MA- English -MAE 615- Autobiography Second draft-converted

MASTER OF ARTS ENGLISH SEMESTER-III AUTOBIOGRAPHY MAE-615

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Bawa Pro Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director – IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director – CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Coordinator – Dr. Rupali Arora Coordinator – Dr. Simran Jewandah Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Coordinator – Dr. Raju Kumar Coordinator – Dr. Manisha Malhotra Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Coordinator – Dr. Aman Jindal Coordinator – Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel &Tourism Management) Coordinator – Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Coordinator – Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Coordinator – Dr. Ashita Chadha Coordinator – Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) R. M. Bhagat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Executive Director – Sciences Registrar Prof. (Dr.) Manaswini Acharya Prof. (Dr.) Gurpreet Singh Executive Director – Liberal Arts Director – IDOL © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: TeamLease Edtech Limited www.teamleaseedtech.com CONTACT NO:01133002345 For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY 2 Institute of Distance and Online Learning CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

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INDEX UNIT-1: James Olney’s Autobiography: Metaphor of Self.................................................5 UNIT-2: Laura Marcus’s Autobiography: ‘The Law of Genre’ ......... Error! Bookmark not defined.8 UNIT-3: Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Confessions..................................................................47 UNIT-4:The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin ...........................................................77 UNIT-5: M. K. Gandhi’s Autobiography or The Story Of My Experiments with Truth, Part I Chapters II To IX .......................................................................................................98 UNIT-6: Annie Besant’s Autobiography, Chapter Vii, Atheism as I Knew and Taught It ............................................................................................................................................... 125 UNIT-7: Richard Wright “Black Boy” Chapter I ........................................................16263 UNIT-8: Sharankumar Limbale’s Outcaste..................................................................19090 UNIT-9: Binodini Dasi’s My Story and Life as an Actress, Mary G. Mason, ‘The Other Voice: Autobiographies of Women Writers’ in Life/Lines: Theorizing Women’s Autobiography .....................................................................................................................216 UNIT-10: A Revathi’s Truth about me: Hijara Life Story..............................................229 4 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-1: JAMES OLNEY’S AUTOBIOGRAPHY: METAPHOR OF SELF STRUCTURE 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Autobiography as a Genre of Literature 1.3 Types of Autobiographies 1.4 Difference Between Indian and Western Autobiographies 1.5 Autobiography as a Part of Indian Writings in English 1.7 About James Olney 1.6 About A Theory of Autobiography 1.8 The Metaphor of The Self; A Theory Of Autobiography 1.9 The Salient Features of Autobiography 1.10 Summary 1.11 Keywords 1.12 Learning Activity 1.13 Unit End Questions 1.14 References 1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, student will be able to: • Explain autobiography as one genre of literature. • Analyse the characters and themes of the text. • Explore the text from reader response theory. 5 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1 1 INTRODUCTION An autobiography can be literally defined as a life story of any person which is self-written. It is different from a biography, which is the life story of particular person written by someone else. Some people may have their life story which is written by some other person because they don’t believe they can write well, but they are still considered an author because they are providing the information. Reading autobiographies may be more interesting than biographies because you are reading the thoughts of that particular person instead of someone else’s interpretation. Autobiography is actually rare and distinct creative literary art. It was originated from the human desire to keep one’s memorial with the passage of time. The autobiography concept is of a recent date and the term ‘autobiography’ was firstly used by the poet Robert Southey in 1809 in The English periodical, Quarterly Review. In general, the history related to autobiography closely parallels with biography’s history. Autobiography is not related to story of one’s life; it is the recreation or the discovery of one. While writing own experiences will discover ourselves and the patterns about our life. Of course, it is exactly collection or bunch of well-rehearsed anecdotes. But in an intelligent way, it is defined as revelation created in the reader’s mind about the author’s perception of life. In a simple way, autobiography is reckoning work. This article will help you in shaping diverse as well colourful assortment of stories and personal vignettes regarding your being to a graceful, elegant and coherent narrative which shows a larger story of one’s life. Autobiographies are written to…. • Leave some message to the future generations • Transfer your heritage • Put closure to a period or episode • Process experiences 6 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Conserve the family history • Disclose what and also who you are During the period of A.D 400, Saint Augustine who was a Christian leader was supposed to write the first autobiography. An autobiography is good collection of information of one's own life written by particular person. It tells about that the life of a person. While doing an autobiography one uses the interesting facts for well explaining oneself. But it will be overwhelming task if you are not an author or a writer. Some suggestions are listed here. Figure 1.1: Nature of Autobiography First thing is to prepare the lists. Prepare these lists such as names of boyfriends, names of girlfriends, names of the relatives you owned, the places you live in, schoolings done, pets you have etc. But the main things are life-lists. Pick the right categories like primary school days, college life, military life, family outings, goodness, illness etc. As you present writing, more things will come to your mind. Mention and identify some events in each category which you wish to remember. Next you have to narrow each of identified life-list to nearly 10 numbers of most memorable significant core events for demonstrating that category. Then using a rough draft identifies and concentrates all the required information and note down on paper. Then re-visit the details entered on the paper including grammar, tone etc. But if one happened to think writing is not giving the desired satisfaction, then take the help from someone or use Writing Lab in the campus. But one should be remembered while writing one’s autobiography is that our VOICE should be retained in the final touch up and our personality should be reflected. In narrative style of autobiography, one displays linear way of events without mentioning moods or emotions. Descriptive writing is suitable for one who wishes to do painting for your ardent readers if it’s beautiful or even ugly or very different from other readers might know. In emotional writing, writer has strong understanding regarding topic and tends to evoke emotional response in reader’s mind. But in action writing, writer describes very exciting events using short sentences, strong verbs and thereby creates an excitement in reader’s mind about what would 7 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

happen next. When you've done all, you can with your autobiography, you're ready for finishing. Arrange all the written pieces in an order. It could be word processed with font size 12 and single spaced. If these things are not fully satisfied, you can sit with professional editor. The title paper or cover can even be designed and created by you. It is well suited to include your photograph. The primary and the foremost thing is BEGIN. The main four things one must focus while writing his/her autobiography are: (1) whom you are at present (2) what does life means for you, (3) what major events happened in your life or critical issues you had an impact in your life, and (4) what your outlook on the future is. The primary and foremost thing one can do while writing an autobiography is start mentioning a lot of true events or facts about one’s life: for instance, When is your birth date and where is your place of birth, Where have you lived and currently living (city and state), Where have you done your schooling and with whom you live in. For the ardent readers for understanding much better, one should include many facts in the autobiography. After introductory area, one can start the first section of autobiography. 1.2 AUTOBIOGRAPHY AS A GENRE OF LITERATURE Even though very difficult to define, in a broader way autobiography literally means “life writing” and denotes the genres and mode of describing one’s life. In very specific manner, it is described as literary genre which portrays the writer’s life in retrospective manner, or a part that help seek to reconstruct one’s personal development in a given cultural, social and historical framework. While autobiography has claimed as a non-fictional (or factual) one since it portraits the ‘real’ person story, it inevitably has ‘self-fashioning’ text which displays imaginative or constructive nature. It ultimately very much resists the distinction from other fictional derivatives such as autobiographical novel or auto-fiction and thereby makes the generic borderlines so blurred. Autobiography, the most important as well very popular literature forms in 20th century has been used as a way of ‘self-expression’. The ardent readers have very much interest in reading autobiography since it depicts the personal life, beliefs and ideas, passion and prejudices, life’s ups and downs of the auto biographer. Even the writer has done his autobiography work because “it offers an ideal scope for satisfying that human urge and quest and curiosity about human nature.” 8 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In dictionary and in many such books, one can find many definitions for ‘autobiography’ term; but the exact all-inclusive definition term is extreme difficult to pick which shows its nature and true aspect. Advanced Learner’s Dictionary from online Cambridge team has defined ‘autobiography’ term as ‘a book about a person's life, written by person’, but New Webster’s Dictionary has defined as ‘biography or memoirs of a person’s own life written by him’. The author wishes to tell his life incidents and history in an interesting way and for that he recollects those and presents in an artistic and comprehensive manner. M.H. Abrams in ‘A Glossary of Literary Terms’ as well Lee T. Lemon in “A Glossary for the Study of English” has offered same way of definitions which emphasize the best ‘role’ possessed by writer while writing his own autobiography. Encyclopaedia Britannica has focuses on self-analysis, self-scrutiny, deliberate selection as well artistic homogeneity presents in an autobiography: “It (autobiography) must attempt to survey, in retrospective mood, a considerable portion of life, if not an entire life, and it must take the form of an ordered narrative, with deliberate selection and shaping of material (though not constructed as fiction) to compose an artistic whole. Above all, its underlying principle must be scrutiny of the self, with outside happenings, persons encountered, and observations admitted primarily as they impinge on the consciousness of the person on whose character and actions the writing is focused.” So, any author has the freedom to record only those eventful incidents in his life in an autobiography. He has full freedom to resort to selection methods. By giving emphasize towards the true importance of the artistic creativity in an autobiography, Wyne Shumaker mentions, “Autobiography is the professedly ‘truthful’ record of an individual, written by himself…” The writer prefers to write his/her own autobiography for narrating his life ‘truths’. But in doing so, the author/writer has full freedom in choosing and omitting certain incidents. For making the narrations interesting as well authentic, the author presents it artistically in the autobiography. Pascal Roy’s definition about the autobiography is more highly elaborate one when compared with above quoted definitions. He says: “It (autobiography) involves the reconstruction of the movement of a life, or part of a life, in the actual circumstances in which it was lived. Its centre of interest is the self, not the outside world, though necessarily the outside world must appear so that, in give and take with it, the personality finds its peculiar shape.” The above definition has focussed on writer’s ‘self’ than the outer world. Since the circumstances for developing the ‘self’ has some place and hence the ‘self’ has much importance in one’s autobiography. So literally, in autobiography, the ‘self’ has been presented which relates to circumstances but not the vice versa. Pascal Roy points out the exact arrangement of life events in an order which should reconstruct the author’s personality. Like special type of literature, an autobiography has distinct qualities. Autobiography is primarily an eye-witness type of record based on one’s life and been written by author himself. Even though an autobiography has shared very few qualities with other writings such as diary, 9 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

memoir, travelogue, confession, letters, biography and journal, the keen focus is on writer himself who portrays his growth, his personality development using his writings. D.G. Naik in his work “Art of Autobiography” states: “It will be seen, therefore, that a perfect autobiography is neither a memoir nor a reminiscence, nor a diary, nor a confession if these do not aim at self-revelation; these are usually prompted by motives other than the aesthetic motive and therefore fail to be the work of art although there be an autobiographical element in them.” In autobiography, author is highly or very much strict to include his life facts including his past life. The theme of an autobiography is his history or life-story. But this is not just history type of presentation. In the matter related to historian, he will narrate the past events in order of chronology. But an auto biographer always chooses the right events which boost his own personality and omit other events. So, autobiography contains the uniform blend of fiction and which is interpreted and analysed to avoid any misunderstanding of important concern. An autobiography novel is entirely distinct form of literary work from autobiography. There exists a co-relation in the experiences of writer and its existing characters of the novel. In this, the characteristics of novel are being shared but not style of autobiography. Similarly, it is more like a fiction work which is filled with author’s imaginations. Till recent times, there was no clear distinction between autobiography and biography and considered autobiography as special type of biographical literature. Today critics has considered and illustrated as two entirely distinct literary works especially in aspects and motives, respectively. The idea behind the biography is the generation of memory of a heroic person. In this biography, he tries to showcase the detached personality or the impersonal account of the heroic person and using his imagination creates much interesting character. On the other hand, auto biographer portraits own picture. Other main difference between these lies in the fact that the biographer depicts the true image of a hero’s life. In biography, the biographer starts telling the hero’s story from birth and completely finishes with death. But in autobiography, narration can come to full stop before the hero’s death. A diarist usually list down his/her life experiences in chronological way. He adds after recording his/her particular moment experiences and continues adding next experiences happened at different life moments. So, a diarist is evenly interested in depicting the things or events in chronological order not the mentioned events. But an auto biographer gives importance in narration of events more than the event chronology. Truly speaking, an auto biographer does not give significance to the past events but review of past events in the current time is too crucial for him. Similarly, a diarist has no interest in generating the complete overall view of character and hero’s life where as an autobiographer shows the character’s overall development for the ardent readers. Also, a diarist prefers 10 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

