MAP603_Social Psychology

MASTER OF ARTS (PSYCHOLOGY) SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY MAP603 Vipan Kumar

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Chairman Prof. (Dr.) R.S. Bawa Vice Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director, IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director, CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Co-ordinator - Prof. Pragya Sharma Co-ordinator - Dr. Rupali Arora Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Co-ordinator - Dr. Deepti Rani Sindhu Co-ordinator - Dr. Raju Kumar Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Co-ordinator - Dr. Shashi Singhal Co-ordinator - Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel& TourismManagement) Co-ordinator - Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Co-ordinator - Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Co-ordinator - Dr. Ashita Chadha Co-ordinator - Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Master of Arts (Mass Communication and Bachelor of Arts (Mass Communication and Journalism) Journalism) Co-ordinator - Dr. Chanchal Sachdeva Suri Co-ordinator - Dr. Kamaljit Kaur Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) Pranveer Singh Satvat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Pro VC (Academic) Registrar Prof. (Dr.) H. Nagaraja Udupa Prof. (Dr.) Shiv Kumar Tripathi Director – (IDOL) Executive Director – USB © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the author and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.himpub.com For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology Course Code: MAP603 Credits: 3 Course Objectives:  To emphasize acquisition of knowledge beyond mere memorization of facts, Understanding the ability to use certain fundamental concepts and principles involved in human behavior.  Enable students to analyze the major problems and issues in the discipline of social psychology.  The students will be able to critically analyze the forces that create group differences in patterns of social behavior, and tolerate the behavior of other people, particularly that of members of the diverse array of groups. Syllabus Unit 1 - Social Psychology as a science: Nature and History Unit 2 - Social learning theories: Field, Role and Exchange Unit 3 - Developmental views of self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers Unit 4 - Research methods in social psychology Unit 5 - Socialization and Special Agents of Socialization Unit 6 - Aggression: concepts, determinants Unit 7 - Interpersonal Attraction: Concept, determinants Unit 8 - Attitudes: Components of attitudes; Formation of attitudes Unit 9 - Measurement of attitudes, Theories of attitude change Unit 10 - Attribution- concept Unit 11 - Theories of Attribution: Kelly, Weiner, Jones and Davis CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Text Books: 1. Baron, R.A., Byrne, D. & Bhardwaj, G (2010). Social Psychology (12th Ed). New Delhi: Pearson. 2. Deaux, K. & Wrightsman, L. (2001). Social Psychology. California: Cole Publishing. 3. Taylor, S.E., Peplau, L.A. & Sears, D.O. (2006). Social Psychology (12th Ed). New Delhi: Pearson. Reference Books: 1. Misra, G. (1990). Applied Social Psychology. New Delhi: Sage. 2. Hastorf, A.H., & Cantril, H. (1954). They saw a game – A case study. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology pp49, 129-134. 3. Bargh, J.A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology pp71, 230-244. 4. Choi, I., & Nisbett, R.E. (1998). Situational salience and cultural differences in the correspondence bias and actor-observer bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. pp 24, 949-960. 5. Linville, P. W. (1985). Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don’t put all your eggs in one cognitive basket. Social Cognition pp3, 94-120. 6. Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science pp16, 175-179. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENTS 1 - 14 15 - 51 Unit 1: Social Psychology as a Science 52 - 75 Unit 2: Social Learning Theory 76 - 95 Unit 3: Developmental Views of Self: Erikson, Sullivan and Rogers 96 - 102 Unit 4: Research Methods in Social Psychology 103 - 121 Unit 5: Socialization 122 - 156 Unit 6: Aggression 157 - 167 Unit 7: Interpersonal Attraction 168 - 180 Unit 8: Attitudes 181 - 193 Unit 9: Measurement of Attitudes and Theories of Attitude Change 194 - 205 Unit 10: Attribution Unit 11: Theories of Attribution CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology as a Science 1 UNIT 1 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE Structure: 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Social Psychology as a Science 1.3 Nature/Features of Social Psychology 1.4 History of Social Psychology 1.5 Summary 1.6 Key Words/Abbreviations 1.7 Learning Activity 1.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 1.9 References 1.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the meaning of social psychology  Illustrate the social psychology as a science  Describe the nature/feature of social psychology  Explain the history of social psychology CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2 Social Psychology 1.1 Introduction Social Psychology is one of the most important and central fields of modern Psychology. It is an important field having theoretical and applied value. Social Psychology is concerned with the study of the effect of group membership upon individual’s behavior. They study how individual behaves in a group? How he influences the group and how the group in turn influences him? Providing a formal definition of Social Psychology is a difficult and complex task due to two reasons:  The broad scope of the field.  The rapid rate with which the field of Social Psychology is changing. Social Psychologists have a wide range of interests. Most Social Psychologists focus mainly on the task of understanding how and why individuals behave think and feel as they do in social situations, ones involving the actual and imagined presence of other people. Social Psychology investigates the ways in which our thoughts, feelings and actions are influenced by the environments in which we live. According to Baron et. al., (2010) “Social Psychology is the scientific field that seeks to comprehend (understand) the nature and causes of individual behavior and thought in social situations”. In other words, social psychologists seek to understand how we think about and interact with others. Social Psychology as a scientific field has the following characteristics: 1. Social Psychology is scientific in nature. 2. It focuses on the behaviour of individuals. 3. It seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought. 1.2 Social Psychology as a Science We would discuss each of these in brief: 1. Social Psychology is scientific in nature: Social Psychology is scientific in nature. Many people wrongly believe that science is only concerned with physics, chemistry, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology as a Science 3 biology, etc. They fail to understand that social psychology can also be a science. The term science refers to a general method that is used to study wide range of topics. The term science is used to refer to two things. (a) A set of values and (b) A group of methods that can be used to study a given topic. Any subject can be called as a science if it uses certain set of values as well as a particular method to investigate its subject matter. Social Psychology is a Science because it meets all the criteria of science. The core scientific values that Social Psychology adopts to study its subject matter are of follows: (i) Accuracy: Social Psychology emphasizes on accuracy, precision, etc. While collecting data Social Psychologists emphasize on correctness and are highly specific in gathering information about social behavior. Accuracy is a commitment to gathering and evaluating information about the world, including social behaviour and thought, in a careful, precise and error-free manner. (ii) Objectivity: Social Psychologists emphasize on objectivity of the data. They gather data that overcomes personal biases and prejudices. Social psychology is highly objective. (iii) Skepticism: It means an individual does not take any opinion at face value. He/She questions a given point of view and searches for facts. Skepticism is a search for verified knowledge. Skepticism is one of the important values, which a scientist adopts. Social Psychologists are also skeptics to a very large extent. (iv) Open-mindedness: A Scientist has to be open-minded. Social Psychologists are open- minded and adept to change. Opposite of open-mindedness is dogmatic. If a Social Psychologist discovers that his views or theory is not in conformation with newly discovered facts or knowledge, he/she is open to change. Besides these above-mentioned sets of values it can be observed that Social Psychology, as a science, has all the characteristics of a science. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4 Social Psychology (a) As a science social psychology is a systematic study of factual knowledge. (b) It is concerned with controlled observation. (c) Social Psychology uses scientific methods to investigate its subject matter. (d) As a science social psychology attempts to establish cause-effect relationship between various aspects of human behavior. (e) Social psychologists conduct experiments. Textbooks of social psychology quote many experiments. As a science social psychology does not accept hypotheses and assertions at face value. They also do not believe in intuition and skills of the psychologists. Emphasis is on empirically observed facts. Social Psychology is scientific in orientation because it has all the characteristics of science and it also adopts core scientific values of accuracy, objectivity, skepticism and open-mindedness. Social psychology as a science does not rely on intuition, faith and unobserved events. It seeks scientific evidence and its explanations are scientific in nature backed by core scientific values discussed above. Social psychology has faith in scientific methods because of two reasons:  It yields much more conclusive evidence. It helps to give a rational, logical and empirical support to one’s views or perspective about the world.  Scientific approach helps us to understand the errors and biases that may be inherent in our views/thoughts of social world. Scientific approach helps us to understand the common errors that an average person makes with respect to social behaviour and thought. 2. Social Psychology focuses on the behavior of individuals: Social Psychology concentrates on individual behavior. Existing social and cultural norms shape individual behavior and there are individual differences in behavior. In Social Psychology emphasis is on individual behavior, i.e., Social Psychology attempts to study how individuals influence group and others around them and how they in turn gets influenced by them. It is this emphasis on individual behavior that distinguishes Social Psychology from Sociology. Sociology studies larger social institutions like family, marriage, crowd, etc., CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology as a Science 5 whereas, Social Psychology studies the impact of these larger social institutions on individual behavior. The focus of Social Psychology is on individual behaviour. 3. Social Psychology seeks to understand the causes of social behavior and thought: Social Psychology is primarily concerned with understanding wide range of conditions that shape social behavior and situations. The task of identifying many factors that shape our social behavior and social thoughts are complex. Many variables play a role in this regard. Some important factors that influence social situations and social behaviors, on the part of individuals are as follows: (i) Social Interaction (ii) Cognitive Processes (iii) Environmental Variables: The Impact of the Physical World (iv) Cultural Context (v) Biological Factors 1.3 Nature/Features of Social Psychology We would discuss each of these briefly. (i) Social Interaction: Other individuals often have a powerful impact on our behaviour. What they say verbally or non-verbally to us considerably influence our subsequent interactions not only with them but also with other similar individuals. Similarly, other individual’s appearance, such as how they look, are they attractive, well dressed, their racial and ethnic characteristics and appearance considerably influence our interactions with them. Thus, the actions and characteristics of other person considerably impact our behavior and influence is social interactions. Individual’s actions such as generosity, aggressive outbursts, compassion, etc., influence other’s behavior to a very great extent. Similarly, our personal and personality characteristics such as height weight, race, physical appearance, etc., considerably influence how others will react and behave with us. One’s visible characteristics considerably influence his/ her social behavior and that of other’s towards him/her. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6 Social Psychology (ii) Cognitive Processes: An Individual’s social behavior and thought is also considerably influenced by cognitive processes. The term cognitive process is used to refer to one’s thought, perception, memory, etc., about an individual, a given event or about anything. For, e.g., while traveling in a bus if a young man comes and sits next to you, even though other seats are empty, including the window seat in front of you, your cognitive processes are likely to become active. You would start thinking as to why he is sitting next to you? What is he up to? You will bring to your memory to similar past events, etc. You will also make an assessment about the personal and behavioral attributes of an individual and then decided to act accordingly. Similarly, when you have been waiting for your friend at a bus-stop and your friend is very late? How would you react? On coming late your friend gives you reasons for being late. He may tell you “I am sorry….I totally forgot about the meeting…..” or he may tell you “I am sorry…..the train in which I was coming had derailed……….and I had to get down and take a taxi…..there was considerable traffic jam outside the station….” How would you react in such a situation? You would recall from your memory that is this the first time your friend is late, is he telling the truth or exaggerating the excuses, etc. Thus, our cognitive processes considerably influence the way we would act and react in a given social situation. (iii) Environmental Variables: The Impact of the Physical World: Social behavior and thought is also considerably influenced by one’s physical environment such as temperature, humidity, etc., A large number of research studies, especially those by Rotton and Kelley (1985) as well as Baron (1997) have pointed out that our feelings, thoughts and behavior is considerably influenced by our physical environment. Social psychologists have investigated the role of many environmental and ecological variables in influencing our social behavior. Some important areas of research with respect to environmental variables are as follows:  Are people more prone to wild impulsive behaviour during full moon than at other times?  Do we become more irritable and aggressive when the weather is hot and steamy than when it is cool and comfortable? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology as a Science 7  Does exposure to pleasant smell in the air make people more helpful to others?  Psychological research in the last few years have revealed that many environmental variables influence our feelings, thoughts and behaviours. (iv) Cultural Context: A behavior that an individual would manifest is also considerably influenced by one’s socio-cultural context. Social behavior such as dating, sexual expressions, dressing, certain manners, etc., are considerably influenced by social norms and expectations of a given culture. The concept of “beautiful women” and concern about one’s weight is also culturally determined. Cultural values of a given society considerably influences one’s social behavior and thought. What is considered to be physically attractive or “sexy” is influenced by cultural norms, membership in a particular group and changing societal values. Social psychologists are more concerned with the processes by which cultural factors influence individual social behavior and social interaction. Our social relationships with others and how we think about them are often strongly affected by events, beliefs and trends in our own culture. Cultural beliefs and norms (rules governing behaviour) influence much more important aspects of behaviour, such as to when people should marry and whom, how many children they should have, whether it is OK to “fudge” one’s income taxes, to be in debt or to live with one’s romantic partner, etc., (v) Biological Factors: Earlier it was believed that social behavior is not influenced by biological factors. However, in last two decades a large body of research data, especially the work of Nisbett (1990) and Buss (1999) have demonstrated that our biological inheritance does play a role in influencing our preferences, behavior, emotional reactions and attitudes. The view that biological factors play an important role in social behavior comes from the newly developed field of Psychology called as Evolutionary Psychology. 1.4 History of Social Psychology Social Psychology as a separate academic and scientific field originated in late 19th Century and developed gradually in the 20th Century. The historical development of Social Psychology can be divided into different stages, some of which are as follows. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

