in. All units in this have an equal chance of being drawn and appearing in the sample when using a simple random sample. 90 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
The actual group of units is in fact referred to as the sampling frame, sometimes known as the \"sample frame\" or \"survey frame.\" This has already had a sample taken from it. Every unit in a simple random sample has an equal chance of being drawn and showing up in the sample. The sample frame and the sample of people should, in theory, correspond A sample frame is a list or tool used by researchers to identify the population they are interested in. All units in this have an equal chance of being drawn and appearing in the sample when using a simple random sample. Units may include individuals, groups, and already existent data. It is crucial to describe the people in as much detail as you can. 6.4 KEYWORDS Biased sample:A sample that is not representative is known as a biased sample. Biases may be due to imperfect tools or instruments, personal qualities of the researcher, techniques or other causes Population: A population is any group of individuals or units that have one or more characteristics in common and are of interest to the researcher. It may consists of all the units or individuals of a particular type or a more restricted part of that group. Sample frame: The actual group of units is in fact referred to as the sampling frame, sometimes known as the \"sample frame\" or \"survey frame.\" This has already had a sample taken from it. Every unit in a simple random sample has an equal chance of being drawn and showing up in the sample. The sample frame and the sample of people should, in theory, correspond. Statistic: There are several metrics and figures you can generate from data that you get from a population or a sample. An indicator of the entire population is referred to as a parameter. A measure that describes the sample is a statistic. 6.5LEARNING ACTIVITY 91 1. Define sampling frame. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the meaning of statistical population ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. define sample. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 6.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions: 1. Define Sample 2. Define sampling frame. 3. List the Characteristics of a Good Sampling Frame 4. Give the illustration about sampling frame. Long Questions: 1. Write a note on sample and statistical population 2. Write a short note on sampling frame with its characteristics 3. Write a note on sampling. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. An indicator of the entire population is referred to as a _______ a. parameter b. sampling frame c. census d. sample 2. The actual group of units is in fact referred to as the sampling frame, sometimes known as the \"__________ 92 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
a. sample frame b. census c. sampling frame d. parameter 3. A ________ is a list or tool used by researchers to identify the population they are interested in a. sample frame b. census c. population d. all of the above 4. _______ may include individuals, groups, and already existent data. It is crucial to describe the people in as much detail as you can. a. Units b. sample c. frame d. data Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-a, 4-a, 5-b 6.7 REFERENCES Shukla, Satishprakash, (2020) Research Methodology and Statistics. Ahmedabad: Rishit Publications. Shukla, Satishprakash, (2014) Research – An Introduction (Gujarati) Ahmedabad: KshitiPrakashan Kothari C.R. : Research Methodology, New Age International, 2011. Shajahan S. : Research Methods for Management, 2004. ThanulingomN : Research Methodology, Himalaya Publishing Rajendar Kumar : Research Methodology , APH Publishing 93 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Kumar Ranjit: Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners, Sage Publication, 2014 Website https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics- definitions/sampling-frame/ https://www.statistics.com/glossary/sampling-frame/ 94 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
UNIT - 7SAMPLING ERROR STRUCTURE 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Sampling error 7.3 Sample size determination 7.4 Probability and Non-probability sampling 7.5 Summary 7.6 Keywords 7.7 Learning Activity 7.8 Unit End Questions 7.9 References 7.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe the meaning of Sampling error Identify scope of sample size determination State the various types of probability sampling List the various types of non-probability sampling 7.1 INTRODUCTION An analyst makes a statistical error known as a sampling error when they choose a sample that does not accurately represent the complete population of data. As a result, the sample's findings do not accurately reflect the findings from the total population. Sampling is a type of analysis where a small sample of observations are chosen from a larger population. Both sampling errors and non-sampling mistakes can be produced by the selection process. When the study's sample is unrepresentative of the entire population, sampling error arises. Sampling is a type of analysis where a small sample of observations are chosen from a larger population. 95 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Due to the fact that a sample is merely an approximate representation of the population from which it is collected, even randomised samples will contain some level of sampling error. By increasing the sample size, sampling errors can be less common.An other strategy for reducing sample errors is random sampling.Population-specific error, selection error, sample frame error, and non-response error are generally considered to be the four categories under which sampling errors fall. The difference between the sampled value and the actual population value is known as a sampling error. Because the sample is not typical of the population or is prejudiced in some way, sampling errors happen. Due to the fact that a sample is merely an approximate representation of the population from which it is collected, even randomised samples will contain some level of sampling error. Statistical errors called sampling errors occur when a sample does not accurately reflect the entire population. They are the discrepancy between the population's actual values and values obtained from samples taken from the population. When numerical parameters for the entire population are generated from a sample of the entire population, sampling mistakes take place. The parameters obtained from the sample are different from those of the actual population because the sample does not include the entire population. 