significance to the events happened at very particular instant whereas an autobiographer prefers long-ranged significance shown in that event. It is known that memoir and reminiscence are preferably autobiographical way but different from autobiography in content as well the purpose. The main aim in working of autobiography is that it should draw faithful portray of any character, whereas in memoir, the writer has interested in other people and contemporary events. It means, it lacks some sort of introspection and self-centeredness. But we can say an autobiographer is introvert in type and give much importance to self-development. In this regard, M. H. Abrams mentions: “It (autobiography) is to be distinguished from the memoir in which the emphasis is not on the author’s developing sense, but on the people, he has known and the events he has witnessed…” The travelogue author has given much interest in events mainly the contemporary events and not to the growth and self-development or his personality. One can find few similarities among autobiography and confession. Much like to autobiography, the aim in developing a confession is said to be self-revelation. The confession author draw his/her own portrayal and reveals his/herself to ardent readers. The writer actually doing the confession and hence the essential aspect is the topic or subject itself. In the similar way, the approach of an auto-biographer must be subject oriented. The main difference exits between autobiography and confession is that latter contains many religious annotations whereas former one is mainly secular in nature. In confession type, the writer focus towards the intellectual and moral things of his/her life whereas in autography, the writer/author is not only confined to these things. The confession writer has no hesitation in including the very secretive matters of life even that are not disclosed to his best friend, whereas auto biographer remains silent in these matters. Autobiography is too difficult literary work because not just own-story telling in straightforward way or not pure, simple imaginary creation. Even though imagination does play an active role in autobiography, it is “truth” which plays main and vital role. The readers are even interested in better reading the true matters mentioned in an auto biography. The autobiography is much truthful depiction of an author’s or writer’s life. In this regards, Susie Tharu writes: “… (there is) a pact between the reader and the writer, one committed to tell the truth, the other authorized to take the text as truth not fiction.” The writer of an autobiography must present truthful record of one’s inner/ outer life. One should be true to himself while depicting the merits as well demerits. But the author may lose sometimes and cannot fulfil or maintain the truthfulness. It is too difficult to reveal one’s life in much truthful way. One may tempt to use glorious term for presenting his/her personality than it deserves, and these happened with sub-standard works of autobiographies. The correct autobiographies are defects free. A true auto biographer should present his own truthful society along with his true life. The real fact is that the real attention is the writer or author himself; but while portraying 11 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

himself, one should portray his own society which helped his personality. Because of this reason, auto biography is considered as true best authentic records of that society where the author or writer has lived. When an autobiography depicts the real life-story of writer, it turned to subjective in nature. It is not considered as straight-forward, very simple story about the author’s experiences; not that it is described as self-analysis and self-scrutiny. The writer shows his objective view and showcases his self-portrayal. He does play two roles - as a writer or an author and also as a protagonist. In real life, both the protagonist and the author are the same person but when it arrives to an autobiography, both are considered as different. When being as protagonist for his own autobiography, he/she expresses thoughts and feelings while an author himself/herself detached from protagonist life. Therefore, an autobiography can be considered as best combination of objectivity and subjectivity. 1.3 TYPES OF AUTOBIOGRAPHIES Autobiography is broadly classified into four types. They are (i) thematic (ii) religious (iii) intellectual (iv) fictionalized. The thematic type includes books which had diverse purposes. Examples are “The Americanization” of Edward Bok in 1920 and Adolf Hitler’s Mein Kampf in 1925, 1927. Religious autobiography has accounted for large number of very great literary works which range from Augustine and Kempe to autobiographical works of Sartor Resartus written by Thomas Carlyle and Apologia written by John Henry Cardinal Newman in 19th century. 19th Century and early 20th century had seen the origin of many intellectual autobiographies such as philosopher John Stuart Mill and The Education of Henry Adams. The work which is more analogous to novel can be biography. The autobiography which is little bit transformed and disguised to novel. This set includes the works such as James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” of 1916, Samuel Butler’s “The Way of All Flesh” of 1903, George Santayana’s “The Last Puritan” of 1935, and works of Thomas Wolfe. But all these mentioned works can detect four types of elements; the outstanding autobiographies often ride roughshod over these distinctions. Autobiography is nothing but a biography of the self and auto-narrated by self. Autobiography have many different forms, which start from intimate writings and is prepared during life which were not looked for publication such as journals, diaries, memoirs, letters and reminiscences to formal one book-length autobiography. A one form of special biographical truth has been offered through formal autobiography works: a life which is reshaped by re-collection, with all types of recollection’s unconscious and conscious distortions and omissions. The novelist Graham Greene said that an autobiography is only “a sort of life”. It used the phrase as the title for his own autobiography (1971). There are many types of autobiographies. Authors must decide what purpose they have for writing about their lives, and then they can choose the format that would best tell their story. 12 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Most of these types all share common goals: helping themselves face an issue by writing it down, helping others overcome similar events, or simply telling their story. Full Autobiography (Traditional) This would be the complete life story, starting from birth through childhood, young adulthood, and up to the present time at which the book is being written. Authors might choose this if their whole lives were very different from others and could be considered interesting. Memoir There are many types of memoirs – place, time, philosophic (their theory on life), occupational, etc. Memoir is a snapshot of a one’s life. It focuses on one specific part that stands out as a learning experience or worth sharing. Psychological Illness People who have suffered mental illness of any kind find it therapeutic to write down their thoughts. Therapists are specialists who listen to people’s problems and provide help and thereby feel good, but many people find writing down their story is also helpful. Confession Just as people share a psychological illness, people who have done something very wrong may find it helps to write down and share their story. Sharing the story may make one feel he or she is making amends (making things right), or perhaps hopes that others will learn and avoid the same mistake. Spiritual Spiritual and religious experiences are very personal. However, many people feel that it’s their duty and honour to share these stories. They may hope to pull others into their beliefs or simply improve others’ lives. Overcoming Adversity Unfortunately, many people do not have happy, shining lives. Terrible events such as robberies, assaults, kidnappings, murders, horrific accidents, and life-threatening illnesses are common in some lives. Sharing the story can inspire others while also helping the person express deep emotions to heal. Autobiographies are an important part of history. By reading any person’s own ideas and life stories is getting the first-person story against the third person (he-said/she- said) version. In journalism, reporters reach to the source to get an accurate account of an event. The same is right for life stories. Reading the story from a second or third source will not be as reliable. The writer may be incorrectly explaining and describing the one’s life events. Importance of Autobiographies 13 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Autobiographies are also important because they allow other people in similar circumstances realize that they are surrounded by many people. They inspire those people who have similar problems faced by them. By writing an auto biography, the author helps them to get heal since they open up their opinions and their feeling. Autobiographies are very much an important part in history. 1.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INDIAN AUTOBIOGRAPHIES AND WESTERN AUTOBIOGRAPHIES Western Autobiographies An attempt is done here to trace in brief the formation of autobiography in different ages in Europe. Autobiography really begins during renaissance time of 15thcentury. Autobiographies and various types of autobiographical writings were written in plenty during the Renaissance period as the folks of Europe were interested in individualism and their dependency with the world. The Book of Margery Kempe (1436), The Autobiography (1558-69) of Benvenuto Cellini, Patriarch’s Literal Postero (C.1367-72) and the autobiography of Lord Herbert i.e., Cherbury (1764) one among the best examples. The late Renaissance and early 18th century became the great ages of autobiographical work. John Bunyan’s Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666) and Richard Baxter's Religuiae Baxterianae (1696) are good examples of religious autobiography. Colley Cibber’s Apology (1740) about his life and Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography (1766) are excellent secular biographies. Possibly due to romantic moment and are new interest in self-examination, the late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the publication of first great modern autobiographies; highly self-conscious, retrospective analysis of an author’s life of some crucial aspect of it written as a complete work. The best among these are Edward Gibbon’s Autobiography (1796), The Confessions (1781-1788) of Jean-Jacques Roussau, Cardinal John Henry Newman’s Apologia Pro Vita Sua (1864), Edmund Gosse’s Father and Son (1907), John Staurt Mill’s Autobiography (1873) and the Education of Henry Adams (1907). The poems like Wordsworth’s Prelude (1850) and autobiographical sections of Lord Byron’s Child Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812-18) might be included. Indian Autobiographies Although some type of native tradition in writing autobiographies existed in India before the advent of the British, it happened after the introduction of a new system of English education and the consequent assimilation of western ideas in this country that autobiography seems to have cast its spell on a majority of Indian writers. India’s encounter with English education and culture began a literary renaissance in India and it strengthened and quickened the impulse of autobiographical writing among Indians. 14 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