8 Social Psychology 1. The Early Years of Social Psychology: The origins of Social Psychology cannot be traced to any specific date or formal beginning. It gradually evolved as a result of the contributions of different psychologists and social scientist, Gabriel Trade, Lebon, Ross and McDougall are considered to be pioneers in the field of Social Psychology. They all published books on topics related to Social Psychology. William McDougall (1908) held the view that social behaviour stems from innate tendencies or instincts. According to Baron and Byrne the years between 1908 and 1924 qualify during which Social Psychology first emerged as an independent entity. In 1924 Floyd Allport published a book titled “Social Psychology” in which he explained many forms of social behaviour. In his book, Allport discussed many topics. The most important among them were as follows: (a) Social conformity. (b) The ability to understand emotions through facial expressions. (c) The impact of audience on task performance. All port argued that social behaviour develops from many different factors, including the presence of other persons and their specific actions. He also, in his book, emphasized the value of experimentation. 2. Developments in 1930s and 1940s: During 1930s and 1940s Social Psychology developed rapidly. Two important researchers who contributed towards the development of Social Psychology during this period were: (a) Muzaffer Sheriff: He studied the topic of social norms and conformity. He was interested in understanding the role of social norms in influencing our behaviour. Social norms refer to rules indicating how individuals ought to behave. He was a pioneer of research in the area of conformity. (b) Kurt Lewin: He did considerable work on nature of leadership and group processes. Lewin’s contribution to Social Psychology is supreme because many of his students contributed towards the development of Social Psychology in later CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology as a Science 9 years. Some of his students are Leon Festinger, Harold Kelley, Morton Deutsch, Stanley Schachter and John Thibaut. In short, by the close of the 1930s, Social Psychology was an active, growing field that had already contributed much to our knowledge of social behaviour. 3. Social Psychology’s Youth: The 1940s to 1960s: During this period the field of Social Psychology expanded its scope in many different directions. During this period following important developments took place in the field of Social Psychology: (i) Social Psychologists studied the influence of group and group membership on individual behaviour. (Forsyth, 1991). (ii) They also studied the relationship between personality traits and social behaviour. One of the important developments during this period was research on Authoritarian Personality (Adorno et. al., 1950). (iii) The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance developed during this period was one of the most important developments within Social Psychology. Cognitive Dissonance can be defined as an unpleasant state that occurs when individuals discover inconsistencies between two of their attitudes or between their attitudes and their behaviour. (Festinger, 1957). This theory proposed that human beings dislike inconsistency and strive to reduce it. Specifically, the theory argues that people, seek to eliminate inconsistency between different attitudes that they hold, or between their attitudes and their behaviour. (iv) Some important topics on which research was conducted during this period were: (a) Interpersonal attraction and romantic love. (b) Impression formation. (c) Attribution and other aspects of social perception. (d) Social influence, such as obedience, conformity, and compliance. (e) Effects of the physical environment on many forms of social behaviour. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