7.2 SAMPLING ERROR Because a sample is not a realistic representation of a population of data, sampling mistakes are differences between the sampled values and the values of the underlying population. The findings of sampling became invalid because there was a problem with data collecting. Additionally, when a sample is chosen at random or based on bias, it does not represent the entire population, and sampling errors are unavoidable. They can be avoided if the analysts use data samples or subsets that accurately represent the entire population. Population variability, sample size and design, as well as sampling percentage, all have an impact on sampling mistakes. Sampling mistakes can be removed by increasing sample sizes. However, a fourfold increase in sample size is required to cut them in half. The analysts can choose a larger number of samples if the chosen samples are small and do not effectively represent the entire set of data. 96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Larger mistakes result from changes in the estimates produced from different samples due to population variability. By making the samples bigger so they can more accurately represent the population, the impact of population variability can be lessened. Additionally, sample mistakes must be taken into account when releasing survey results in order to establish the correctness of the estimates and the interpretations that follow. Fig No 7.1 Population Let's say Company XYZ's producers want to know how many people watch a twice-weekly local show. The producers must choose the samples that best represent the different categories of viewers. They might have to take into account things like gender, education, and age. For instance, teenagers between the ages of 14 and 18 typically have fewer obligations and can watch the show twice a week. Contrarily, those between the ages of 18 and 35 typically have busier schedules and less free time. As a result, it's crucial to draw a sample in a balanced manner. Otherwise, the results won't accurately reflect the population as a whole. Sampling errors for samples are typically unknown since the precise population characteristic is unknown. Analysts can, however, gauge the degree of variation brought on by sampling errors using analytical techniques. Categories of Sampling Errors 97 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
1. Population Specification Error – Occurs when analysts do not know who to survey. For instance, the mother, kids, or the complete family could comprise the population in a poll on breakfast cereals. 2. Selection Error: Occurs when respondents choose whether or not to participate in the survey, meaning that only those who are interested do so. Encourage involvement to reduce selection errors. 3. Sample Frame Error- Sample frame error happens when the incorrect population data are used to choose the sample. Sample frame error happens when the incorrect population data are used to choose the sample. As a result, the sample frame in these situations does not correspond to the population of interest that the researcher believes they are surveying. This mistake typically involves choosing the incorrect population segments to target or altogether ignoring specific demographics within the appropriate segments. 4. Non-Response Error: This occurs when surveys don't yield any useful responses. It could occur as a result of an inability to reach potential responders or their disinterest in responding. The measure of the sampling error can be calculated for particular sample size and design. This measure is termed as the correctness of the sampling plan. Sampling error is also due to the concept called sampling bias. This error is considered a systematic error. The formula to find the sampling error is given as follows: If N is the sample size and SE is the sampling error, then Sampling Error, S. E = (1/√ N) 100 There are two methods by which this sampling error can be reduced. The methods are Increasing sample size Stratification 1. Increasing Sample Size 98 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
We are able to choose any sample of any size from a population. The situation and the experiment will determine the size. The likelihood of the sampling mistake occurring will decrease as the sample size grows. If the sample size and the population size match, there won't be any error. Therefore, the relationship between sampling error and sample size is inverse. 2. Stratification It is fairly simple to obtain a sample when all population units are homogeneous or when the population shares a common characteristic. You can consider the sample to be a representative sample of the total population. However, it is hard to obtain a perfect sample if the population is not homogeneous (that is, if the population possesses a variety of distinguishing traits). In these circumstances, the sample design is changed to provide a better representative. Known as strata, the population is divided into many groups that include comparable units. A randomly chosen subsample is taken from each of these strata. As a result, the sampling error is decreased and all the groups are specified in the sample. As a result, the size of each stratum's sub-sample is proportional to the size of the stratum. 7.3 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION The phrase \"sample size\" in market research refers to the number of participants who are used to conduct the study. Based on factors such as age, gender, and geographic area, researchers select their sample. Samples may be general or detailed. For instance, you might be interested in learning what consumers between the ages of 18 and 25 think of your product. Or, you could just condition that your sample be American, giving you a representative sample of the entire population. The sample size is the total number of people included in a certain sample. Consider that you are an American market researcher who wants to distribute a survey or questionnaire. The goal of the poll is to learn how your target market feels about a new cell phone you are about to release. Before the phone is released, you need to know what Americans think of the new gadget in order to forecast its success or failure. In a hypothetical scenario, you decide to use New York's 8.49 million people. You choose a sample of 500 people who meet the requirements of the consumer panel using a formula for sample size determination. The replies can be used to assist you predict how your target market will respond to the new product. 99 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
But choosing a sample size involves more than just distributing your survey to as many people as you can. A large sample size could result in resource, time, and money wastage. A too-small sample size prevents you from getting the most information and produces conclusions that aren't conclusive. Terms used around the sample size: 1. Population size: The number of persons who fit your demography is your population size. For instance, you might wish to learn more about physicians practicing in North America. The total number of physicians in North America is the amount of your population. Not to worry! It's not necessary to continually have a large population. As long as you are aware of who you are aiming to represent, smaller populations can still provide you with reliable data. 2. Confidence level: Your level of confidence in the accuracy of your data indicates how certain you can be. It is aligned to the confidence interval and given as a percentage. For instance, if your degree of confidence is 90%, you may expect your results to be 90% correct. 3. The margin of error (confidence interval): The margin of error (confidence interval): Confidence intervals indicate how much you are ready to let your data deviate from the population mean. How closely you should expect a survey result to fall in relation to the actual population value is described by the margin of error. Remember to utilize our margin of error calculator if you need assistance with this data. 4. Standard deviation: The standard deviation is a measurement of how far a data collection deviates from the mean. It gauges a distribution's absolute variability. The standard deviation and size of the deviation both increase with increasing dispersion or variability. For example, you have already sent out your survey. How much variance do you expect in your responses? That variation in response is the standard of deviation. Various determination of Sample size: 1. Goals and objectives: What goals do you have for the survey? Are you going to extrapolate the findings to a broad demographic or population? Do you wish to learn the mentality of a particular group? Do you 100 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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