This short volume has mainly given importance to selected biographies and autobiographies written in English language by Indian leaders. For the change, two essays which deal with autobiography of renowned scientist Charles Darwin and a biography of renowned American author Loyd Douglas have been included. For different reasons, these biographies and autobiographies had occupied sacred place in Indian Writing. Many Indian leaders had communicated or shared their worldviews to the people of India using this type or genre. Mahatma Gandhi’s autobiography “The Story of My Experiments with Truth” is the best example for this. “My Truth” by Mrs.Indira Gandhi is another good example which communicates the message from an individual to larger outside world. Rabindranath Tagore’s “Jivansmriti” (Reminiscences) depicts his early life years, whereas in Jawaharlal Nehru’s “Toward Freedom” an autobiography, he speaks to his “own countrymen and women.” Nirad C. Chaudhuri’s “The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian” which was published in 1951, distinguished itself as much great masterpiece work. He combines his personal life experiences with very strong motivated worldview (“the prevailed conditions where an Indian has grown up during the early decades of this century” [20th century]. Rationale and Justification for Writing Autobiography. These leaders have raised voice and debated for the requirements of these works or importance of writing these works. Jawaharlal Nehru has written in own autobiography as: “… this account is wholly one-sided and, inevitably, egotistical; many important happenings have been completely ignored and many important persons, who shaped events, have hardly been mentioned. In a real survey of past events this would have been inexcusable, but a personal account can claim this indulgence.” Mahatma Gandhi has justified writing his autobiography with the above- mentioned words: But God-fearing friend had his own doubts which shared by him to me on my day of silence. 'What has set you on this adventure? he asked. 'Writing an autobiography is a practice peculiar to the West. If you have omitted some things which you hold today as principles in future, or if you have revised your future plans today, is it not likely that the men who shape their behaviour on authority of your spoken, words or written, may be misled. Don't you think it would be better not to write anything like an autobiography, at any rate just yet?' 1.5 AUTOBIOGRAPHIES AS A PART OF INDIAN WRITINGS IN ENGLISH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT The great Moghuls have contributed immensely to enrich our culture in India. Mr. A.B. Pandeya’s words about the contributions done by these emperors is as shown: “The versatile genius of India furnished such excellent specimens of architecture, painting, book-craft, music and literature that they command respect and admiration to this day and have won for India a place in the cultural history of the world.” 15 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Baburnama: The Memoirs of Babur One main contribution lies in the way of writing an autobiography. During this period many such valuable autobiographies had been written. Among these, the most prominent one is the Babur’s autobiographical work. Dr. Stanley Lane-Poole has commented the memoirs of Babur as: “(The Memoirs) are no rough soldier’s chronicle of marches and counter marches… they contain the personal impressions and acute reflections of a cultivated man of the world, well read in Eastern literature, a close and curious observer, quick in perception, a discerning judge of persons, and a devoted lover of nature-one, moreover, who was well able to express his thoughts and observations in clear and vigorous language… The utter frankness and self- revelation, the unconscious portraiture of all his virtues and follies, his obvious truthfulness and fine sense of honour give the Memoirs of this Prince of autobiographers an authority which is equal to their charm.” The autobiography work of Jahangir i.e., Tuzuk ‘i’ Jahangiri has gained wide praises similar to that of Babur’s. Jahangir’s autobiography is written in very clear and in lucid style. For example, identify the mentioned expression of his autobiography: “On Thursday, the 8th of Jumda-s-sani,1014 A.H., I ascended the throne at Agra, in the 38th year of my age. If the officers of the court of justice should fail in the investigations of the complaints of the oppressed and in granting them redress, the injured persons might come to this chain and shake it, and thus give notice of their wrongs. I ordered that the chain should be made of pure gold and be thirty gaz long (60 feet), with sixty bells upon it. One end was firmly attached to a battlement of the fort at Agra, the other to a stone column on the bank of the river.” By finding the above-mentioned expression, it is clear that the autobiography of Jahangir is hugely praised due to this lucid expression. Similar to Babu’s and Jahangir’s autobiography, Abdul Fazal’s autobiography has extensively gained more acclaims. And it is clear that during Mughal’s period there occurred immense flourishment of autobiographies and been continued till this modern age with the help of many Indo-Anglian writers and thinkers. Among the autobiographies like ‘The Story of My Experiments with Truth’ by Mahatma Gandhi, Paramahamsa Yogananda’s Autobiography of Yogi and Jawarharlal Nehru’s An Autobiography, Gandhi’s autobiography was highly respectable and admired one. George Orwell has stated based on this: “At about the time when the autobiography first appeared, I remember reading its opening chapters in the ill-printed pages of some Indian newspaper. They made a good impression.” But in a way, Nehru’s Autobiography is very extensively admiring one. For example, When comparing Jawaharlal Nehru’s autobiography with Mahatma Gandhi’s, K.R.S.Iyengar has commented as: “When the Autobiography appeared, Gandhi’s My Experiments With Truth was already acknowledged as a world classic, and Jawahar Lal’s necessarily invited comparison with Gandhi’s autobiography.” 16 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Similarly, autobiography works of Parmahansa Yogananda is highly admired one. The main reason is that Yogananda Ji has well painted the religious sentiments and philosophical sentiments marked by mathematical plainness as well Biblical simplicity. For example, identify the mentioned expression in the autobiography: “In his melodious voice, Rabindranath read to us a few of his exquisite poems, newly created. Most of his songs and plays…have been composed at Shantiniketan. The beauty of his lines, to me, lies in his art of referring to God in nearly every stanza….” His autobiography has got highly appreciated because of this portrayal of his experiences of religious thoughts in lucid way. For instance, W. Y. Evans-Wentz has greatly praised the autobiography along with its creator using the following words: “The value of Yoganandaji’s Autobiography is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is one of the few books in English about the wise men of India…. To its illustrious author, whom I have had the pleasure of knowing both in India and America, may every reader render due appreciation and gratitude.” Thus, we can find these works of autobiography were well flourished in modern age in India. This way of writing of autobiography has been further carried by Mr. Nirad C. Chaudhuri. Here, it should be remembered that Chaudhuri’s autobiography “An Unknown Indian” has been very much differed from the autobiography works of Nehru, Yogananda and Gandhi since he has defied traditional type view of autobiography which is “the story of one’s life, written by oneself.” But the opposite view of traditional way, one should consider the autobiography of Chaudhuri has been lacking in personality expression and have not revealed his life. very extensively. But the real intension of his writing the book is not to show his different personality facets but historical one. Chaudhuri has showed or portrayed “the conditions in which an Indian grew to manhood in the early decades of this century.” He himself has confessed this as: “My intention is thus historical… the book may be considered as a contribution to contemporary history.” This point was also stressed by K.R.S.Iyengar: “It is clear, then, that Chaudhuri’s real aim is to write history and the autobiographical exercise is merely a means to get the history started.” Iyengar believes that Chaudhuri has portrait the surroundings more than displaying his own personality in his autobiography. The fact behind the Chaudhuri’s autobiography is that it has achieved a permanent place in Indo-Anglian literature. This facts reveals that the autobiography works has developed very extensively during the great Mughals period and been extended till modern age. 1.6 ABOUT JAMES OLNEY James Fred Olney (1 August 1914 – 14 September 1944), an English professional footballer who has played for Swindon Town and Birmingham Football League. He played in local areas before selected to First Division club Birmingham in May 1936. He made his debut in 1935– 36 season’s last game but got defeated by goal margin 3–1 against West Bromwich Albion. He 17 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

played another two more matches during the following season and played at centre half for Tom Fillingham, but his style was too similar to that of Fillingham. In December 1938 he has shifted to Third Division South club Swindon Town. He played ten games at left-half what remained of 1938–39 season, and the initial three games of next season has called off due to Second World War. Olney was killed while serving as Lance-Serjeant in 5th Battalion Coldstream Guards on 14th September 1944 at his thirties. He is buried and commemorated in Geel War Cemetery and County Ground, Swindon, respectively. 1.7 ABOUT ‘THE THEORY OF AUTOBIOGRAPHY’ As literary art autobiography makes selection of life events with motive of the author or writer. Man’s life is longer than his autobiography. Human life is crowded with so many insignificant and routine activities such as daily wash, shaving etc. Autobiographer has to drop out such insignificant events. Autobiography makes a deliberate selection of events in proper self- revelation and documentation autobiography. An autobiographer has to restrict himself almost exclusively to salient events, actions and traits. For drawing his effective character-sketch, some events are trivial or in significant for others but have important contribution to shape the protagonist’s personality. Similarly, artistic arrangement of real events is required in autobiography. After selecting the events to position in proper organic order and shape is further task for autobiographer. The Key Elements of Autobiography 1. Selection of Events 2. Truth 3. Subjectivity & Objectivity 4. Self as 'the center' 5. Self-Revealation 6. Documentation Figure 1.2: The Key Elements of Autobiography 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.8 THE METAPHOR OF THE SELF: THE MEANING OF AUTOBIOGRAPHY James Olney examines the writings of seven men--Montaigne, Jung, George Fox, Darwin, Newman, Mills, and Eliot--and have traced the very unique and essential autobiographical impulse which make it alive in real sense, published in 1981. The Princeton Legacy Library uses technology such as print-on which helps the old out-of-print books to be available from Princeton University press. These editions help preserving the original texts belong to important books when presenting in durable hardcover paperback editions. The main aim of Princeton Legacy Library includes increase access to the rich heritage which is found in books published by Princeton University Press after 1905. The autobiography works were told as long-time exemplar debate about if human being carries a transcendental self which is given by language, or if human beings create and works with others using language. The autobiography which considered as written record of biographical true-life facts, feels like testing ground of rhetorical presentation of historical self when either tries capturing and confining in the hard bound copy pages known by My Entire Life in Three Hundred Pages, a transcendental Self which is neither capturable nor confineable. As Gunner states \"displays...itself using language;\" or whereas Self which is preceded by language and moves to unfold and un-conceal by itself and true reality. Similar to Egg versus chicken controversy, the confusion about language versus self will be endless, so why venture to write autobiography when the Self is elusive, and critics like Paul De Mann, non-existent? According to James Olney’s Metaphors about the Self: “The Meaning of Autobiography”, he thinks the self is very evidenced for metaphor man which appropriate or access each days’ life, and which an autobiography is example of metaphor self, but not the complete recollection but which fluidize to Self. Olney’s concept of metaphors of self which is a very useful theme when look at Frederick Douglass's “Narrative of the Life”: An American slave. Within the Douglass's autobiography has recreated historical self and collective spirit of race by knowing specular metaphors which express the deep sentiments regarding his freedom of black people and slavery horrors and enlightenment. However, Olney’s view cannot be taken alone for explaining Douglass's acquisition of literacy within his narrative, which I will discuss. Like other slave narrators, Douglass has recounted not only physical flight against slavery to freedom. He recounts his intellectual transformation and flight to literacy. This shifting from ignorance to knowledge finds most liberating and good experiences of one’s life and was to truly possess a Self or Being. Douglass writes: These words sank deep into my heart, stirred up sentiments within that lay slumbering, £md called into existence an entirely new train of thought. It was a new and special revelation, explaining dark and mysterious things, with which my youthful 19 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

understanding had struggled, but struggled in vain. . From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom (49). Douglass was being a slave man for around 10 years’ time period, and this has still been knowing to his early living until articulated to him. He knew he was lived as human being, till half-life, and till that point he was like other slaves who were socialized and participate the race-based system which was governed by coercion. Until he heard the words that \"explain(ed) dark and mysterious things\" he was participating ¡n a pseudo-event (Cottom, 3. Douglass was \"tamed”, and his \"body, soul, and spirit\" were shrouded in oppression. He writes: Sunday was my only leisure time. I spent this in a sort of beast-like stupor, between sleep and wake. . . At times I would rise up, a flash of energetic freedom would dart through my soul . . and then vanish. I sank down again, mourning my wretched condition . . . My suffering on this plantation seems now like a dream rather than a stern reality (75). I would say pseudo experience or event which he thought should possess much freedom and should be given right to re-claim the humanity, Douglass has not possessed the discern ability or judge the real freedom state or structure unless he has possessed literacy for experiencing it. Only that humanity were perceived to experience fully and meant as literate. In literacy each possess to participate in very structured realm of self. Douglass writes that \"[His master's wish not to have Douglass read] gave me the best assurance that I might rely with the utmost confidence on the results which, he said, would flow from teaching me to read,\" (51) and that was \"It would forever make unfit him to be a slave\" (49). In order to revision and eventually formulate an action. Only where there is language is their 'world,' in the distinctively human sense\" (Eagleton, 63Douglass was having a transformation that reconstituted his life only after seeing the mechanism that would ensure its fruition. The consequences for those who can participate may have a bearing; therefore, language is not only the tool that enables us to express ourselves, but also depicts a mirror that shows us who are we and how we had identified to define ourselves in our mind's eye and our fellow human. The realization that slaveholders encouraged their slaves to be thoughtless so that they would \"detect no inconsistencies in slavery\" and believed that \"slavery is right\" (104). Douglass was unable to put into words or explain what he believed to be \"dark and mysterious things.\" Previous to this experience Douglass was unable to discern and locate the hidden key literacy— that impaled his separation and suppression. The ability to formulate an opinion or evaluate his situation was non-existent for Douglass, and in terms of this rationale, Pattison's view that language is \"the ubiquitous first cause of the mind ... \" (22). Pattison goes on to say that because \"I am able to say *I think, therefore, I am,'\" causes the cogito to structure itself via rhetorical figures, give it order, and project that order on the world. Douglass was without \"judgement\" and according to Pattison, \"The act of judgement, no matter how misguided or naive, is the 20 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