10 Social Psychology Research was also carried out in the areas of  Group decision-making.  Prosocial behaviour.  Aggression and violence. (v) During this period Social Psychology became applied in its orientation and concerned with issues concerning common man. The 1960s can be viewed as the time when Social Psychology came of age. During this period the number of Social Psychologists rose dramatically and the field expanded to include practically every aspect of social interaction. 4. Developments between 1970s to 1990s: The Maturing of the Field. During this period many areas in which research was done in 1960s were expanded and many new topics came to be studied with great interest from a new and more sophisticated perspective. During this period Social Psychology matured as a scientific field. Some important topics, which were studied during this period, were as follows: (i) Attribution: It is the process through which we seek to understand the causes of other’s behaviour (ii) Environmental psychology: This field studied the effects of physical environment, such as noise, heat, crowding, air quality, etc., on social behaviour. (iii) Gender differences and sex discrimination: This area studied the sex differences that existed and the impact of negative stereotypes on individual’s performance. It also studied prejudice and social adjustment of different groups as a result of discrimination. During this period two important trends were seen in the field of Social Psychology.  Development of Cognitive Perspective: Cognitive perspective had considerable influence on Social Psychology. The cognitive perspective involves the use of memory, thinking, reasoning and other similar cognitive processes in understanding of a given phenomenon. For, e.g., the cognitive perspective in Social Psychology have pointed out that various forms of prejudice may stem, atleast in part, from the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology as a Science 11 operation of basic cognitive process, such as the tendency to remember only information consistent with stereotypes of various groups.  Applied Aspects: During this period there was also great emphasis on applied aspects of Social Psychology. Social Psychologists have made attempts to apply the findings and principles of Social Psychology to the solution of practical problems. A large number of Social Psychologists have become interested in applied topics such as personal health, the legal process and social behaviour in work settings. 5. The Year 2010 and Beyond: Baron and Byrne (2009) have offered some guesses about how the field of Social Psychology will change in the coming decades. (a) In the year 2010 and beyond Social Psychology would continue to show the growing influence of a cognitive perspective and increasing interest in applied aspects of Social Psychology. Social Psychologists will make efforts to apply the findings of their study to practical issues facing people. (b) Social Psychology in future will adopt a multicultural perspective. The multicultural perspective focuses on understanding the cultural and ethnic factors that influence social behaviour. Social Psychology in the future will develop theories and principles, which will have universal applications. They will also develop theories and perform research on those areas, which are generalizable across cultures. (c) Interest in cultural diversity is increasing. Social Psychology is currently studying this diversity and the impact of cultural factors on social behaviour. Interest in cultural differences and in their origins is a rising trend in Social Psychology. (d) Social psychology in the future would continue to be more active and vigorous field and would continue to contribute more and more towards increase in human knowledge and human welfare. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

12 Social Psychology 1.5 Summary Social psychology studies the effect of group membership upon individuals behaviour, how individual behaves in a group, how he influences the group and how the group in turn influence him. Social Psychology is a science. The nature/features of social psychology are - it is scientific in nature, it focuses on the individuals behaviour and it understands the causes of social behaviour and thought. The history or historical development of social psychology can be divided into the following stages (a) The early years of social psychology. (b) Developments in 1930s and 1940s. (c) Social psychology’s youth: 1940s to 1960s (d) Developments between 1970s to 1990s. (e) The year 2010 and beyond. 1.6 Key Words/Abbreviations  Social Interaction: The actions and characteristics of other person considerably impact our behavior and influence is social interactions.  Cultural Context: A behavior that an individual would manifest is also considerably influenced by one’s socio-cultural context.  Environmental Psychology: This field studies the effects of physical environment, such as noise, heat, crowding, air quality, etc., on social behaviour.  Biological Factors: The work of Nisbett (1990) and Buss (1999) have demonstrated that our biological inheritance does play a role in influencing our preferences, behavior, emotional reactions and attitudes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Psychology as a Science 13  Cognitive Perspective: The cognitive perspective involves the use of memory, thinking, reasoning and other similar cognitive processes in understanding of a given phenomenon  Social Psychology: Social psychology is the study of individual behaviour in the society. It focuses on the behaviour of individual 1.7 Learning Activity 1. Find the various applications of social psychology. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Find the historical development of Social psychology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. What is social Psychology? Explain the nature of social psychology. 2. Define social psychology. Explain the features of social psychology. 3. Explain social psychology as a science. 4. Trace the history of social psychology. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. __________ is the study of individual behaviour in the society. (a) Social psychology (b) Developmental Psychology (c) Industrial Psychology (d) Rural Psychology 2. ___________ is the scientific study of how people think about, influence and relate to one another. (a) Urban Psychology (b) Industrial Psychology (c) Rural Psychology (d) Social Psychology CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

14 Social Psychology 3. Social psychology is a/an _____________. (a) Art (b) Science (c) Profession (d) Activity 4. Social Psychology focuses on the behaviour of __________. (a) Groups (b) Society (c) Individual (d) Institution 5. Social psychology as a separate academic and scientific field originated in late _____ century. (a) 17th (b) 18th (c) 19th (d) 16th 6. During ________ social psychology developed rapidly. (a) 1930s and 1940s (b) 1940s and 1960s (c) 1970s and 1990s (d) Non of these Answers: 1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (c), 4. (a), 5. (b), 6. (b) 1.9 References 1. Vipan B. Kumar, (2010) “Social Psychology”, Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. 2. David G. Myar, (2006), “Social Psychology”, 8th Ed., Tata McGraw Hill. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 15 UNIT 2 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Structure: 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Field Theory 2.3 Role Theory 2.4 Social Exchange Theory 2.5 Summary 2.6 Key Words/Abbreviations 2.7 Learning Activity 2.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 2.9 References 2.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the field theory of sociology.  Evaluate the role theory.  Discuss the exchange theory. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

16 Social Psychology 2.1 Introduction Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behaviour which proposes a new behaviours can be acquired by observing and imitating other. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in asocial context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behaviour, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process know as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behaviour is rewarded regularly. It will most likely persist conversely, if a particular behaviour is constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The theory expands on traditional behaviour theories in which behaviour is governed society by reinforcements by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individuals. In sociology, field theory examines how individuals construct social fields, and how they are affected by such fields. Social fields are environments in which competition between individuals and between groups takes place, such as markets, academic disciplines, musical genres, etc. Unstable fields are described through speedy alternate and often by way of unfavourable types of competition, such as pure opposition over prices that drives profit margins to untenably low levels. Fields consequently need to be stabilized with regulations which make certain that opposition takes non-destructive forms. Stable fields rarely emerge on their own, however need to be built by skilled entrepreneurs. The government frequently plays a position in this technique as well. Role theory is a standpoint in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of daily undertaking to be the appearing out of socially defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, teacher). Each role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviors that a man or woman has to face and fulfill. The model is based totally on the commentary that humans behave in a predictable way, and that an individual’s behavior is context specific, primarily based on social role and other factors. The theatre is a metaphor frequently used to describe position theory. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 17 Depending on the general perspective of the theoretical tradition, there are many “types” of role theory. The theory posits the following propositions about social behaviour: 1. The division of labor in society takes the form of the interaction among heterogeneous specialized positions that we call roles; 2. Social roles included “appropriate” and “permitted” forms of behavior, guided by social norms, which are commonly known and hence determine expectations; 3. Roles are occupied by individuals, who are called “actors”; 4. When individuals approve of a social role (i.e., they consider the role \"legitimate\" and \"constructive\"), they will incur costs to conform to role norms, and will also incur costs to punish those who violate role norms; 5. Changed conditions can render a social role outdated or illegitimate, in which case social pressures are likely to lead to role change; 6. The anticipation of rewards and punishments, as well as the satisfaction of behaving in a prosocial way, account for why agents conform to role requirements. Role idea is divided into two principal kinds of theories, Structural Functionalism Role Theory and Dramaturgical Role Theory. Structural Functionalism Role Theory is essentially defined as every body having a place in the social structure and each and every vicinity had a corresponding role, which has an equal set of expectations and behaviors. Life is greater structured, and there is a particular place for everything. However, Dramaturgical Role Theory takes a distinct method by using defining lifestyles as a in no way ending play and we are all actors within this play. The essence of this function idea is to role-play in an suitable manner in society. A key insight of this theory is that role conflict occurs when a person is expected to simultaneously act out multiple roles that carry contradictory expectations. Social exchange theory is a sociological and psychological theory that studies the social behavior in the interaction of two parties that implement a cost-benefit analysis to determine risks and benefits. Also, the theory involves economic relationships, it occurs when each party have CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

