Cognitive Psychology_Draft 2

MASTERS OF PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER-II COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY MAP608 1 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Chairman Prof. (Dr.) Parag Diwan Vice Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director – IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director – CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Coordinator – Dr. Rupali Arora Coordinator – Dr. Simran Jewandah Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Coordinator – Dr. Raju Kumar Coordinator – Dr. Manisha Malhotra Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Coordinator Coordinator – Dr. Aman Jindal – Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel &Tourism Management) Coordinator – Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Co-ordinator – Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Coordinator Bachelor of Arts (General) – Dr. Ashita Chadha Co-ordinator – Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) R. M. Bhagat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Executive Director – Sciences Registrar Prof. (Dr.) Abhishek Prof. (Dr.) Inderpreet Kaur Executive Director – Management Director – IDOL Prof. (Dr.) Manaswini Acharya Executive Director – Liberal Arts © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and thepublisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: SCHOOLGURU EDUSERVE PVT LTD B-903, Western Edge II, Western Express Highway, Borivali (E), Mumbai - 400066 Call Us: +91 22 4896 8005 Mail Us: [email protected] For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY 2 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM) Institute of Distance and Online Learning

First Published in 2020 All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing From Chandigarh University. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this book may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This book is meant for educational and learning purpose. The authors of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the even the Authors has/ have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. CONTENT Unit 1 Cognitive Psychology ............................................................................................... 4 Unit 2 Pattern Recognition ............................................................................................... 21 Unit 3 Cognitive Neuroscience.......................................................................................... 34 Unit 4 Attention................................................................................................................. 55 Unit 5 Imagery .................................................................................................................. 76 Unit 6 Memory .................................................................................................................. 92 Unit 7 Thinking ............................................................................................................... 124 Unit 8 Problem Solving ................................................................................................... 142 Unit 9 Concept Formation .............................................................................................. 154 Unit 10 Reasoning ........................................................................................................... 165 Unit 11 Language ............................................................................................................ 177 3 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 1 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Structure 1.0. Learning Objectives 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Nature of Cognitive Psychology 1.3. History of Cognitive Psychology 1.3.1 Initial Development 1.3.2 The Growth of Cognitive Psychology 1.3.3 The Rise of Cognitive Science 1.3.4 Newer Directions: Connectionism and Cognitive Neuroscience 1.4. Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology 1.5. Scope of Cognitive Psychology 1.6. Summary 1.7. Key Words/ Abbreviations 1.8. Learning Activity 1.9. Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 1.10. References 1.0. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, you will be able to,  Explain the concept, meaning and nature of cognitive psychology  Explore the basic assumptions of cognitive psychology  Outline history of cognitive psychology  Explore the scope of cognitive psychology 1.1. INTRODUCTION In the second half of the 20th century, people made increased efforts to understand each other and theirown inner, mental space. This concern was also characterized by a tidal wave of research conducted in the field of cognitivepsychology.With this the emergence of cognitive science has progressed as a unified programme for studying the mind. In the popular media, there are numerous books, films, and television programmes that throw light on the more accessibleaspects of cognitive research. In scientific circles, cognitive psychology is now a thriving area of research and scientific enquiry. Cognitive psychology deals with aninfinitevariety of phenomena which includesareas of attention, perception, learning, memory,language, emotion, concept formation, and thinking. Despite of its diversity, cognitive psychology is also unified by a common approach. Approach based on an analogy betweenthe mind and the digital computer.This is known as 4 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