first characteristic of literacy, and it precedes and embraces other forms of intelligence though it does not exhaust them\" (23). Consequently, he intellectually and actually actively engaged in defying his master's rationale to be literate by \"desir[ing]\" what he \"dreaded,\" \"hat[ing]\" what he \"loved,\" and \"sought\" what should be \"shunned\" (50). (One may say that he did this by compulsion. Also, Douglass had tricked young white boys to learn a lesson for him about the letter writing. Olney's notion of the metaphors of self-endorses the idea that the order and the structure of the transcendental self is a given The self is an intentional self and posits man as the centre of all animal kind. Olney writes: The self-expresses itself by the metaphors it creates and projects, and we know it by those metaphors; but it did not exist as it now does and as it now is before creating its metaphors. We do not see or touch the self, but we do see and touch its metaphors: and thus we \"know\" the self, activity or agent, represented in the metaphor and the metaphorizing (188). In the Narrative, Douglass constantly uses metaphorical and figurative language to project a Self that he believes is being ravaged by slavery and needs to be salvaged by educating himself and freeing himself. The ships which release from mooring and into bay shows a Self-longing which are slave and free songs and battle with Covey shows the need of emotionally free. De Man writes: Towards to know that language is figure, it is not itself a thing but is representation, the image of a thing. It is silent, mute as pictures are mute. It implies the manifestation of own sound, but it is silent like image which is to say eternally voice deprive and condemned towards muteness (186). I would tell that the later sounds very grim, but the usefulness has arrived from an idea that the self is not complete entity captured in a metaphor or even many metaphors. The totality or an essential self, the kind that Olney aspires, even if admits the language limitations, will not fully realized through language since it is evolving process of development subject to perfect time and the continual continuativeness of real world. Further, an essential self does not indicate a self which is product of perfect time and the life motion; it just sits there ready to be expressed rather than being expressive. Yet, there is another caveat. Can the slave narratives be well treated like the autobiography of white counterparts? Are their purposes the same? Unlike white auto biographers, black auto biographers had a wider mission other than talk about themselves. Andrews states that \"Afro-American autobiography addressed itself directly or indirectly to the proof of two propositions: 1) that the slave was, as the inscription of highly famous anti-slavery medallion put it, 'a man and a brother;' 21 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2) that propaganda and prejudice the narrator was a truth teller, a transcribe of Southern life and black folk character\" (Andrews, 4). The humanity of all black people, even the literate ones, had to overcome mistrust of their predominantly white audience by being asked to produce narratives which verified or authenticated; therefore, abolitionists required that black authors stick to biographical facts and posted letters of support at the start of all slave narratives. This was necessary for convincing white Northerners of the horrors of the institution of slavery as recounted by a slave. However, black narrators overcame what Andrews called \"positivistic epistemology\" by speaking directly to \"the Reader\" and recounting actual travesties with their moral insight. White abolitionists were equally guilty of thinking where institution of slavery socialized slaves and freemen and women as morally culpable, and given some time, they could be as equally moral as all other persons. Within and without abolitionist movement, blacks always assumed of falsity pervading their existence as persons and as writers. White auto biographers were relieved of the excess burden to prove moral equality and very necessity \"to invent their authenticity\" (2). Andrews writes that black auto biographers could have accused of \"literary egoism termed as white auto biographer might be praised as American pride and self-reliance at its best\" (2). The aim of black autobiography seemed to what Fredrick Jameson called a \"symbolic act\" or a \"collective, class discourse\" that related the collective, modal experience of black people. Douglass's Narrative relates his life events and also records the commonality of his experience. He was in the writing business to not only emancipate by himself. Through autobiography Douglass creates a fictive self which is not based solely on verifiable biographical facts, but also, creating a self that embraces the collective spirit of black people (whose individual biographical facts he haven’t and shows how their lives have been constituted by treatment from white people and written and social laws, and how text reinstates them as human subjects to be reconstituted with moral fairness and judiciousness. Douglass's text does not \"displace\" or acts as an imprisoning tool as De Man says but liberating tool for a complete race. But autobiography has the attribute through its subject matter and its language to posit a representational, collective self as a sine qua non that resurrected an invisible race and subsumed the slavery that had become a system based on abstractions, principles bounding both slave holder and slave. Andrews writes about autobiography was \"a declarative act\" (11). Added to the above, autobiography in turn reconstituted its readers to illicit sympathy and support. The sense black people used rhetorical structures much like the mute pictures De Man speaks about, but not simply illicit sympathy, but to embed the polemics in the snapshot picture of slavery and cause into being through language a reconstituted, triumphant life to bear the world. 22 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.9 SALIENT FEATURES OF AUTOBIOGRAPHY An autobiography is defined as one person’s life who is written by herself. The work is personal since writer is in head-charge of exposing his life details. This is literary wording of life experiences. The main function that autobiography fulfils the one which allows to feel the vital experiences of writer from his own perspective. It is literary genre which lies on border between literature and history. The autobiography must cover certain points. You should allow all the data which is considered important. It happened as personal, including essential information such as name, age, date of birth, place of residence, etc. Within the personal information that is included it must be mentioned to family where the brothers and sisters, the people that mark the main things. In addition, it should allow the academic information which author has received, place of studies, the achievements and prizes received. Non-fiction Writing The autobiography pact is established among ardent reader and author, where everything that is related is true. The writer in this work has absolute freedom that expresses his ideas or feelings about such events and how influenced him. Relates the Life of The Author It can be considered a totally intimate confession in which writer narrates his most personal secrets. It analyses all the facts that happened during a life, and so many cases to put in perspective of what has lived. The autobiography is characterized as writer, who is a narrator, is protagonist of the stories that are narrated. The writer is considered as centre of the work as he is telling his own story. Without Fixed Structure The autobiography is described by not having a fixed structure. Each writer chooses his own structure, doesn’t requires follow a chronological order to narrate the facts happened. Formal or Informal Language In autobiography the writer can choose the language which he requires. One can choose the right type of language that best suits you to express yourself and tell your life. Tone One can choose tone in which to write biography and must be melodramatic tone where the events that happen to writer are unfortunate. A humorous tone, where the story is presented from a laughing or comical way. An ironic tone, where an idea is expressed by saying the opposite, but ardent reader understands well which is an irony. Sarcastic tone: where the 23 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

narrations reflect dis-respect, where sarcasm is cruel mockery. Heroic tone: where the author or writer has a very strong personality and develops from the dangers that arise. Nostalgic tone where pleasant experiences are evoked and remembered with a lost happiness. Focuses on Life The autobiography which describe and narrate the whole author’s life. Unlike memories that focus more on very particular stage or event. For such reason, the autobiography is more complete, since not placed in a limited time period and hasn’t fixed rule, the author does not always remember all the moments of his life, in addition he can choose which to include in his task or not. Draw Conclusions and Learnings The autobiographies serve to draw conclusions from people’s lives, which serve as an exercise of interiorization where they discover, and they have followed until arriving at the location where they are. 1.10 SUMMARY • The autobiography concept is recent date idea, and the term ‘autobiography’ was firstly used by Robert Southey who was poet in 1809. The English periodical, Quarterly Review. • Reading autobiographies might be looking interesting than biographies because you are very much reading the thoughts of very person instead of someone’s interpretation. • Autobiography is very rare and distinct creative literary art. It was originated from the human being’s desire to keep one’s memorial with the passage of time. • Autobiography is not life story which is discovery or recreation of one. In writing one's experience, one will discover oneself and create pattern which have lived. • The autobiography which considered as a literary genre that signifies a retrospective narrative of writer’s or author’s own life and substantial part is reconstructed to display his/her personal developments within the framework of social, historical, cultural activities. • Autobiography, which is one of most important, most popular literature forms in 20th century. It displays the ‘self-expression’ mode. • M.H. Abrams in his A Glossary of Literary Terms, Lee T. Lemon in his A Glossary for Study has commented “autobiography must attempt to survey, in retrospective mood, a considerable portion of life, if not an entire life, and it must take the form of an ordered narrative, with deliberate selection and shaping of material (though not constructed as fiction) to compose an artistic whole.” 24 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Typically, autobiography is divided into four types as religious, thematic, intellectual, and fictionalized. The first type of grouping have books of diverse purposes as The Americanization of Edward Bok of 1920 and Adolf Hitler’s Mein Kampf of 1925, 1927. • Traditional, Memoir, Spiritual, Confessions are some notable kinds of autobiographies. • The western and Indian autobiographies are distinctive in nature. • Abul Fazal’s autobiography Ain-i-Akbari has gained extensive acclaims than the works of Jahangir and Babur. • ‘The Story of My Experiments with Truth’ by Mahatma Gandhi is famous among the autobiographies. Perhaps Gandhi’s The Story of My Experiments With Truth, Parmahansa Yogananda’s Autobiography of Yogi and Nehru’s An Autobiography. • James Fred Olney of the period 1st August 1914 to 14th September 1944 was English professional footballer who has played in Birmingham and Swindon Town Football League. • Olney was born in Greet, Birmingham. He has played football in First Division club Birmingham in May 1936. • As a literary art autobiography makes selection of events in accordance with motive of the author. Man’s life is longer than his autobiography. Human life is crowded with so many insignificant and routine activities such as daily wash, shaving etc. Autobiographer has to drop out such insignificant events. • The Theory of Autobiography shows that it makes a deliberate selection of events so that there is a proper self-revelation and documentation autobiography. An autobiographer has to restrict himself almost exclusively to salient events, actions and traits. • In ‘Metaphor of the Self’, James Olney examines the writings of seven men-- Montaigne, Jung, George Fox, Darwin, Newman, Mills, and Eliot--and traces the essential and unique autobiographical impulse, and in real sense makes it live. 1.11 KEYWORDS • Autobiography: is an account of the author of the biography's own life. In other words, it is a personal accounting of one's life. Most autobiographies are written in chronological or time order: birth, childhood, teenage years, young adulthood, adulthood, old age. • Discourse: is a discussion about a topic either in writing or face to face. An example of discourse is a professor meeting with a student to discuss a book. • Monograph: a detailed written study of a single specialized subject or an aspect of it. • Monologue: a long speech by one person, for example in a play. • Essay: a short piece of writing on one subject. 25 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.12 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Complete the Table below: Difference between_____ Indian Autobiographies Western Autobiographies 1) 1) 2) 2) 3) 3) 4) 4) 5) 5) 2. Complete the below diagram as below: The Concept of 'Self' Ex. Self-Expression Self-____ Self-_____ Self-____ 1.13 UNIT END QUESTIONS 26 A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Describe the importance of title ‘Metaphor of the Self’. 2. Comment on Olney’s style of writing. 3. Differentiate between autograph and auto-text. 4. Explain the themes covered in various autobiographies. 5. Record your responses based on Olney’s Theory of Autobiography. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Long Questions 1. Explain the meaning, history of autobiographies in detail. 2. Autobiography is more about ‘Metaphor of the Self.’ Elucidate. 3. Analyse the autobiography from literary genre view. 4. Distinguish between an Indian autobiography and western autobiography? 5. Discuss the various forms of autobiographies with examples. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. James Olney was a ________ by profession. a) Cricketer b) Player c) Footballer d) None of these 2. The autobiography is____________. a) A self-written life story. b) A life story written by another person. c) A life story made into film by the person him/herself. d) A life story that tells the life of another person. 3. Autobiographies are very important since _____________. a) They are a way to show others they are not alone in their problems. b) They are a good way to inspire other people. c) They are a way for the person to continue healing. d) All of these. 4. A memoir is one type of autobiography, but ___________________. a) They feature the whole life of the person. b) They focus on one event or time period of the person’s life. c) They focus on other people instead of the author. d) None of these. 5. Reading an autobiography vs, a person’s biography is ______________. a) Not as interesting. b) Better because we see the actual person’s ideas and reasons for actions. c) More complicated because the person may not be able to write well. d) Boring because the author doesn’t expose as much of him/herself. Answers:1-(c), 2-(a), 3-(b), 4-(b), 5-(b) 1.14 REFERENCES Textbooks • Brian, F. (1985). The Inner I: British Literary Autobiography of the Twentieth Century, Faber and Faber, London. P.25. 27 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Cudden, J. A. (1977). A Dictionary of Literary Terms, India Book Company, New Delhi, P.61. • Gandhi, M. K. (1927). The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Navjeevan Publishing House, Ahmedabad. • Harold Nicholson (1978). The Development of English Biography, The Hogarth Press, London. • Kanwadkar, M. M. (1995). A Critical Study of Autobiographies in English by Indian Women, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Shivaji University, Kolhapur. • Kegon Paul. (1960). Lexicon Universal Encyclopaedia, Vol.16, Lexicon Publications Inc. New York 14, P.355. • Olney, J. (1998). Memory and Narrative: The Weave of Life-Writing. University of Chicago Press. • Olney, J. (2014). Autobiography: Essays Theoretical and Critical. Princeton University Press. • Olney, J. (2017). Metaphors of Self: The Meaning of Autobiography. Princeton University Press. • Parke, C. N. (2020). Biography: Writing Lives. Routledge. • Schmitt, A. (2017). The Phenomenology of Autobiography: Making it real. Routledge. • Smith, S., & Watson, J. (2010). Reading autobiography: A guide for interpreting life narratives. University of Minnesota Press. • Wagner-Egelhaaf, M. (2019). Handbook of Autobiography / Auto-fiction. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Reference Books • Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1969). William Benton Publishers, London. P.855. • Machann, C. (1994). The Genre of Autobiography in Victorian literature. • Roy, P. (1960). Design and Truth in Autobiography, Routledge, London. • William Walse. (1990). Indian Literature in English, Longmah Publications, London P.39. • Sinha, R. C. P. (1978). Indian Autobiographies in English, S. Chand Publication, New Delhi, P.10. • Shaw, H. (1972). Dictionary of Literary Terms, Mac Graw Hill and Company, New York /New Delhi. P.39. Websites • https://muse.jhu.edu/book/33820 • www.goodreads.com • www.britannica.com 28 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-2: LAURA MARCUS’S AUTOBIOGRAPHY: ‘THE LAW OF GENRE’ STRUCTURE 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 About Laura Marcus and Life 2.3 About ‘The Law of Genre’ 2.4 Critical Appreciation of The Law Of Genre 2.5 Summary 2.6 Keywords 2.7 Learning Activity 2.8 Unit End Questions 2.9 References 2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, student will be able to: • Describe the life and history of Laura Marcus. • Discuss the notable features of Modern English Literature. • Explain the works of Laura Marcus. • Appreciate critically literary elements in 'The Law of Genre'. • Examine the various typological distinctions in 'The Law of Genre'. 29 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2.1 INTRODUCTION The word ‘autobiography’ is imagined having been conceived in general by Robert Southey, the nineteenth-century poet in 1809. It took place when he was explaining the work by Francisco Vieura, a Portuguese poet. However, there lies an evidence which is somewhat of earlier usage, towards the end part of the eighteenth century, for a review which is attributed to William Taylor of Isaac D’Israeli’s Miscellanies, in which he ponders that whether ‘autobiography’, even though ‘pedantic’, couldn’t have been a much better term compared to the ‘hybrid’ word ‘self-biography’ used by D’Israeli (Nussbaum 1989: 1; Marcus 1994: 12). In this regard, Felicity Nussbaum states that towards the end part of 1830s, the word was in maximum usage, yet its definitions were not in stable by any means. From the viewpoint of her, focusing on various autobiographical writings of the eighteenth century, the pressure for reading these texts while in congruence with ‘commanding notions of an integrated self’ follows later, in fact it could be involved with the highly prescriptive approach towards autobiography as adopted by the critics of modern times, we have had those discussed and about some deriving their models emanating out from a certain ‘classic’ texts (Nussbaum 1989: 4–5). In this context, Laura Marcus is the Professor to teach English Literature at Goldsmith and a Professorial Fellow at the New College of the Oxford University including a research Fellow of the British Academy. Earlier, she was serving as English Professor at the Sussex University followed by Regius Professor of Rhetoric along with English Literature at the Edinburgh University. Many contents have been published by her on literature and culture right from the nineteenth century to this stage. She has also got aids from the department of Arts and Humanities Research Council in addition to the Leverhulme Trust; she has also many awards to her credit like the James Russell Lowell prize given by the Modern Languages Association for The Tenth Muse: for developing content regarding Cinema in the Contemporary Period in 2007. Her publications of recent times contain Dreams of Modernity: Psychoanalysis, Literature, Cinema written in 2014 and Autobiography: a very short introduction in 2018. 30 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