18 Social Psychology goods that the other parties value. Social exchange theory suggests that these calculations occur in romantic relationships, friendships, professional relationships and ephemeral relationships as simple as exchanging words with a customer at the cash register. Social exchange theory says that if the costs of the relationship are higher than the rewards, such as a lot of effort or money put into a relationship and not reciprocated, this could lead to problems 2.2 Field Theory The field is one of the core concepts used by French social scientist Pierre Bourdieu. In his formulation, a field is a setting in which agents and their social positions are located. The position of each particular agent in the field is a result of interaction between the specific rules of the field, agent's habitus and agent's capital (social, economic and cultural). Fields interact with each other, and are hierarchical: Most are subordinate to the larger field of power and class relations. Instead of confining his analysis of social relations and trade to voluntaristic business enterprise or strictly in terms of the structural thought of class, Bourdieu makes use of the agency- structure bridging thought of field: any historical, non-homogeneous social-spatial area in which people maneuver and hostilities in pursuit of acceptable resources. Much of Bourdieu's work observes the semi-independent function of instructional and cultural sources in the expression of agency. This makes his work amenable to liberal-conservative scholarship positing the fundamental cleavages of society as amongst disorderly factions of the working class, in want of disciplinary intervention the place they have assumed excessive privilege. Unsurprisingly given his historic and biographical location, however, Bourdieu was in practice both influenced via and sympathetic to the Marxist identification of financial command as a important component of electricity and company within capitalist society, in distinction to some of his followers or the influential sociologist Max Weber Social System In Bourdieu's work, a area is a device of social positions (for example, a career such as the law) structured internally in phrases of power relationships (such as the power differential between judges and lawyers). More specifically, a area is a social arena of hostilities over the appropriation of certain species of capital — capital being anything is taken as vast for social CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 19 marketers (the most obvious instance being monetary capital). Fields are geared up both vertically and horizontally. This capability that fields are now not strictly analogous to classes, and are frequently autonomous, independent spaces of social play. The field of power is atypical in that it exists \"horizontally\" through all of the fields and the struggles within it manage the \"exchange rate\" of the varieties of cultural, symbolic, or physical capital between the fields themselves. A field is constituted with the aid of the relational variations in function of social agents, and the boundaries of a area are demarcated by using the place its results end. Different fields can be either self reliant or interrelated (for example, consider the separation of power between judiciary and legislature). More complicated societies have greater fields and greater relations between fields. According to these rules, activity develops in the field, which works like a market in which actors compete for the specific benefits associated to it. This competition defines the objective relationships between participants through factors like the volume of capital they contribute, their trajectories within the field or their ability to adjust to the rules inherent to the field. The extent to which participants are able to make an effective use of the resources they are endowed with is a function of the adaptation of their habitus in this specific field. The habitus is the subjective system of expectations and predispositions acquired through past experience. The operative capital in each field is the set of resources which can be used to obtain an advantage within it. Therefore, capital is a factor of the field dynamics, as well as a byproduct of the field which doesn't exist outside of it. Different species of capital perform in different fields, which in turn are defined by the power balances exerted by the capital. Social Illusion Fields are developed in accordance to underlying nomos, necessary principles of “vision and division” (the division between mind and body for example, or male and female), or organizing “laws” of ride that govern practices and experiences inside a field. The nomos underlying one area is often irreducible to these underlying another, as in the noted disparity between the nomos of the aesthetic field that values cultural capital and in some experience discourages financial capital, and that of the economic field which values monetary capital. Agents subscribe to a particular field not by way of explicit contract, but by their practical acknowledgement of the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

20 Social Psychology stakes, implicit in the very \"playing of the game\". This acknowledgement of the stakes of the field and the acquiring of interests and investments prescribed by the field is termed social illusion, or illusio. 2.3 Role Theory General Concept Substantial debate exists in the field over the behaviour of individual that means of the \"role\" in role theory. A position can be described as a social position, conduct related with a social position, or a normal behavior. Some theorists have put forward the notion that roles are in fact expectations about how an individual ought to behave in a given situation, while others reflect on consideration on it capability how people in reality behave in a given social position. Others have advised that a function is a characteristic conduct or expected behavior, a section to be played, or a script for social conduct. In sociology there are different categories of social roles: 1. Cultural roles: roles given by culture (e.g. priest) 2. Social differentiation: e.g. teacher, taxi driver 3. Situation-specific roles: e.g. eye witness 4. Bio-sociological roles: e.g. as human in a natural system 5. Gender roles: as a man, woman, mother, father, etc. In their life people have to face different social roles, sometimes they have to face different roles at the same time in different social situations. There is an evolution of social roles: some disappear and some new develop. Role behaviour is influenced by following aspects: 1. The norms, determining a social situation. 2. Internal and external expectations are connected to a social role. 3. Social sanctions (punishment and reward) are used to influence role behaviour. These three components are used to consider one's personal behaviour as well as the behaviour of other people. Heinrich Popitz defines social roles as norms of behaviour that a CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 21 exclusive social crew has to follow. Norms of behaviour are a set of behaviours that have turn out to be normal among group members; in case of deviance, negative sanctions follow. Cultural Roles Cultural roles are seen as matter of course and are mostly stable. In cultural changes new roles can develop and old roles can disappear – these cultural changes are affected by political and social conflicts. For example, the feminist movement initiated a change in male and female roles in Western societies. Social Differentiation Social differentiation got a lot of attention due to the development of different job roles. Robert K. Merton distinguished between intrapersonal and interpersonal role conflicts. For example, a foreman has to develop his own social role facing the expectations of his team members and his supervisor – this is an interpersonal role conflict. He also has to arrange his different social roles as father, husband, club member – this is an intrapersonal role conflict. Ralph Dahrendorf distinguished between must-expectations, with sanctions; shall- expectations, with sanctions and rewards and can-expectations, with rewards. The foreman has to avoid corruption; he need to satisfy his reference groups (e.g. crew members and supervisors); and he can be sympathetic. He argues every other factor of role principle is that humans accept their personal roles in the society and it is no longer the society that imposes them. Situation-specific Roles Situation-specific roles develop ad hoc in a given social situation. Nevertheless, the expectations and norms are predetermined by the social role. The central weakness of role theory is in describing and explaining deviant behavior. Role Theory within Public Relations Defining Role theory within the workforce: Role Theory is a perspective that considers everyday activity to be acting out socially defined categories. Split into two narrower definitions. Status, is one position within a social system or group. Role, is one’s pattern of behavior associated with a status. Organizational Role is defined as “recurring actions of an individual, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

22 Social Psychology appropriately interrelated with the repetitive activities of others so as to yield a predictable outcome.” (Katz & Kahn, 1978). Within an organization there are three main topologies. 1. Two-role typology (Dozier, 1984) which has only two elements (i) Manager (ii) Technician 2. Four-role typology (Broom & Smith, 1979) which has four elements (i) Expert Prescriber (ii) Communication Facilitator (iii) Problem Solver (iv) Communication Technician 3. Five-role typology (Moss, Newman & DeSanto, 2005) which has five elements (four manager and one technician) (i) Monitor and evaluator (ii) Key policy and strategic advisor (iii) Troubleshooter/problem solver (iv) Issues management expert (v) Communication technician Role Conflict, Strain or Making Despite variations in the terms used, the central component of all of the formulations is incompatibility. Role conflict is a combat amongst the roles corresponding to two or more statuses, for example, teens who have to deal with pregnancy (statuses: teenager, mother). Role combat is stated to exist when there are necessary differences among the ratings given for a variety of expectations. By evaluating the extent of settlement or disagreement amongst the ranks, a measure of position hostilities was obtained. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 23 Role strain or \"role pressure\" may arise when there is a conflict in the demands of roles, when an individual does not agree with the assessment of others concerning his or her performance in his or her role, or from accepting roles that are beyond an individual's capacity. Role making is defined by Graen as Leader-member exchange. At the same time, a person may have limited power to negotiate away from accepting roles that cause strain, because he or she is constrained by societal norms, or has limited social status from which to bargain. 2.4 Social Exchange Theory During the opening of this theory, The most comprehensive social trade theories are these of the American social psychologists John W. Thibaut (1917–1986) and Harold H. Kelley (1921– 2003), the American sociologists George C. Homans (1910–1989), Peter M. Blau (1918–2002), Richard Marc Emerson (d. 1982), and Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009). Homans described social alternate as the change of activity, tangible or intangible, and extra or much less beneficial or costing between at least two persons. After Homans situated the theory, different theorists persevered to write about it, specially Peter M. Blau and Richard M. Emerson, who in addition to Homans are usually thought of as the main developers of the change standpoint within sociology. Homans' work emphasised the person conduct of actors in interaction with one another. Although there are more than a few modes of exchange, Homans based his studies on dyadic exchange. John Thibaut and Harold Kelley are recognized for focusing their studies inside the idea on the psychological concepts, the dyad and small group. Lévi-Strauss is identified for contributing to the emergence of this theoretical perspective from his work on anthropology centered on systems of generalized exchange, such as kinship structures and present exchange. Thibaut and Kelley Thibaut and Kelley based on their theory principally on small groups related with dyadic relationships. They used the reward-cost matrices from the Game Theory and discovered some clues of individuals’ interdependence such as the power of a party over each other. Also known as the “correspondence” versus “noncorrespondence” of outcomes. Additionally, they suggest that CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