the information-processing approach. This approach is thedominant paradigm or theoretical orientation within cognitive psychology since the past few decades. Cognitive psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, andthink about information. A cognitive psychologist might study how people perceivevarious shapes, why they remember some facts but forget others, or how they learnlanguage. Below are some of the examples of research topics in cognitive psychology: • Why do objects look farther away on foggy days than they really are? This study has practical application as the discrepancycan be dangerous, even deceiving drivers into having car accidents. • Why do many people remember a specific experience (e.g., a very happymoment or an embarrassment during childhood), yet they forget the names ofpeople whom they have known for many years? This study helps us in forming association between emotions and memory. • Why are many people more afraid of traveling in planes than in automobiles? The fact being that the chances of injury or death are much higher when travelling by an automobilethan in a plane. • Why do you often well remember people you met in your childhood but notpeople you met a week ago? We can see here the different types of memory that store data in distinct manner and have unique characteristics • Why do marketing executives in large companies spend so much companymoney on advertisements? Here we study areas of perception, decision making, and attitudes and specific behaviours of customers. 1.2. NATURE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY The word ‘cognition’ is derived from the Latin word cognoscere. Cognosure means “to know” or “to come to know”. Therefore, cognition includes the activities and processes concerned with the acquisition, storage, retrieval and processing of knowledge. In other words, cognitionalso include the processes that help us to perceive, attend, remember, think, categorize, reason, decide, and so on. As its name suggests, Cognitive psychology, is the branch of psychology that deals with cognitive mental processes. Cognitive psychology is thus the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information. A cognitive psychologist is interested in studying how people perceive various shapes, why they remember some facts but forget others, or how they learn language. The cognitive psychologists also study the different cognitive processes that make up this branch. These cognitive processes includes 5 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Areas of Study for1. Attention or the process through which we focus on some stimulus; Cognitive Psychologists2. Perception or the process through which we interpret sensory information; 3. Pattern recognition or the process through which we classify stimuli into known categories; and 4. Memoryor the process through which information is stored for later retrieval, and so on. Thus, the work of cognitive psychologists is extended to several areas, which can be depicted as in the diagram below: Memory Perception Attention Cognitive Development Decision Making & Problem Solving Mental Imagery Language Knowledge Representation Fig1.1: Various areas of study in cognitive psychology 6 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of the mind. Cognitive psychologists study mind as a processor if information. Cognitive psychologists work on to building cognitive models of the information processing. These models attempt to explain the processes taking place in our mind or brain when we are engaged in our day to day life activities. These processes of cognition include perception, attention, language, memory, thinking, and consciousness. 1.3. HISTORY OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Since the beginning of experimental psychology in the nineteenth century, there had been interest in the study of higher mental processes. In the second half of 19th century, American psychologists rejected behaviorism and adopted a model of mind based on the computer. The brief history that follows (adapted in part from Hilgard (1987) and Kessel and Bevan (1985) chronicles mainstream cognitive psychology from the onset of the cognitive revolution to the beginning of the twenty-first century. Initial The Growth of The Rise of Newer Direction: Development Cognitive Cognitive Science Connectionism Psychology and Cognitive Communicati Neuroscience ons Research Pattern Memory and Recognition Language Connectionist and the Modeling Information Memory Representationa Processing Models and l Issues Cognitive Approach Neuroscience Findings The Generative The New Linguistics Psycholinguistic Approach s Fig 1.2: History of cognitive psychology The diagram above gives us a clear picture on how the field of cognitive psychology has developed and grown over the period of time. The evolution of the development of cognitive psychology can be divided in four major time periods. Each of these periods has a few important events or developments that define that particular period. 1.3.1 Initial Development This period is roughly from the 1920s through the 1950s. During this period, the American psychology was dominated by behaviorism. Behaviorism concerned itself primarily with the 7 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

learning of associations. Associations those are particularly present in nonhuman species, and its constrained theorizing to stimulus–response notions. The overthrow of behaviorism did not come so much from ideas within psychology as from three research approaches external to the field. The two major developments in this period were;  The development in communications research and the introduction of the information processing approach  The rise in the Generative Linguistics Approach Communications Research and the Information Processing Approach During World War II, new concepts and theories about processing signals and communication were developed.These ideas had a profound impact on psychologists that were active during the war years. One of the important worksduring this time was Shannon’s 1948 paper about Information Theory. This theory proposed that information was communicated by sending a signal through a sequence of stages or transformations. The theory suggested that human perception and memory might also be conceptualized in an analogous way. That is sensory information first enters the receptors. Then this information is fed into perceptual analyzers. The output then becomes the input to memory systems. This was the start of the ‘information processing ‘approach. Information processing was the idea that cognition can be understood as a flow of information within the organism. It was an idea that continues to dominate the field of cognitive psychology even today. Another aspect of Information theory that attracted interest of cognitive psychologists was the quantitative measure of information in terms of ‘bits’. In a widely cited paper, George Miller (1956) showed that the limits of short-term memory had little to do with bits. However, along the way, Miller’s and other psychologists’ interest in the technical aspects of information theory and related work was fueled by other sources as well. Over the years, mathematical psychology has frequently joined forces with the information processing approach to provide precise claims about memory, attention, and related processes. During the Second World War,technical developments in the Computer Modeling Approach led to the development of digital computers. Questions soon arose about the comparability of computer and human intelligence. By 1957, Alan Newell, J. C. Shaw, and Herb Simon had designed a computer program that could solve difficult logic problems, a domain previously thought to be the unique province of humans. Newell and Simon soon followed with programs that displayed general problem-solving skills much like those of humans and argued that these programs offered detailed models of 8 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