As stated by Laura Marcus, there was a sequential arrangement of autobiography as witnessed in the nineteenth century, where the value was given to authorship. Supposing that an anxiety around initial discussions was about the public revelation of the personification, then it also becomes the case where autobiography meets the site in due course in which intellectual, and specifically literary genius might be recognized as ‘internally’ beneficial, but without having any reference to ‘outside’ judgements. Here the concerned writer had some purpose which had nothing to determine or value as the marketplace but having mention to the only self. While taking Carlyle and Wordsworth as two examples of her from the nineteenth-century autobiography, to which Mary Jean Corbett discerns that ‘writing autobiography is a way to accomplish literary legitimacy and a desired subjectivity’ as stated by (Corbett 1992: 11). Autobiography positions the novelist for his writing work, thereby reducing the concerns of the obscurity and the isolation of current authorship: ‘The signature and the narrative unravelling in his history, marks the text belonging to Wordsworth, who is “knowable” to his fellow readers and can’t be isolated from this text that functions as self-representation’ (p.40). Here vocation seems as inevitable to authorship. Furthermore, it is the method where ‘serious’ autobiography, written by a few capable of sustaining self-reflection, should be alienated from its sought-after counterpart. There is no change in scenario even today that famous ‘commercial’ autobiographies by pop luminaries are perceived as short of ‘integrity’ as demeaning the self through commodification. For the critics of the nineteenth-century, such populism might be considered as a threat to the virtue of the form. There was one such review in 1829 by a reviewer where writing in Blackwood’s Magazine it was mentioned precisely, ‘a legitimate autobiographical class’ whereby the ‘vulgar’ was excluded who made attempt to ‘excite lustful curiosity that might command a sale’. Instead, autobiography should belong to those of ‘high reputation’ or people having something of ‘historical significance’ to state (Marcus 1994: 31–2). 2.2 ABOUT LAURA MARCUS & LIFE Laura Marcus by profession is a Professor of English at the Sussex University. She has the credit of publishing both 19th and 20th century literature. Besides, she is the co-editor of The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century English Literature. One more contribution that she has contributed 1001 Books You Must Read Before You Die (2012), in which a past version of this Britannica entry first came to limelight. The Works of Laura Marcus Some of her book publications list include: • Auto/biographical Discourses on Theory, Criticism, and Practice in 1994 31 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Virginia Woolf, a literary criticism on Writers and their Work (1997/2004), • Co-editor of The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century English Literature (2004). • The Tenth Muse: Writing about Cinema in the Modernist Period in 2007 • Dreams of Modernity: Psychoanalysis, Literature, Cinema in 2014 A Major Achievement Laura Marcus was awarded the James Russell Lowell Prize for 2008 by The Modern Language Association. 2.3 About ‘The Law of Genre’ Laura Marcus has given emphasis on reviewing Modernism for the year 1895. Because 1895 is considers as the base point for the cinematic history, a terrible railway accident in Paris, and the deliquescence of psychoanalysis by Freud's discovery about the unconscious (where The Interpretation of Dreams was published in 1899). There are four core themes that matter the most like - railways, cinema, detective stories and psychoanalysis which- are deftly unified in the Dreams of Modernity, where it unfolds a strong correlation among evidently unrelated concepts. Incidentally, early deliberation on cinema highlighted on the parallels between imaginations and films. It has been observed that in majority of cases, scenery moved past as if it were projected to a train window. It was not coincidentally entirely perhaps, Freud disclosed that he saw his mother stripped on a train when he was two years old, to which he took into contemplation of the established moment of his theorization on the Oedipus Complex. Discovery, exposure, and unmasking are quintessential notions that contributed to the development of detective fiction, while the motif of divulgation was crucial for another literary invention which is known as the so-called 'new biography', that emanated in the initial part of twentieth century. Dreams of Modernity contains twelve chapters. Where Chapter One is about investigating the murders of women based in London in 1888. The crimes allegedly done by Jack the Ripper, were majorly archived in Britain and also throughout the world. Hermeneutic cognizance of the enactment and murder representations is vital to the nineteenth century, which are illustrated convincingly in the contemporary texts. Chapter Two provides a different interpretation theory where the focus is on psychoanalytic thought. Therefore, it reflects the relevance of railways in psychoanalysis where nineteenth-century accounts of 'railway shock' are explored being a disease of contemporary life making impact on the fundamental concepts by Freud. Chapter Three gives importance to a unique article by Walter Benjamin entitled as 'Kriminalromane, auf Reisen' (Journey related Detective Novels), that was issued in 1930. It also highlighted the implied linkage between the evolving detective fiction of the era and trains. The focal point in Chapter Four is on contemporary psychology that includes the notions of attention and interruption. The term consciousness models that imply revolved around the Modernist literature and conception where they shaped attraction theories, advertising, modernity language and film. Chapter Five contains the gravity of cinema during1920s-1930s: 32 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

city films in context to novels written in Europe and America( Ulysses by Joyce and Mrs Dalloway by Woolf specifically) are taken into consideration in this part of the book. Whereas the Chapter Six explores the connection between fantasy and stories as told by the patients of Freud and in publications by many female writers, where the attention is on the idea of private theatre being a sphere of reveries, fantasy, and systematic daydreaming having linkage to the production of fiction. On the flip side, Chapter Seven evaluates the liaison of an author and with his/her narrative, where readers are introduced about modern literary form known as 'new biography'. Here the effort is on understanding character from the standpoint of literary and psychology; however, there was a warning by Freud who tagged psychobiography as dangerous and remains on slippery ground. Chapter Eight contains the psychoanalysis topic with regard to the British culture and European psychoanalytic culture prevalent between the wars. This chapter features the bond between polis and psyche during 1920s-1930s Europe. Further, this chapter makes use of H.D.'s experiences on psychoanalysis in Vienna being the main attention. Chapter Nine is one the life of H.D., mostly her enthusiasm for acting and interest on writings on cinema with respect to her accounts of analytic sessions conducted with Freud. The significance of Chapter Ten is on the depiction of dreaming both in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. As per the observation by Freud, dreams assists us in processing things taking place during the daytime. There are pivotal roles as highlighted in the chapter ten like questions of eloquent or dreaming the written history on dreams, some projects on dreaming, and the interplay between moving and still image in dreams. Chapter Eleven has a different approach where focus is on evaluating various drafts related to short stories on Woolf entitled as 'The Telescope Story'. In the present chapter, scene making, memory and optics are thoroughly researched as highly essential elements related to Woolf's ways of production. Chapter Twelve contains the content about Woolf's writing with emphasis on literary Modernism and how it was characterised by experimentation in form, structure, and technique. There are myriad texts developed in this regard by Woolf and other Modernist authors that were more on episodic rather than chronological series. Mixing order and freedom of thought including action, the works by Woolf demonstrate an intentional break with conventional styles of narration. Hugh Kenner depicted the duration of 1880-1930 as the 'second machine age', where trains and automobiles are main features of modern life for people living in the city, which is unprecedented in history. Dreams of Modernity provides an extensive analysis on the significant shift taking place globally and unveils the saga of modern transport system which would have been lead to the impossibility of the Modernist creations, nonetheless they were significant inspiration for the Modernist movements during 1880 to 1930. So, the book gives an anecdote of early responses to machine transport and Modernist celebrations, yielding in travel being a key theme in present-day psychoanalysis, cinema and literature. 33 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

There were social distinctions carried all through literary superiority and autobiography got legitimation as a form to attempt for restricting its use. There was an echelons of values with respect to self-representation having memoirs inhabiting a lower rank as they involved hardly any earnest than autobiography. Laura Marcus lays down it as: ‘The autobiography or memoirs eminence – professedly formal and common, – is assiduous with a categorization between people self-reflecting and who can’t (p.21). Likewise, autobiography needed to be compared with a pliant narrative that orders time and personality in conformity with an objective or goal; therefore, the looser and more progressive design of the journal or diary might not meet this ‘higher’ obligation of autobiography. In consonance with the statement by Clifford Siskin, ‘development’ materializing in the nineteenth century suits well to a formal strategy buttressing middle-class culture and its mannerism way of portraying and assessing the individual being something that develops’ (Siskin 1988: 12). Nonetheless, for coming again to the point by Felicity Nussbaum, such kind of view comes at later stage. Again, it possibly be a mistake to consider columnists of journals and diaries of the earlier eighteenth-century ‘failing’ to produce developmental narratives. Rather, what they got ‘most “natural” was . . . something that described governmental and private events in incoherence, scantiness and inconclusiveness including lack of integrity’ (Nussbaum 1989: 16). At appropriate time, the scribble and rephrasing the self, through persistent reworks or sequential modes and that was usually across extensive autobiographical manifestations and authors preceding the nineteenth century, startles the intention that there lies a definitive or fixed version. Therefore, we should take into cognizance of how a developmental type of the self, which is specific both at community and historical level has imparted a channel to elucidate the history of the genre: everything is related to autobiography, as per the universal and authoritarian view, which is inching near to a goal and the fulfilment of this one is the achieved genre of itself. The question being is raised by the above-mentioned discussion doesn’t look so simple as the type of genre is autobiography; relatively it is about the way ‘law of genre’, for taking the title of the famous essay by Jacques Derrida, to legitimize some autobiographical writings but not others? As per Derrida, its presence is in a genre for constituting itself as ‘norms plus interdictions’: ‘Therefore, the moment genre declares itself, one should comply with a norm without crossing the limit and shouldn’t endanger impurity, anomaly or monstrosity’ (Derrida 1980: 203–4). Nevertheless, it comes as a portion of argument by Derrida that each time a text delegates itself as affinity to a genre – labels itself as an autobiography. For example, – it undertakes in connection with a statement, which is not an autobiographical by itself. Hence a header mentioning to a text like an ‘autobiography’ doesn’t itself indicate to the autobiography genre. This appear like a pedantic point instead, but it guides Derrida to reach a conclusion that there involves ‘an addition and omission regarding genre often’ (p.212) where no text has the flair 34 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