24 Social Psychology an individual can unilaterally affect her or his own outcomes in a relationship through chosen behaviors. They could predict the possible course of a social interaction through the analysis of aspects of power in an encounter. They also experimented on how the outcomes received in a relationship could define a person's attractions to relationships. Homans Homans based his theory on concepts of equilibration, expectancy and distribute justice in dyadic exchange. With this, he tries to explain the social interaction in small groups and the rewards received proportional to their costs and investments. Homans summarizes the system in three propositions: success, stimulus, and deprivation–satiation proposition, described below. 1. Success proposition: When one finds they are rewarded for their actions, they tend to repeat the action. 2. Stimulus proposition: The more often a particular stimulus has resulted in a reward in the past, the more likely it is that a person will respond to it. 3. Deprivation–satiation proposition: The more often in the recent past a person has received a particular reward, the less valuable any further unit of that reward becomes. Blau During the opening of this theory, The most comprehensive social trade theories are these of the American social psychologists John W. Thibaut (1917–1986) and Harold H. Kelley (1921– 2003), the American sociologists George C. Homans (1910–1989), Peter M. Blau (1918–2002), Richard Marc Emerson (d. 1982), and Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009). Homans described social alternate as the change of activity, tangible or intangible, and extra or much less beneficial or costing between at least two persons. After Homans situated the theory, different theorists persevered to write about it, specially Peter M. Blau and Richard M. Emerson, who in addition to Homans are usually thought of as the main developers of the change standpoint within sociology. Homans' work emphasised the person conduct of actors in interaction with one another. Although there are more than a few modes of exchange, Homans based his studies on dyadic exchange. John Thibaut and Harold Kelley are recognized for focusing their studies inside the idea on the psychological concepts, the dyad and small group. Lévi-Strauss is identified for contributing to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 25 the emergence of this theoretical perspective from his work on anthropology centered on systems of generalized exchange, such as kinship structures and present exchange. Emerson Emerson was once inspired by Homans and Blau's ideas. He centered on the interaction and relationship between humans and parties. His view of social trade concept emphasizes the aid availability, power, and dependence as main dynamics. He idea that relations have been prepared in exclusive manners, and they may want to differ relying on the type and amour of the sources exchanged. He poses the idea that power and dependence are the foremost components that define a relationship. According to Emerson, Exchange is not a theory, but a framework from which other theories can converge and be in contrast to structural functionalism. Emerson's standpoint used to be comparable to Blau's considering they both focused on the relationship strength had with the trade process. Emerson says that social exchange concept is an method in sociology that is described for simplicity as an financial evaluation of noneconomic social situations. Exchange idea brings a quasi-economic structure of analysis into these situations. Lévi-Strauss Social exchange theorist in anthropology. He is recognized for contributing to the emergence of this theoretical perspective from his work on anthropology focused on systems of generalized exchange, such as kinship systems and gift exchange. He based his kinship systems on Mauss's investigation. As it works in the form of indirect reciprocities, Levi-Strauss suggest the concept of generalized exchange. Self-interest and Interdependence Self-interest and interdependence are central properties of social exchange. These are the basic forms of interaction when two or more actors have something of value to each other, and they have to decide whether to exchange and in what amounts. Homans uses the concepts of individualism to explain exchange processes. To him, the meaning of individual self-interest is a combination of economic and psychological needs. Fulfilling self-interest is often common within the economic realm of the social exchange theory where competition and greed can be common. In social exchange, self-interest is not a negative thing; rather, when self-interest is recognized, it CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

26 Social Psychology will act as the guiding force of interpersonal relationships for the advancement of both parties' self-interest\" Michael Roloff (1981), Thibaut and Kelley see the mutual interdependence of persons as the central problem for the study of social behavior. They developed a theoretical framework based on the interdependence of actors. They also highlighted social implications of different forms of interdependence such as reciprocal control. According to their interdependence definition, outcomes are based on a combination of parties' efforts and mutual and complementary arrangements. Basic Concepts Social change theory views alternate as a social behavior that may result each in economic and social outcomes. Social change concept has been generally analyzed through evaluating human interactions with the marketplace. The study of the principle from the microeconomics viewpoint is attributed to Blau. Under his standpoint each individual is making an attempt to maximize his wins. Blau mentioned that as soon as this thinking is understood, it is feasible to have a look at social exchanges everywhere, now not only in market relations, but also in different social members of the family like friendship. Social trade technique brings pride when humans receive truthful returns for their expenditures. The predominant distinction between social and monetary alternate is the nature of the exchange between parties. Neoclassic financial principle views the actor as dealing now not with some other actor however with a market and environmental parameters, such as market price. Unlike monetary exchange, the factors of social change are quite different and can't be decreased to a single quantitative exchange rate. According to Stafford, social exchanges contain a connection with another person; contain have faith and not felony obligations; are greater flexible; and hardly ever contain specific bargaining. I. Cost and Rewards Simple social exchange models assume that rewards and costs drive relationship decisions. Both parties in a social exchange take responsibility for one another and depend on each other. The elements of relational life include: Costs are the elements of relational life that have negative value to a person, such as the effort put into a relationship and the negatives of a partner. (Costs can be time, money, effort etc.) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 27 Rewards are the elements of a relationship that have positive value. (Rewards can be sense of acceptance, support, and companionship etc.) As with everything dealing with the social exchange theory, it has as its outcome satisfaction and dependence of relationships. The social-exchange perspective argues that people calculate the overall worth of a particular relationship by subtracting its costs from the rewards it provides. Worth = Rewards − Costs If worth is a positive number, it is a positive relationship. On the contrary, a negative number indicates a negative relationship. The worth of a relationship influences its outcome, or whether people will continue with a relationship or terminate it. Positive relationships are expected to endure, whereas negative relationships will probably terminate. In a mutually beneficial exchange, each party supplies the wants of the other party at lower cost to self than the value of the resources the other party provides. In such a model, mutual relationship satisfaction ensures relationship stability. Outcome = Rewards − Costs Homans based his theory on behaviorism to conclude that people pursue rewards to minimize costs. The \"satisfactory-ness\" of the rewards that a party gains from an exchange relationship is judged relative to some standard, which may vary from party to party. II. Reciprocity Norm Summarized by Gouldner, the reciprocity norm states that a benefit should be returned and the one who gives the benefit should not be harmed. This is used to stabilize relationships and to identify the egoism. This norm suggests the independence in relationships and invite the individual to consider more than one's self-interest. III. The Social Penetration Theory I. Altman and D. Taylor's: They introduce the social penetration theory, which states the nature and quality of social exchange and close bonds. It suggests once the individuals start to give more of themselves to one another, relationships progress progressively from exchanging CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

28 Social Psychology superficial goods to others more meaningful. It progresses to the point called “self-disclosure”, where the individuals share innermost thoughts and feelings with one another. IV. Equity and Inequity Equity theory focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners. It proposes that individuals who perceive themselves as either under-rewarded or over-rewarded will experience distress, and that this distress leads to efforts to restore equity within the relationship. It focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners. Equity is measured by comparing the ratios of contributions and benefits of each person within the relationship. Partners do not have to receive equal benefits (such as receiving the same amount of love, care, and financial security) or make equal contributions (such as investing the same amount of effort, time, and financial resources), as long as the ratio between these benefits and contributions is similar. Much like other prevalent theories of motivation, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, equity theory acknowledges that subtle and variable individual factors affect each person’s assessment and perception of their relationship with their relational partners (Guerrero et al., 2005). According to Adams (1965), anger is induced by underpayment inequity and guilt is induced with over payment equity (Spector 2008). Payment whether hourly wage or salary, is the main concern and therefore the cause of equity or inequity in most cases. Definition of Equity Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any perceived inequities. In this process, the humans will evaluate their rewards with others’ in relation to their costs. Equity can be described as the balance between a person's inputs and outcomes on the job. Some examples of inputs can be qualifications, promotions, interest on the job and how difficult one works. Some consequences can be pay, fringe benefits, and energy status. The character will broadly speaking expect an equitable input-outcome ratio. Inequity takes place when the man or woman apperceives an unbalanced ratio of their outcomes and other's outcomes. This can show up in a direct alternate of the two parties, or there can be a birthday celebration involved. An individual's point of view of equity or inequity can fluctuate relying on the individual. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 29 Aging The foundation of social trade concept is to explain social exchange and steadiness as a technique of negotiating exchanges between parties. These adjustments can show up over a person's life path through the a number of relationships, opportunities, and capability of support. An instance of this is the convoy model of support, this model makes use of concentric circles to describe relationships around an character with the strongest relationships in the closet circle. As a individual ages, these relationships shape a convoy that strikes alongside with the person and exchanges in support and help through different situations that occur. It additionally changes via the directionality of guide given to and with the aid of the character with the people inside their support network. Within this model, there are one-of-a-kind sorts of guide (Social support) a man or woman can receive, these being intangible, tangible, instrumental, and informational. Intangible assist can both be social or emotional and can be love, friendship and perception that comes with treasured relationships. Tangible aid are bodily presents given to someone such as land, gifts, money, transportation, food, and completing chores. Instrumental help are offerings given to any person in a relationship. Finally, informational aid is the delivering of records that is useful to an individual. Theoretical Propositions Ivan Nye came up with twelve theoretical propositions that aid in understanding the exchange theory. 1. Individuals choose those alternatives from which they expect the most profit. 2. Cost being equal, they choose alternatives from which they anticipate the greatest rewards. 3. Rewards being equal, they choose alternatives from which they anticipate the fewest costs. 4. Immediate outcomes being equal, they choose those alternatives that promise better long- term outcomes. 5. Long-term outcomes being perceived as equal, they choose alternatives providing better immediate outcomes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

30 Social Psychology 6. Costs and other rewards being equal, individuals choose the alternatives that supply or can be expected to supply the most social approval (or those that promise the least social disapproval). 7. Costs and other rewards being equal, individuals choose statuses and relationships that provide the most autonomy. 8. Other rewards and costs equal, individuals choose alternatives characterized by the least ambiguity in terms of expected future events and outcomes. 9. Other costs and rewards equal, they choose alternatives that offer the most security for them. 10. Other rewards and costs equal, they choose to associate with, marry, and form other relationships with those whose values and opinions generally are in agreement with their own and reject or avoid those with whom they chronically disagree. 11. Other rewards and costs equal, they are more likely to associate with, marry, and form other relationships with their equals, than those above or below them. (Equality here is viewed as the sum of abilities, performances, characteristics, and statuses that determine one's desirability in the social marketplace.) 12. In industrial societies, other costs and rewards equal, individuals choose alternatives that promise the greatest financial gains for the least financial expenditures. In his article published in 1978, Nye originally proposed seven propositions that were common in all types of relationship, A few years later he would expand the propositions to a total of twelve. The first five propositions listed are classified as general propositions and are substance free-meaning, the propositions themselves can stand alone within the theory. Proposition number six has been identified by scholars as a notion that there is a general assumption of a need for social approval as a reward and can therefor act as a drive force behind actions. Proposition seven will only work if the individual has the freedom to be excluded from outside factors while in a social exchange relationship. The twelfth and final proposition is directed towards the way our society has a heightened value placed on monetary funds. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 31 I. Homans Even even though Homans took an individualistic approach, a major purpose of his work was once to explicate the micro-foundations of social constructions and social exchange. By reading such forms of conduct he hoped to illuminate the casual sub-institutional bases of extra complex social behavior, generally greater formal and frequently institutionalized. According to Homans, social structures emerge from fundamental types of behavior. His vision of the underpinnings of social shape and institutional forms is linked to the moves of individuals, for example to their responses to rewarding and punishment circumstances. Homans developed five key propositions that assist in structuring individuals' behaviors based on rewards and costs. This set of theoretical ideas represents the core of Homans's version of social exchange theory.  The first proposition: the Success Proposition states that behavior that creates positive outcomes is likely to be repeated.  The second proposition: the Stimulus Proposition believes that if an individual's behavior is rewarded in the past, the individual will continue the previous behavior.  The third proposition: the Value proposition believes that if the result of a behavioral action is considered valuable to the individual, it is more likely for that behavior to occur.  The fourth proposition: the Deprivation-satiation proposition believes that if an individual has received the same reward several times, the value of that reward will diminish.  The fifth proposition discusses when emotions occur due to different reward situations. Those who receive more than they expect or do not receive anticipated punishment will be happy and will behave approvingly. Frazer Based on economics, Frazer's theory about social exchange emphasizes the importance of power and status differentiations in social exchange. Frazer's theory had a particular interest in the cross-cousin marriage. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

32 Social Psychology Malinowski With his Kula exchange, Malinowski drew a sharp differentiation between economic exchange and social exchange. Using his Kula exchange, Malinowski states that the motives of exchange can be mainly social and psychological. Mauss Mauss's theory tries to identify the role played by morality and religion in the social exchange. Mauss argues the exchange found in the society is influenced by social behaviors, while morality and religion influence all aspects of life. Bohannan Bohannan focuses his theory on economic problems such as multicentrism, and modes of exchange. He contributed to the social exchange theory finding the role and function of markets in tribal subsistence economies, makes a distinction of economic redistribution and market exchange from social relationships. Polanyi He proposes three principles to create a new idea for socioeconomic change, transforming traditional economies, and political economic development. These principles are: reciprocity, redistribution and marketing. Sahlins He presents the idea that the economy is a category of behavior instead of just a simple category of culture. Assumptions Social exchange theory is not one theory but a frame of reference within which many theories can speak to another, whether in argument or mutual support. All these theories are built upon several assumptions about human nature and the nature of relationships. Thibaut and Kelley have based their theory on two conceptualizations: one that focuses on the nature of individuals and one that describes the relationships between two people. Thus, the assumptions they make also fall into these categories. The assumptions that social exchange theory makes about human nature include the following: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 33  Humans seek rewards and avoid punishments.  Humans are rational beings.  The standards that humans use to evaluate costs and rewards vary over time and from person to person. The assumptions social exchange theory makes about the nature of relationships include the following:  Relationships are interdependent.  Relational life is a process. The prisoner's dilemma is a widely used example in game theory that attempts to illustrate why or how two individuals may not cooperate with each other, even if it is in their best interest to do so. It demonstrates that while cooperation would give the best outcome, people might nevertheless act selfishly. All relationships involve exchanges although the balance of this exchange is not always equal. We cannot achieve our goals alone so as humans sometimes we have to become actors. In the world today we see actors as unemotional people but that is not the case once we reach our goals in the end. Comparison Levels Social change consists of \"both a notion of a relationship, and some notion of a shared obligation in which both parties discover duties to every other\". John Thibaut and Harold Kelley proposed two comparison standards to differentiate between relationship satisfaction and relationship stability. This assessment rests on two sorts of comparisons: Comparison Level and Comparison Level for Alternative. According to Thibaut and Kelley, the Comparison Level (CL) is a preferred representing what humans sense they must obtain in the way of rewards and fees from a particular relationship. An individual's assessment level can be viewed the fashionable by way of which an result seems to satisfy the individual. The Comparison Level for Alternative (CLalt) refers to \"the lowest degree of relational rewards a person is willing to take delivery of given handy rewards from choice relationships or being alone\". In different words, when the usage of this contrast tool, an man or woman will consider different choice payoffs or rewards outside of the modern-day relationship or exchange. CLalt offers a measure of stability as an CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