to fulfil its own usual designation. The stake here on behalf of Derrida is not related to the potential of discrete texts for transgressing the principle of genre, alternatively it can steer by launching itself to misdoing. We must see, Derrida’s view is too a portion of his questioning on the adjoining parts of the text, where something at the disposal of the internal and external. His writing has the prospective to engage frequently with the impracticability of sustaining texts deriving out of the exterior, as all pointers of the ‘outside’, like the signature and title, will get attracted to the procedure of engendering the text. In a pursuit of positing a more magnitude of generalization, genre appears too general, still it is not at all adequate in general. The phrase ‘autobiography’ is believed to be coined by a nineteenth-century lyrist, Robert Southey in 1809. He referred this while he was explaining the written work by a poet from Portuguese, having name Francisco Vieura. Nonetheless, there exists an evidence of using this term towards the end period of the 18th century. This aspect is highlighted in an analysis in support of William Taylor of Isaac D’Israeli’s Miscellanies, where he contemplates whether ‘autobiography’, even it credibly be ‘pedantic’, could not foreseeable a finer term as opposed to the ‘hybrid’ word ‘self-biography’ implemented by D’Israeli (Nussbaum 1989: 1; Marcus 1994: 12). In this setting, Felicity Nussbaum shares that the word was just a sense of wider usage by 1830, though definitions could no more be stable. From the viewpoint of her, to zero in on various autobiographical writing of the eighteenth-century, the compulsion to look through these texts in compliance with ‘dominant conviction of a united self’ comes at a later stage, actually it might be timed to the outlook appeal to autobiography as adopted by the critics of recent times. Previously, there is a discussion around this and who acquired their versions from certain ‘classic’ texts (Nussbaum 1989: 4–5). Laura Marcus informs that the nineteenth century noticed a moderate positioning of autobiography where authorship yearns high value. Had there any anxiety around initial discussions involved the public uncovering of the personal self, then it becomes the case in which autobiography gradually reaches to the site, where genius especially literary genius, might be accepted as ‘internally’ valuable, even without any credential to other ‘outside’ judgements. Here the writer had gone through a vocation and it was definitely not supposed to be resolved or admired in the matter of the marketplace, however with respect to the self. Mary Jean Corbett has taken Wordsworth in addition to Carlyle as two excellent nineteenth-century autobiography, and observes that, ‘writing autobiography is a means to accomplish literary legitimacy objective including a craved subjectivity’ (Corbett 1992: 11). Further, autobiography positions the writer as per his work, thereby the concern of anonymity gets reduced together with the estrangement of modern authorship: ‘There are several aspect that proves the credential of Wordsworth such as signature and introduction including the narrative unravelling about his history, then engraves the text that has got well recognition among the readers and that can’t be taken away from this text being a function in support of self-representation’ (p.40). Vocation gives the impression of being fundamental to authorship. Besides, it is the way whereby ‘serious’ autobiography, written by a few who have the competency of self-reflection 35 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

needs to stand out from its familiar counterpart. Still, no change in scenario in this respect has been observed; for instance, , ‘commercial’ autobiographies by the pop stars which are quite popular but lacks moral virtue. Rather, the effort is on commercialising. For those evaluators of nineteenth-century, populism is interpreted as a threat to the reputability of the form. There was one instance of explicitly as per one reviewer for Blackwood’s Magazine in 1829, that reflects ‘an authentic autobiographical class’ where the ‘vulgar’ was kept out and whosoever try to ‘stimulate lust curiosity that could command a deal’. Rather, autobiography should matter to those of ‘soaring acclaim’ or people commanding ‘historical significance ’ to state (Marcus 1994: 31–2). Thus, social importance were conveyed into literary eminence and autobiography was legalized as a form by striving to put a restraint on its use. There was a ranking of values with respect to self-representation with narratives maintaining a lower rank ever since they indulged in a lesser quantum of ‘seriousness’ in contrast to autobiography. Laura Marcus states here as: ‘There is a variation between memoirs and autobiography – allegedly as recognized and generic – is closely involved with a sort of typological distinction amidst those people aware of self-reflection and some incapable of doing so’ (p.21). Relatedly autobiography was corelated with a malleable narrative that orders time besides the personality according to a purpose or aim; hence the looser and chronological order of the journal could no more fulfil the ‘higher’ obligation of autobiography. There is a statement by Clifford Siskin that reads out, ‘advancement in the nineteenth century encompasses a formal strategy pinpointing the culture of middle-class people: its criterion way to represent and review the individual as some aspect that is supposed to grow’ (Siskin 1988: 12). Anyhow, for returning to the point by Felicity Nussbaum, such type of opinion comes afterwards, and it might be a mistake to see the writers from the earlier period of eighteenth-century that include their journals and diaries as ‘failing’ for writing enriching narratives. Alternatively, what they identified ‘most “natural” was . . . somewhat that remembered events both in public and at private level in their lack of ethics, incoherence, scantiness and incomplete’ (Nussbaum 1989: 16). While the writing and rewriting related to the self, by making continuous reviews or serial modes, that was same across many autobiographical forms and those writers ahead of the nineteenth century, distracts the notion of a single definitive or unchanged version. Therefore, we should give consideration to how a developmental category of the self, which has social consequence and historical significance thereby gives the opportunity for interpreting the chronicle of the genre: most of the autobiographies provides the goal to fulfil the attained version as per the universal and enforceable view. The intriguing question that strikes from the aforesaid discussion doesn’t necessarily about the type of genre involving autobiography; instead, the way the ‘law of genre’, takes the title of the famous essay by Jacques Derrida, i.e., work having the legal rights for some autobiographical writings. For Derrida, it remains in the belief of a genre for constituting itself as ‘norms and interdictions’: ‘So, soon after the genre promulgates, one should abide to a norm, rather breach the demarcation and must not resort to peril the aspects like impurity, deviation or abnormality’ (Derrida 1980: 203–4). Nevertheless, it becomes a part of statement by Derrida 36 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

that a genre’s text – known as an autobiography. Take an instance of, – it does so by a statement that is not autobiographical. Therefore, a title with regards to a text in the matter of an ‘autobiography’ doesn’t link to the autobiography genre. This could appear as pedantic point, whilst Derrida here likes to make an inference that there involves ‘an incorporation and prohibition with respect to genre usually ’ (p.212) where no text could actually meet its generic designation. So, the stake that matters a lot to Derrida is seldom related to the vigour of discrete texts for transgressing the law of genre. Instead, the law of genre operates by allowing itself to do transgression. Derrida here wants to question the text’s borders involving the ‘inside’ also the ‘outside’. Further, his writing captivates with the unfeasibility of stabilizing contents from the outside, as all insignia of it like the name and designation, will get attracted to the process of engendering of the text. With the object of asserting a higher generality, the need is to have genre that appears general, but is no more general. Fredric Jameson here has the concern about the propensity of a genre for operating as a ‘law’; in lieu he observes genre can’t be able to disengage itself from the aspect of define: ‘Genres are very much involved in the annals of literature and their lawful production that they were meant to segregate traditionally and impartially to sketch ’ (Jameson 1981: 107). Celeste Schenk has to state something here about the vindication of Jameson that the manner genres remain ‘cultural background themselves’ and function rarely as ideal, still as ‘excessively determined loci of disagreement and conflict’ (Schenk, in Brodski and Schenk 1988: 282). Nevertheless, it happens to be the illustration for Jameson genre having pragmatic function where it is amongst the methods writers will utilize for ensuring their text gets well-received and perused in appropriate: ‘There is hardly a minute fraction of the knack for writing, actually has been assimilated by this non-viable attempt to develop a trustworthy technique for the exclusion of unnecessary responses of their to a designated literary remark’ (Jameson 1981: 106–7). Thus, the genre’s markers could be used for insisting on a similitude to the known facts and for organizing and modulating the connoting of a text from the viewpoint of a reader. Genre could be considered as a method of generating a dynastic link betwixt texts and encoding custom in prescribed features that operate as ‘family characteristics’. There lies a positive view by Alastair Fowler regarding genre, where it works with advantageous by developing a past convention of identical texts onto descent imperative. As per the saying of Fowler, each work ‘is like a child . . . of a former mouthpiece of the genre, still might be the mother of a successive representative’ (Fowler 1982: 32). If we devour the essay by Derrida again, 10 introduction gives the hint that how genre is responsible for tracking influence that renders the genre into begetting, generations, degeneracies and genealogy’. Conversely, as per Derrida, this reveals the query involving genre can’t be presented simply as a factual one: It shields the pattern of the law generally, of generation in the sense of natural and symbolic ...of the genesis difference and sexual divergence between the masculine and feminine genre or gender ...of a relation and 37 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

less tie-up between the two, of a specification and polarity between the women and the men. (Derrida 1980: 221) He again points out in French language, there are a far-reaching meaning involving the term, where ‘the language measure of genre is substantial’ and ‘mostly involves within its scope the gender’ (ibid.). It might be put as, genre has less probability to deny remembering gender with the aid of semantic proximity; be certain as Alastair Fowler inadvertently manifests, in the lexical passage and metaphorical one of genre across generations, where sexual difference is inexorably positioned at its centre: families originate through mothers and fathers, although as it may be the line of father only that could claim to have legal rights. Mary Jacobus here argues that going by the notion by Alastair Fowler regarding an all-inclusive ‘family’, that ‘genre remains always impure and “mothered” and fathered’ (Jacobus 1989: 204). Giving reference to Derrida, she implores his incongruous idea involving the rule of genre as ‘a philosophy of contamination and a law of adulteration’ (Derrida 1980: 206). We shall observe that feminist experts have discerned the affairs of genre favouring a benevolent law that delegitimizes women’s writings. However, women’s writing is considered to be somewhat different and allows us rereading into genre the diversification or transgressive, it tries not to include. Genre, as per Derrida, allocates ‘places and their limits’: Here, ‘I have allowed myself to be dictated by . . . the policy of genre’, as written by him (p.227). Regarding autobiography, we can state, revolves itself in introduction into a genre to ‘place’ the theme the ‘I’, only for un- accomplishing by the uncertainty and difference earlier instated in the law. Poststructuralist Interventions Paul de Man circulated a revolutionary article on autobiography having the title ‘Autobiography as De-Facement’, in 1979 where he gave the indication of ending autobiography. Here de Man’s statement was afflicted by a sequence of inexplicable questions, those surfacing from the primary effort to devise autobiography as an individual genre. In accordance with the words of de Man, an autobiography ‘consistently looks notorious and self- indulgent to some extent’ among the main genres – the poetry, novel, and drama has never attained quite artistic nobility nor does provide a practically useful means to understand texts ever since ‘each specific example appears as special to the norm’ (de Man 1979b: 919). What matters more to the novelist de Man is the difficulty faced as and when one attempts for making a differentiation between an autobiography and a fiction and finds oneself in the whirling of ‘undecidability’, occupying a threshold among contradictory ideas. So, this kind of experience, as per the word by de Man is such as ‘caught in a rotating door’: from where you don’t get opportunity to overcome the conundrum, but just languish from the surging consequences of vertigo (de Man 1979b: 921). Alternatively, de Man makes a propose that autobiography is no longer a genre but ‘a frame of studying or comprehending’ which functions not only in the autobiography but across a broad span of texts. Further, he sorts out autobiography having a philological dilemma that should be reiterated whenever an author puts himself as the topic of 38 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

own understanding. Here, the author himself goes through the text, where he sees in this self- reflexive or reflective moment is an index or figure called into by the standby theme of prosopopoeia, i.e., personification. As per de Man the interesting plot in the autobiography is about revealing some aspects, in fact it is mostly the generic case: all knowledge which also includes self-knowledge relies on tropes or figurative language. Autobiographies thereby produce either novels or figures instead of they are seeking self-knowledge. The author here makes attempt for endowing his epitaph encompassing the relevant content of the autobiography containing all the traits containing a face for masking or concealing his fictionalization or displacement through writing. Contradictorily, thereby the showing of a face and prosopopoeia too names the impairment of the autobiographical thesis by dint of tropes. Subsequently, there is some sort of writing. De Man exemplifies his thesis in context to Essays Upon Epitaphs by William Wadworth (1810); not unusually, as it becomes a section of his area that autobiography carries the epitaphic, where it posits one face along with a voice speaking to all of us, like it was surpassing the grave. In consonance with de Man, it is the ‘trope’ that allows autobiography for speaking also carries many contradictory death related signs: ‘Doth make us marble,’ this essay written on Epitaphs, can’t fail to induce the unrevealed threat inhabiting prosopopoeia, that is to say by allowing the death articulate, the commensurable layout involving the trope indicates by the matching index, that the sustenance are unsettled, preserved in their death as mentioned (De Man 1979b: 928). A language leads to a voice but it takes away. Earlier, from the fellow essay to present one, ‘Time and History in Wordsworth’, there were certain comments by de Man that The Prelude was an ‘epitaph penned by himself’, notwithstanding it was burdensome ‘to envisage a tombstone huge enough for beholding all Prelude’ (de Man, in Chase 1993: 63). In the lengthy autobiographical lyrics, the person speaking to is not alive, while communicating us, provided it were tombstone of him. In the Essays Upon Epitaphs, the stone-deaf Dalesman is looked upon by de Man being provocative figure of Wordsworth for the predicament of language: where ‘Language, as cliché, is invariably privative. . . . To a certain measure, in writing aspect, we rely on language like the Dalesman do in the Excursion and deaf introduction 13 and mute’ (de Man 1979b: 930). The Dalesman, as actuated by language for concealing its silence, i.e. – the quietness of the tomb too carries the oppressed evidence of that quiet. After all, the human figure is figured by the tranquil text only. So, it becomes the issue with the autobiography for de Man: calling up a figure for the individual by the identical yardstick a ‘disfiguring’, to rely on its ‘life’ on the identical textual figure containing the death sign: ‘Autobiography shields mind’s defacement of which, itself becomes the reason’ (ibid.). 39 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The essay of De Man contains an exquisitely deconstructive period for Romantic character, quite closely turning its presupposition: rather than a subject of being unique, transcendent, and unified the Romantic self – after-de Man – is seriously divided and threatened through representation, including forcefully summoning up eloquently the spirits of oneself they are not supposed to expect. As written by Robert Smith, commenting on this crucial climax in the autobiographical theory: ‘No sooner than language is a concern. . . hardly any last griping “the autobiographical subject” might have had given way’ (Smith 1995: 58). The subject gets diminished by metaphor and dissolved into many words. The ‘I’, around which the subject’s identity and autobiography had trusted, is conceived as indicating not about a subject rather its placing being a signifier within the given language or in a sequence of signifiers. Regarding ‘The death of the author’ Roland Barthes had made announcement in 1968, provided clear indication about criticism on the author’s concept as origin also had repercussions for autobiography. as the author like Barthes observed that ‘linguistically . . . no more instead the occasion of writing’. Therefore, he looks through the ‘I’ as ‘nothing beyond the instance of saying I’ (Barthes, in Rice and Waugh 1989: 116). The status quo of subject related to autobiographical theory including its sustainability within the realm of genre could be identified and subjected to recognition was presented concerning an illusion and unmasked. Were we supposed to witness the last stage of autobiography? Because the issue with death is during invoking eloquently as it remains frequently within theory of poststructuralist, where it never remains till the end, rather facilitates space for every type of illusory returns. Now return to de Man for some time, the infamous revelation in 1987, posthumously his wartime reporting for a Belgian newspaper, which also includes an anti- Semitic content namely ‘The Jews in Contemporary Literature’, completely changed the way de Man was studied. Geoffrey Galt Harpham in this respect writes: ‘ The work of De Man abruptly changed genres, being construed now not like literary opprobrium but as encrypted evidence’ (Harpham 1995: 390). There are certain critics trying to expound the work by de Man as complicated and time-consuming act of atonement whereby he was generating the investigative tools which might have empowered him for cutting through the idiosyncratic impediment he had capitulated in his young days. Others observed de Man’s subverting of authorial duty and nullifying of autobiographical existence as driven through one’s own necessity: his need to dominate his past. His exiting from autobiography, as observed in his work enables its return. In reminiscence too, the infatuated figures of sinking, drowning, and mutilation which permeates his criticism. Again, he presents as numbers for the disfigurement of writing by tropes, might be construed as mysteriously personal images like guilt and anxiety, hiding one more citation of his life. The aggressive foray of autobiography towards theory to which this exposure of past by de Man has seemed representing various critics may lead to query on a textual imitation of reading as proposed by de Man. However, Shoshana Felman cautions us, as there is no such short cut to pinpoint the historical reference of writing. Vice versa, de Man perceived that his journalism 40 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

during wartime was purely ‘factual’, a type of historical testimony. It is shown through the historical hindsight later, if it has any possibility to be indulged with the ‘ideological fiction’ of autocracy. However, fiction might contain ‘real outcomes’: ‘That history unsettles its testifying and ascertained to be engaged linguistically with fiction but doesn’t refrain the fiction, nonetheless, from performing historically and having lethally factual and material ramifications’ (Felman 1993: 147). That is to say history is imperviously safe ‘out there’, to be stated in contrary to fiction, rather can disorganize our understanding in future; fiction is not independent as Felman states ‘from actual effects’ that can work separately of their intention (p.148). Finally, for Felman, silence posed by de Man regarding his past informs us the infeasibility of remembering or illustrating trauma: therefore, his silence becomes a testimony of itself; further it addresses through reminding our own conspiracy with respect to this silence, and the previous repression (p.164). As far as his autobiography matters, the application of poststructuralist theory to our understanding remains to be debated. The contention here is that texts could lead to political and historical ramification resurrects the concern of referentiality or reality, undoubtedly coming back to the very same place. In fact, the idea behind multiple locations, in context to reading and placing the subject has been a way autobiography has so far offered itself being a place for fresh theoretical in addition to critical insights. In this reference, Robert Smith urges that ‘as a field of evaluation, criticism on autobiography and theory is . . . conflictual and heterogeneous’ (Smith 1995: 58). Further, any person could say productive and varied. This book provides some interesting debates revolving around autobiography also takes into consideration of the complicated interrelation between the assumption and application involving autobiography. Now have a brief on chapter wise. In Chapter one, I have some writeups regarding certain texts that have shaped the ‘prominent tradition’ of writing on autobiographies such as: Saint Augustine’s Confessions, Wordsworth’s Prelude, Rousseau’s Confessions, and Bunyan’s Grace Abounding. . The issue is writing a story for own self that is resorted to develop to a reasonable extent by readings at later stage and which worries the likeness between texts, and the discontinuous history that emerges if autobiography is regarded as a site to make negotiation and challenge various ways meaning provided to the self. Again, this chapter makes introduction of poststructuralist theory, arguably, during the availability of lens only, we can make less natural the unitary or Romantic subject and look it as a historical example, involved in its ideological strategies. As far as Chapter two is concerned, my focus is on poststructuralist theory and specifically the work of Sigmund Freud, Jacques Derrida, Roland Barthes, and Jacques Lacan, and all in divergent ways hindered the assumptions regarding humanism and postulated as a diverge subject, ousted from self-knowledge by language or unconscious. All four transit between the theoretical writing and autobiography as if something leads expertise of the subject for disseminating also brings the dissemination of the subject into insight. There is no longer visibility about subject and object to be perceived individually. In Chapter three, I emphasize on autobiographical writing, especially by woman and postcolonial subjects, which so far has questioned the dogmatic underpinning related to 41 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

autobiographical practice and investigated the potential of difference as being excessive and uncontrollable, unable to recuperate to any idea of a ‘norm’. Furthermore, this chapter asks the way autobiography could be perceived from an objective viewpoint or read as a method of political probing at the juncture of dissonant and contradictory discourses. In the final analysis in Chapter four, I again reiterate certain issues raised in the Introduction; particularly, the way autobiography is related to criticism and the moral advantage of autobiography being a form of observing or testimony, which, nevertheless could never control the problem of revealing the past. 2.4 CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF ‘THE LAW OF GENRE’ Being a critic of autobiography in recent time, Laura Marcus has mentioned the idea of ‘intention’ has interspersed its way continuously through many deliberations of autobiography (Marcus 1994: 3). Confronted by the New Critics from the 1930s and 1940s as untruth, ‘intentionality’ gives indication about the belief of the author is main person for the text and putting a curb on its meaning; then the author presents as the patron of the ‘intentional’ purpose or truth behind the text, therefore going through a text leads to the author as original source. Among the critical discussions involving autobiography, ‘intention’ has indisputable role in facilitating the key link among author, protagonist and narrator. Intention is again defined as a specific kind of ‘honest’ intention assuring the ‘truth’ of the writing. Critical Reviews about ‘The Law of Genre’ Fredric Jameson in this respect has raised concern about the potential of a genre for operating as a ‘law’; rather he looks at genre being inability to segregate itself away from its meaning to define: ‘Genres have very much entanglement in the literary history and ceremonious production they needed traditionally for classifying and impartially to describe’ (Jameson 1981: 107). As per Celeste Schenk, the argument by Jameson has given suggestion on the course of actions genres remain always ‘cultural constructions themselves’ and function not as ‘ideal types’ but being ‘overdetermined loci of contention and conflict’ (Schenk, in Brodski and Schenk 1988: 282). Still, it is the illustration for Jameson genre has pragmatic function where it gets to be one of the procedures writers use trying to make sure that their text gets well appreciated and read properly: ‘Not a small portion the craft of writing, in reality, is accommodated by this (impossible) effort to design a solid mechanism for the dispel of unwarranted responses instinctively to a delineated literary utterance’ (Jameson 1981: 106–7). Hence, the architects of genre could be used for insisting on an affinity to already acknowledge, and for organizing and managing the meanings of a text in context to the reader. Genre could be assumed as a means to develop a dynastic connection between texts, enciphering tradition in conventional features that operate as ‘family characteristics’. According to positive viewpoint of genre by Alastair Fowler, genre has its advantage through developing a tradition of same kind of texts through a genealogical imperative. As per Fowler 42 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