34 Social Psychology alternative than satisfaction. If human beings see no choice and fear being alone extra than being in the relationship, social alternate concept predicts they will stay. Modes of Exchange According to Kelley and Thibaut, people engage in Behavioral Sequence, or a series of actions designed to achieve their goal. This is congruent with their assumption that human beings are rational.When people engage in these behavioral sequences, they are dependent to some extent on their relational partner. In order for behavioral sequences to lead to social exchange, two conditions must be achieved: \"It must be oriented towards ends that can only be achieved through interaction with other persons, and it must seek to adapt means to further the achievement of these ends\". The concept of reciprocity also derives from this pattern. The reciprocity principle refers to the mutual reinforcement by two parties of each other's actions. The process begins when at least one participant makes a \"move\", and if the other reciprocates, new rounds of exchange initiate. Once the process is in motion, each consequence can create a self-reinforcing cycle. Even though the norm of reciprocity may be a universally accepted principle, the degree to which people and cultures apply this concept varies. (a) Power Dependence Relations Social change consists of \"both a notion of a relationship, and some notion of a shared obligation in which both parties discover duties to every other\".John Thibaut and Harold Kelley proposed two comparison standards to differentiate between relationship satisfaction and relationship stability. This assessment rests on two sorts of comparisons: Comparison Level and Comparison Level for Alternative. According to Thibaut and Kelley, the Comparison Level (CL) is a preferred representing what humans sense they must obtain in the way of rewards and fees from a particular relationship. An individual's assessment level can be viewed the fashionable by way of which an result seems to satisfy the individual. The Comparison Level for Alternative (CLalt) refers to \"the lowest degree of relational rewards a person is willing to take delivery of given handy rewards from choice relationships or being alone\". In different words, when the usage of this contrast tool, an man or woman will consider different choice payoffs or rewards outside of the modern-day relationship or exchange. CLalt offers a measure of stability as an CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 35 alternative than satisfaction. If human beings see no choice and fear being alone extra than being in the relationship, social alternate concept predicts they will stay. According to Thibaut and Kelley, there are two types of power: fate control and behavior control. Fate control is the ability to affect a partner's outcomes. Behavior control is the power to cause another's behavior to change by changing one's own behavior. (b) Matrices People develop patterns of exchange to cope with power differentials and to deal with the costs associated with exercising power. These patterns describe behavioral rules or norms that indicate how people trade resources in an attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs. Three different matrices have been described by Thibaut and Kelley to illustrate the patterns people develop. These are given matrix, the effective matrix and the dispositional matrix.  The given matrix represents the behavioral choices and outcomes that are determined by a combination of external factors (environment) and internal factors (the specific skills each interactant possesses).  The effective matrix \"which represents an expansion of alternative behaviors and/or outcomes which ultimately determines the behavioral choices in social exchange\"  The dispositional matrix represents the way two people believe that rewards ought to be exchanged between them. There are three forms within these matrices: Reciprocity, Generalized Exchange, and Productive Exchange. In a direct exchange, reciprocation is confined to the two actors. One social actor provides value to another one and the other reciprocates. There are three different types of reciprocity: 1. Reciprocity as a transactional pattern of interdependent exchanges. 2. Reciprocity as a folk belief. 3. Reciprocity as a moral norm. A generalized exchange involves indirect reciprocity between three or more individuals. For example, one person gives to another and the recipient responds by giving to another person other CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

36 Social Psychology than the first person. Productive exchange means that both actors have to contribute for either one of them to benefit. Both people incur benefits and costs simultaneously. Another frequent structure of exchange is negotiated alternate which focuses on the negotiation of policies in order for each parties to reach a really useful agreement. Reciprocal exchanges and negotiated exchanges are frequently analyzed and in contrast to find out their crucial differences. One most important difference between the two exchanges is the level of risks associated with the trade and the uncertainty these dangers create (ref). Negotiated trade can consist of binding and non-binding negotiations. When evaluating the degrees of danger inside these exchanges, reciprocal exchange has the easiest level of danger which in result produces the most uncertainty. An instance of a risk that should show up all through the reciprocal trade is the factor that the 2d celebration ought to quit up not returning the desire and completing the reciprocal exchange. Binding negotiated exchanges involve the least quantity of risks which will end result the persons feeling low tiers of uncertainty. Whereas non-binding negotiated exchanges and their level of risks and uncertainty fall in between the amount of dangers associated with reciprocal and binding negotiated exchanges.Since there is not a binding settlement involved, one party concerned in the alternate should decide to not cooperate with the agreement. Critiques Katherine Miller (2005) outlines several major objections to or problems with the social exchange theory as developed from early seminal works  The theory reduces human interaction to a purely rational process that arises from economic theory.  The theory favors openness as it was developed in the 1970s when ideas of freedom and openness were preferred, but there may be times when openness isn't the best option in a relationship.  The theory assumes that the ultimate goal of a relationship is intimacy when this might not always be the case.  The theory places relationships in a linear structure, when some relationships might skip steps or go backwards in terms of intimacy. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 37 Russell Cropanzano and Marie S. Mitchell discuss how one of the principal troubles within the social change concept is the lack of information within research on the quite a number alternate rules.Reciprocity is a most important change rule discussed but, Cropanzano and Mitchell write that the concept would be better understood if extra research packages discussed a range of trade policies such as altruism, group gain, popularity consistency and competition. Meeker factors out that within the trade process, every unit takes into account at least the following elements: reciprocity, rationality, altruism (social responsibility), group gain, status, consistency, and opposition (rivalry). Rosenfeld (2005) has noted significant limitations to Social Exchange Theory and its application in the selection of mates/partners. Specifically, Rosenfeld looked at the limitations of interracial couples and the application of social exchange theory. His analysis suggest that in modern society, there is less of a gap between interracial partners education level, socioeconomic status, and social class level which in turn, makes the previously understood application of social exchange mute. Applications The most extensive application of social exchange has been in the area of interpersonal relationships. However, social exchange theory materializes in many different situations with the same idea of the exchange of resources. Self-Interest can encourage individuals to make decisions that will benefit themselves overall. Homans once summarized the theory by stating: Social conduct is an exchange of goods, fabric items but also non-material ones, such as the symbols of approval or prestige. Persons that provide plenty to others strive to get plenty from them, and individuals that get plenty from others are underneath strain to provide an awful lot to them. This technique of have an effect on tends to work out at equilibrium to a balance in the exchanges. For a person in an exchange, what he gives may additionally be a price to him, simply as what he gets might also be a reward, and his conduct changes less as the distinction of the two, profit, tends to a most (“Theories Used in Research”). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

38 Social Psychology (A) Anthropology Other purposes that developed the thought of change encompass field of anthropology as evidenced in an article by using Harumi Befu, which discusses cultural thoughts and norms. Lévi- Strauss is viewed as one of the principal contributors to the anthropology of exchange. Within this field, self-interest, human sentiment and motivational system are no longer considered. Lévi– Strauss makes use of a collectivist approach to give an explanation for exchanges. To Lévi- Strauss, a social change is defined as a regulated form of behavior in the context of societal policies and norms. This contrasts with psychological studies of trade in which behaviors are studied ignoring the culture. Social exchanges from the anthropological standpoint have been analyzed the use of the gift-giving phenomena. The thinking of reciprocity under this point of view states that individuals can immediately reward his benefactor or another individual in the social trade process. Lévi-Strauss developed the theory of cousin marriage based totally on the pervasiveness of gift-giving in primitive societies. The basis of this concept is the difference between limited exchanges, which is only capable of connecting pairs of social groups, and generalize exchange, which integrates indefinite numbers of groups. (B) Relationships Throughout the theory, one can also end up losing relationships that were already established because the feeling of no longer being beneficial. One feels as if there is not longer a need for a relationship or communication due to lack of rewards. Once this happens, the process of looking for new partners and resources occurs. This allows a continuation of networking. One may go through this process quite frequently. A study applied this theory to new media (online dating). The study discovers the different factors involved when an individual decides to establish an online relationship.Overall the study followed the social exchange theory's idea, \"people are attracted to those who grant them rewards\". Another instance is Berg's study about improvement of friendship between roommates. The lookup determined how social trade methods changed for the duration of the year by way of measuring self disclosure. According to the study, the quantity one person rewards another and the comparison ranges for options come to be the most important factors in determining liking and satisfaction. Auld, C. and Alan C. conducted a study to find out what techniques show up and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 39 what is skilled at some point of social leisure relationships. They use the thinking of reciprocity to recognize their findings. The study concluded that assembly new humans is often given as a main motive for participation in enjoyment activities, and meeting new people may additionally be conceptualized as an exercising of reciprocity. In this case, reciprocity is perceived as a beginning mechanism for new social relationships due to the fact humans are willing to be helped with the aid of others, anticipating that the assist will eventually be returned. A learn about carried out through Paul, G., referred to as Exchange and get right of entry to in field work tries to apprehend the relationships between the researchers and subjects. This find out about concludes that Bargaining helps to satisfy the greater particular wishes of the events due to the fact larger risks are taken to attain greater information. This learn about additionally introduces the concept of trust (social sciences) to decide the period of relationships. (C) Interracial Marriage Patterns of interracial marriage have been explained using social exchange theory. Kalmijn suggests that ethnic status is offset against educational or financial resources. This process has been used to explain why there are more marriages between black men and white women than between white men and black women. This asymmetry in marriage patterns has been used to support the idea of a racial hierarchy. Lewis, however, explains that the same patterns of marriage can be accounted for in terms of simple facial attractiveness patterns of the different gender by race groupings. Recent changes have seen an increase in black women marrying white men and a decrease in raw prevalence of interracial marriages when it comes to black women. There has also been a shift in the concentration of interracial marriage from mostly being between those with low education levels to those with higher levels of education. (D) Business Social exchange principle has served as a theoretical basis to give an explanation for one of a kind conditions in commercial enterprise practices. It has contributed to the find out about of organization-stakeholder relationships and relationship marketing. The investment mannequin proposed by Caryl Rusbult is a beneficial version of social exchange theory. According to this model, investments serve to stabilize relationships. The increased the nontransferable investments a character has in a given relationship, the more secure the relationship is probable to be. The CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

40 Social Psychology identical investment idea is applied in relationship marketing. Databases are the foremost instrument to construct differentiated relationships between businesses and customers. Through the data process, agencies discover the customer's personal individual needs. From this perspective, a consumer turns into an investment. If a client decides to pick out any other competitor, the funding will be lost. When humans locate they have invested too tons to end a relationship or enterprise, they pour extra resources into the relationship to salvage their preliminary investment. Exchange has been a central research thrust in business-to-business relational exchange. According to the study performed through Lambe, C. Jay, C. Michael Wittmann, and Robert E. Spekman firms evaluate financial and social results from every transaction and evaluate them to what they experience they deserve. Firms also seem for extra advantages furnished by different achievable trade partners. The preliminary transaction between agencies is vital to determine if their relationship will expand, remain the equal or will dissolve. (E) Work Settings A study conducted by A. Saks serves as an example to explain engagement of employees in organizations. This study uses one of the tenets of social exchange theory to explain that obligations are generated through a series of interactions between parties who are in a state of reciprocal interdependence. The research identified that when individuals receive economic and socioemotional resources from their organization, they feel obliged to respond in kind and repay the organization. This is a description of engagement as a two-way relationship between the employer and employee. One way for individuals to repay their organization is through their level of engagement. The more engaged the employee are to their work, the greater amounts of cognitive, emotional, and physical resources they will devote to perform their job duties. When the organization fails to provide economic or emotional resources, the employees are more likely to withdraw and disengage themselves from their roles. (F) Citizenship behavior Social trade concept is a theoretical clarification for organizational citizenship behavior. This learn about examines a mannequin of clear management and relational building between head and teachers as antecedents, and organizational citizenship behavior as a consequence of teacher– school exchange. Citizenship conduct can also be proven with employees and their CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 41 employers.This is shown through organizational identification which performs an important position in organizational citizenship behavior. An personnel identification with their enterprise plays a extensive position in aiding and advertising prepared citizenship behavior, serving as a mediating mechanism with citizenship behaviors, perceived organizational justice, and organizational guide based totally on both the social trade and social identification theory. (G) Online social Networking and Self-Disclosure Understanding interpersonal disclosure in online social networking is an ideal application of social networking theory. Researchers have leveraged SET to explain self-disclosure in a cross- cultural context of French and British working professionals. They discover that reciprocation is the primary benefit of self-disclosure, whereas risk is the foundational cost of self-disclosure. They find that positive social influence to use an online community increases online community self-disclosure; reciprocity increases self-disclosure; online community trust increases self- disclosure; and privacy risk beliefs decrease self-disclosure. Meanwhile, a tendency toward collectivism increases self-disclosure. Similar research also leveraged SET to examine privacy concerns versus desire for interpersonal awareness in driving the use of self-disclosure technologies in the context of instant messaging. This study was also a cross-cultural study, but instead compared US and Chinese participants. Affect Theory The actors in social change are generally seen as unemotional beings who have information, cognitively method it, and make selections regarding the pattern and nature of change with others. Affect theory of social exchange enhances social change idea via incorporating emotion as part of the trade process. Formalized by using Lawler (2001), the have an effect on concept examines the structural stipulations of exchange that produce emotions and feelings and then identifies how folks attribute these feelings to extraordinary social units (exchange partners, groups, or networks). These attributions of emotion, in turn, dictate how strongly persons sense connected to their partners or groups, which drives collectively oriented behavior and commitment to the relationship. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

42 Social Psychology (A) Assumptions Most social exchange models have three basic assumptions in common: behavior in a social sense is based on exchanges, if an individual allows someone to receives a reward the person then feels the need to reciprocate due to social pressure and individuals will try to minimize their cost while gaining the most from the reward. The affect theory of social exchange is based on assumptions that stem from social exchange theory and affect theory:  There are three or more individuals who have the opportunity to make exchanges with one another. These actors are able to make decisions about whether to exchange, with whom to exchange, and under what terms to execute an exchange.  Social exchange produces emotions that are positive to negative  Emotions can be construed as reward or punishment (i.e. feeling good has a positive value and feeling bad has a negative value).  Individuals try to avoid negative emotions and to reproduce positive emotions in social exchange.  Individuals will try to understand the source or cause of feelings produced by social exchange. In this way, emotions become attributed to the object that caused them.  Individuals interpret and exchange their feelings with respect to social relationships (e.g. partners, groups, networks). Positive emotions produced by exchange will increase solidarity in these relationships, while negative emotions will decrease solidarity. (B) Theoretical Propositions Affect theory of social exchange shows how the conditions of exchanges promote interpersonal and group relationships through emotions and affective processes. The theoretical arguments center on the following five claims: (i) Emotions produced by exchange are involuntary, internal responses Individuals experience emotions (general feelings of pleasantness or unpleasantness) depending on whether their exchange is successful. These emotions are construed as a reward (or CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Social Learning Theory 43 punishment) and individuals strive to repeat actions that reproduce positive emotions or avoid negative emotions. (ii) Individuals attempt to understand what in a social exchange situation produces emotions Individuals will use the alternate task to understand the source (partners, groups, or networks) of their emotions. Individuals are extra possibly to attribute their thoughts to their alternate companions or businesses when the assignment can solely be achieved with one or more partners, when the undertaking requires interdependent (nonseparable) contributions, and when there is a shared sense of accountability for the success or failure of the exchange. (iii). The mode of exchange determines the features of the exchange task and influences the attribution of the emotion produced The mode of exchange (productive, negotiated, reciprocal, or generalized) provides a description of the exchange task. The task features are defined by the degree of interdependence (separability of tasks) and shared responsibility between partners to complete the task. These features influence the strength of the emotion felt. Productive exchanges are interdependent and this high degree of nonseparability generates the strongest emotions. Reciprocal exchanges are separable which reduces the perceptions of shared responsibility. The exchange produces little emotional response, but individuals instead express emotions in response to the asymmetrical transaction. Generalized exchanges do not occur directly, but interdependence is still high and coordination between partners is difficult. Because there is no direct emotional foundation, emotions produced are low. Negotiated exchanges may produce conflicting emotions due to the mixed-motive nature of negotiations; even when transactions are successful, individuals may feel like they had the ability to do better, creating emotional ambivalence. Overall, productive exchanges produce the strongest attributions of emotions, generalized (indirect) exchange the weakest, with negotiated and reciprocal exchanges in between. (iv) The attribution of emotions resulting from different exchange modes impact the solidarity felt with partners or groups CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

44 Social Psychology The extraordinary types of alternate (productive, reciprocal, and generalized) additionally have an impact on the solidarity or identification that an individual will sense with their change companions or group. The different alternate kinds help dictate the target of felt feelings and influences an individual's attachment. Affective attachment happens when a social unit (partner or group) is the goal of superb emotions from exchange; affective detachment (alienation) occurs when a social unit is the target of terrible emotions from failure to exchange.Affective attachment increases solidarity. Similar to the attribution of emotion, productive change produces the strongest affective attachments, generalized exchange the weakest, and negotiated and reciprocal alternate are in between. One condition for how social (partner or group) attributions can increase solidarity is by reducing self-serving attributions of credit or blame for the success or failure of the exchange. When individuals have group attributions for positive emotions stemming from success, this eliminates any self-serving biases and enhances both pride in the self and gratitude to the partner. However, group attributions for negative emotions stemming from failure do not eliminate self- serving biases, resulting in more anger toward the partner or group than shame in the self.[citation needed] Lawler additionally proposes that the persistence (stability) and ability to control acts by means of the change accomplice (controllability) grant prerequisites for affective attachment by attributing credit score or blame for the success or failure of the exchange. Following Weiner (1985) affect principle of social alternate extrapolates that the mixtures of stability and uncontrollability elicit specific emotions. In social exchange, social connections can be sources of balance and controllability. For example, if an change associate is perceived as a steady supply of superb feelings, and the trade associate has manipulate in the acts that elicit these nice feelings, this will reinforce affective attachment. Therefore, have an effect on concept of social alternate proposes that steady and controllable sources of fantastic emotions (i.e. pleasantness, pride, gratitude) will elicit affective attachments while secure and uncontrollable sources of poor feelings (i.e. unpleasantness, shame, anger) will elicit affective detachment. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)