each work, ‘is counted as the child . . . of a former representative of the genre yet could be the producer of an ensuing representative’ (Fowler 1982: 32). If we revert to essay written by Derrida, it could be noticed that he had perceived the way genre has a ‘commanding influence’ on ‘that outlines the genre into generations, engendering, genealogy, and degenerescence’. As per the statement by Derrida, this reveals about the queries of genre can’t be posed formally: It considers of the theme of the law usually, of generation in context to the inherent and symbolic viewpoint ...of the generation inequality, sexual discrimination between the feminine gender and masculine...that appears as relation less alliance between the two, one is about an identity and another is how far the feminine is different from the masculine. (Derrida 1980: 221). He again specifies that there lies various meaning in French for the term, as ‘the semantic scale of genre is way above and ‘mostly includes within its jurisdiction the gender’ (ibid.). The genre is not supposed to shun calling up gender by virtue of semantic proximity; Alastair Fowler actually unwittingly demonstrates that, in the metaphorical and lexical transit of genre through many generations, whereas sexual difference is assuredly installed at its core: families coming through mothers and fathers, even it may be the only line by father claiming to be lawful. Mary Jacobus states that with specific reference to notion of a general family by Alastair Fowler that ‘genre always remains impure, “mothered” as well as fathered’ all the time(Jacobus 1989: 204). Referring Derrida, she withdraws his paradoxical notion of the law of genre as ‘a principle of contamination, a law of impurity’ (Derrida 1980: 206). Here feminist critics have considered the politics of genre present at work in its vouch for a patriarchal law delegitimizing women’s writing. Still, the writing of women, or any subject that is reckoned as different, permits us reading into genre of the multifariousness or transgressiveness it makes effort for excluding. Genre, as per Derrida, gives us ‘places and limits’: ‘I have authorized myself to be commanded by . . . the law of genre’, he mentions (p.227). Thus, we could state that Autobiography turns of its own into a genre to ‘place’ the subject, the ‘I’, for undone by the uncertainty and difference instated before within the law. 2.5 SUMMARY • Laura Marcus by profession is a Professor of English at the Sussex University. She has the credit of publishing many essays and articles on the literature belonging to nineteenth as well as twentieth-century. • Laura further has the opportunity for coediting The History of Cambridge literature written in Twentieth-Century. • She is reckoned as a benefactor to 1001 Books You Must Read Before You Die in 2012. • Laura Marcus is the recipient of ‘2008 James Russell Lowell Prize’ given by The Modern Language Association. • Laura Marcus focuses that 1895 has its significance when it comes to evaluating Modernism. 43 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• As per Laura Marcus, there was some change in the nineteenth century, i.e., a slow positioning of autobiography with the merit conferred to authorship. • If there becomes an anxiety around initial discussions was involving the public disclosure of the privacy, it happens to be the case in which autobiography steadily reaches the place where literary genius matters. Again, it could be accepted as ‘internally’ valuable, in the lacking testimony to other ‘outside’ judgements. • The author had a vocation but was not meant for determining or valuing like the marketplace, but with citation of the self only. Here consideration has been given to Wordsworth along with Carlyle as two exceptional autobiographies written in the nineteenth-century autobiography. • There was prominence to the grading of values in the 19th century in context to self- representation containing historical narrative occupying a bottom order due to the fact of they are involving a marginal degree of ‘seriousness’ in contrast to autobiography. • Laura Marcus mentions it: ‘The autobiography or memoirs give the distinction of being – apparently formal and inclusive – is definitely a typological significance between those having the ability of making self-reflection and by some who lack this.’ • The autobiography needs to be correlated with a narrative that is developmental in nature and orders time and personality as per the requirement of the goal; hence it is the looser and more about chronological structure as presented in the journal or diary that could never fulfil this ‘higher’ objective of autobiography. • As per Derrida, it becomes the viewpoint of a genre for constituting itself as ‘ interdictions and norms’: ‘Therefore, as the genre makes announcement itself at the earliest, one should abide by a norm and not cross the demarcation line, further one need not put oneself in the risk of impurity and anomaly or monstrosity.’ • Laura Marcus further has noted about the assumption of ‘intention’ that has perennially made its strategy through debate on autobiography (Marcus 1994: 3). • Confounded by the critics who are new during 1930s to 1940s as a misconception, ‘intentionality’ signifies the trust that not only the author endorses the text and control its meaning but also as the assurer of the ‘intentional’ denotation or text’s truth and reading it leads to show that the author as original source. • Fredric Jameson has again questioned the competency of a genre for functioning as a ‘law’; rather he thinks genre has not the ability to separate itself from defining: ‘Genres are very clearly mentioned in the literary history and orthodox production they were assumed to segregate and neutrally for describing.’ • Genre might be assumed as a means of developing an inheritance relation among texts and encoding customs in authorized features that operate as if ‘family characteristics’. • As per the positive view on genre by Alastair Fowler’s to a large extent, it works to the advantage of developing a ritual of homogeneous texts through certain type of genealogical requirement. 44 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• In accordance with Fowler, “Each work seems like a child . . . of a representative of the past genre but could be the originator of a representative that follows.” • Alastair Fowler unintentionally reflects, in the literal and fanciful passage of genre involving generations, gender disparity is inexorably infused at its centre. 2.6 KEYWORDS • Metaphorical: Symbolic in nature, representation of something • Delegitimizes: Withdraw authority/rights/prestige of. • Genealogical: The descent of family, community, group, class etc. • Transgression: Violation or suspension of any rule. • Commodify: Treating a person/object as a commodity. 2.7LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Read “Auto/Biographical Discourses: Criticism, Theory, Practice” by Laura Marcus and discuss the significance of the genre. _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 2. Prepare a Matrix in the below mentioned format about the author and the text. Life of the Author Works of the Author Autobiographical Salient Features Elements Figure 2.1: Prepare the Matrix ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 2.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions 45 Short Questions 1. Enumerate the works of Laura Marcus. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. Explain the concept of ‘Intention.’ 3. Discuss the autobiographical features of the text with examples. 4. As a postgraduate student of English literature, how will you judge the book? 5. Comment on the basic tenets of the book’ The Law of Genre’. Long Questions 1. Analyze the critical comments of Derrida and others within the context of ‘genre.’ 2. Justify how Laura’s Autobiography is of its own kind. 3. Draw your own analysis of the text ‘The Law of Genre’. 4. Write a note on ‘Laura as a Professor.’ 5. “The autobiography is a developmental narrative.” Justify. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which book of Laura Marcus awarded James Russell Lowell Prize of the Modern Language Association? a) The Tenth Muse: Writing about Cinema in the Modernist Period b) Virginia Woolf: Writers and their Work c) The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century English Literature d) Auto/biographical Discourses: Theory, Criticism, Practice 2. Laura was elected to the…………… in 2011. a) Fellowship of the British Academy b) Fellowship of the American Academy c) Fellowship of the Italian Academy d) Fellowship of the Post-modern Academy 3. Laura Marcus was an editor on the following journal. a) Littcrit b) Shodhsindhu c) Rupkta d) Women: A Cultural Review 4. In which year Laura Marcus received the James Russell Lowell Prize of the Modern Language Association? a) 2011 b) 2007 c) 2008 d) 2016 5. The text ‘The Law of Genre’ is taken from Laura Marcus’s………? a) The Tenth Muse: Writing about Cinema in the Modernist Period b) Virginia Woolf: Writers and their Work c) The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century English Literature d) Auto/biographical Discourses: Theory, Criticism, Practice 46 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Answers: 1-(a), 2-(a), 3-(d), 4-(a), 5-(d) 2.9 REFERENCES Textbooks • Marcus, L. (2018). Autobiography: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. • Mondal, M. (2014). Gender Geometry: A Study of A. Revathi's Autobiography The Truth About Me: A Hijra Life Story, Lapis Lazuli-An International Literary Journal (LLILJ), Vol. 4(1), Pp. 125-132. • Cornu, Gérard (1990). Linguistique juridique. Paris: Montchrestien. • Nølke, Henning (1995). Utterance Focus. Elements of a Modular Theory. In Copenhagen Studies in Language • Swales J. M. (1990). Genre Analysis. English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reference Books • Das, Kamala. (2009). My Story. Harper Collins Publishers, India. • De'Souza, Eunice. (2002). Women's Voices: Selections from Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Indian Writing in English. Oxford University Press, India. • Folch, M. (2015). The City and The Stage: Performance, Genre, and Gender in Plato's Laws. Oxford University Press. • Marcus, L. (2010). The Tenth Muse: Writing About Cinema in the Modernist Period. OUP Oxford. • Marcus, L. (2014). Dreams of Modernity. Cambridge University Press. Websites • www.amielandmelburn.org.uk • www.worldcat.org • www.arunachaluniversity.com • www.booktopia.com • www.eupublishing.com 47 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT-3: JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU’S CONFESSIONS, PART ONE, BOOK ONE STRUCTURE 3.0 Learning Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 About The Author 3.3 Analysis of the Text 3.3.1 Character Analysis 3.3.2 Themes 3.4 Literary Elements 3.5 Critical Reviews 3.6 Summary 3.7 Keywords 3.8 Learning Activity 3.9 Unit End Questions 3.10 References 3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, student will be able to: • Describe both the artistry and utility of the English language through the study of literature and other contemporary forms of culture. • List critical faculties necessary in an academic environment, on the job, and in an increasingly complex, interdependent world. • Develop literary approach towards criticism and cultural texts from different historical periods and genres. • Explain the autobiography as a literary text in terms of theme, characters, motives etc. 48 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3.1 INTRODUCTION Rousseau's 'Admissions', first and foremost distributed in 1782, is a sort of amalgamation of a self-portrayal and a novel. The subject of it is simply the existence of Rousseau, a particular individual, a specific character. The creator thinks and explains, understands and creatively sums up his life way, his set of experiences. He uncovers in it includes that are trademark of the individual concerned, yet in addition of the individual by and large. So, collection of memoirs moves nearer to the novel. \"Admissions\" as indicated by pundits, has not lost its splendid significance, in contrast to a few other, additionally known works of Rousseau. \"Admissions\" of Rousseau is an eternity living, astonishing expectation of logical composition. Admission is quite often writing, recommending perusers later on or in the present, a sort of plot mind-set of the picture of the real world and the picture of a man. Dynamic forward is supplanted by review elements. The peruser goes through the term of the character, where the characters of the writer and the legend of the book are indistinguishably interlaced. The creator's picture, as is known, doesn't really comprise of individual qualities of true to life occasions, as per fiction the material fills in as a general, recorded, yet essentially a reality of individual profound experience. Without this realness of inward experience, otherworldliness can't exist, yet there is just a dead verbal husk. A cognizant demeanor to the issues of demonstrating an individual started with sentimentalism and was adapted by its heartfelt arrangement. This book, obviously, went past the history, imagined as an examination of the human spirit, it simultaneously prepared for a socio-mental novel of the nineteenth century. \"Admissions\" tell about the genuine otherworldly occasions of Rousseau, yet with his legend can happen and what indeed with Rousseau didn't. Also, it is the matured creator, and not the saint, who 49 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

examinations his activities. The creator and the saint address the focal picture of \"Admissions\", on which Rousseau's innovative memory is concentrated, he, when all is said and done, pronounced his picture special - in the first thus well-known lines of his diaries. For Rousseau, a man is a complex multi-party system that consistently responds to an assortment of outside aggravations, constantly adjusts to the climate and looks for fulfilment with his requirements and wants. An individual is all the while subject to various impacts, from simply physiological to absolutely profound, in light of the fact that beliefs and virtues are inborn in an individual as natural as a craving to eat and drink. Deep life, hence, addresses for Rousseau a simultaneous blend of various levels, which produces so numerous non-existent conundrums that involved him. This origination of man drove Rousseau to the underlying disclosure of the mystic instrument. 3.2 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Jean Jacques Rousseau was brought into the world on June 28, 1712 in Geneva, Switzerland. After nine days, his mom, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, passed on because of entanglements from labour. His dad, Isaac Rousseau, was a watchmaker who frequently left for stretched out timeframes to seek after his exchange. In 1772, Rousseau's dad deserted him to keep away from detainment subsequent to battling in a duel. Due to his family inconveniences, Rousseau was raised by his auntie and uncle until he was apprenticed to an etcher at 13 years old. After three years, he fled to fill in as the secretary to Madame Louise de Warrens, a well-off lady who might later turn into his sweetheart. Rousseau spent quite a bit of his childhood seeking after his solid interest in music. He went to the Annecy Cathedral ensemble school for a half year, and later functioned as a music instructor in Chambery. In 1742, he introduced the Academie des Sciences with another arrangement of numbered melodic documentation that he proposed to be viable with typography. Albeit the foundation derisively excused his framework, a variant of it is as yet utilized in certain pieces of the world. From 1743 to 1744, Rousseau filled in as the secretary to the French envoy in Venice, whose administration he would later evaluate in On the Social Contract. Subsequent to finishing this work he got back to Paris. It was there that he met Therese Levausseur, with whom he had five kids. Outstandingly, Rousseau deserted the entirety of his youngsters at a foundling emergency clinic soon after birth. His poor nurturing got a lot of mocking and analysis, particularly after Rousseau distributed Emile, which spreads out speculations on legitimate youngster raising and training. While he was in Paris, Rousseau become a close acquaintance with Denis Diderot, a conspicuous French edification scholar and the coordinator of an early reference book. Rousseau composed a few articles for Diderot, remembering some for music and a compelling one on political economy. Rousseau additionally got familiar with Voltaire, albeit scholarly contrasts later finished their companionship. 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)