human problem solving. This work would also help establish the field of artificial intelligence. Computer modeling provided powerful ideas about representations (as data structures), as well as about processes that operate on these structures. The resulting idea of human information processing as sequences of computational processes operating on mental representations remains the foundation of modern cognitive psychology. The Generative Linguistics Approach A third external influence that led to the rise of modern cognitive psychology was the development of generative grammar in linguistics by Noam Chomsky. Two of Chomsky’s publications in the late 1950s had profound effect on the nascent cognitive psychology. The first was his 1957 book Syntactic Structures. Noam Chomsky’s work focused on the mental structures needed to represent the kind of linguistic knowledge that any competent speaker of a language must have. Chomsky argued that associations per se, and even phrase structure grammars, could not fully represent our knowledge of syntax (syntax refers to the process that occurs when words are organized into phrases and sentences). What had to be added was a component capable of transforming one syntactic structure into another. These proposals about transformational grammar would change the intellectual landscape of linguistics, and usher in a new psycholinguistics. Chomsky’s second publication (1959) was a review of Verbal Behavior, a book about language learning by the then most respected behaviorist alive, B. F. Skinner. Chomsky’s review is arguably one of the most significant documents in the history of cognitive psychology. It aimed not merely to devastate Skinner’s proposals about language, but to undermine behaviorism as a serious scientific approach to psychology. To some extent, it did succeed on both fronts. An Approach Intrinsic to Psychology This approach had its roots in Gestalt psychology and maintained its focus on the higher mental processes. A signal event in this tradition was the 1956 book Study of Thinking, by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (Bruner et al. 1956). The work investigated how people learn new concepts and categories, and it emphasized strategies of learning rather than just associative relations. The proposals fit perfectly with the information-processing approach indeed; they were information processing proposals and offered still another reason to break from behaviorism. By the early 1960s all was in place. Behaviorism was on the wane in academic departments all over America (it had never really taken strong root in Europe). Psychologists interested in the information-processing approach were moving into academia, and Harvard University went so far as to establish a Center for Cognitive Studies directed by Jerome Bruner and George Miller. The new view in psychology was information processing. It likened mind to a 9 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

computer, and emphasized the representations and processes needed to give rise to activities ranging from pattern recognition, attention, categorization, memory, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and language. 1.3.2 The Growth of Cognitive Psychology The decade of 1960 brought about progress in many of the above-mentioned topic areas.Some of the major events are highlighted below Pattern Recognition One of the first areas that benefitted from the cognitive revolution was pattern recognition. Pattern recognition refers to the study of how people perceive and recognize objects. The cognitive approach provided a general two-stage view of object recognition: (a)By describing the input object in terms of relatively primitive features (e.g., ‘it has two diagonal lines and one horizontal line connecting them’); and (b)By matching this object description to stored object descriptions in visual memory, and selecting the best match as the identity of the input object (‘this description best matches the letter A’). This two-stage view was in fact not completely new to psychology. However, it was the first time, it was expressed it in information-processing terms. This allowed the researchers to connect empirical studies of object perception to computer models of cognitive process. The psychologist Ulrich Neisser used a computer model of pattern recognition to conduct his empirical studies. The results from his studies provided dramatic evidence that an object could be matched to multiple visual memories in parallel. Similar research studies indicated that the processing underlying object perception could persist after the stimulus was removed. In order for this to happen, there had to be a visual memory of the stimulus. Evidence for such an ‘iconic’ memory was supplied by Sperling in classic experiments in 1960. Evidence for a comparable brief auditory memory was soon provided as well. Memory Models and Findings Broadbent’s model of attention and memory stimulated the formulation of rival models in the 1960s.These models assumed that short-term memory (STM)and long-term memory (LTM) were qualitatively different structures, with information first entering and then being transferred to long term memory. The Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) model proved to be particularly influential. The model emphasized on information flowing between memory stores, control processes regulating that flow, and mathematical descriptions of these processes, the model was a quintessential example of the information-processing approach. The model was related to various findings about memory. 10 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Progress in cognitive psychology during this period also involved empirically determining the characteristics of encoding, storage, and retrieval processes in short term memory and long term memory. The results indicated that verbal material was encoded and stored in a phonologic code for short term memory, but a more meaning-based code for long term memory. Other classic studies during this period demonstrated that forgetting in reflected a loss of information from storage due to either decay or interference. Whereas, there is some apparent losses of information in Long term memory often reflected a temporary failure in retrieval. One of the important innovations of 1960s research was the emphasis on reaction time as a dependent measure. Because,here the focus was on the flow of information, it made sense to characterize various processes by their temporal extent. In a seminal papering 1966, Saul Sternberg reported that the time to retrieve an item from short term memory increased linearly with the number of items in store, suggesting that retrieval was based on a rapid scan of short term memory. Sternberg (1969) gave latency measures another boost when he developed the ‘additive factors’ method, which, given assumptions about serial processing, allowed one to attribute changes in reaction times to specific processing stages involved in the task (e.g., a decrease in the perceptibility of information affected the encoding of information into short term memory but not its storage and retrieval). These advances in ‘mental chronometry’ quickly spread to areas other than memory. The New Psycholinguistics Beginning in the early 1960s there was great interest in determining the psychological reality of Chomsky’s theories of language. These theories had been formulated with ideal listeners and speakers in mind). Some of these linguistically inspired experiments presented sentences in perception and memory paradigms and showed that sentences deemed more syntactically complex by transformational grammar were harder to perceive or store (Miller 1962). Subtler experiments tried to show that syntactic units, like phrases, functioned as units in perception, short term memory, and long term memory (Fodor et al. (1974) is the classic review). While many of these results are no longer seen as critical, this research effort created a new subfield of cognitive psychology, a psycholinguistics that demanded sophistication in modern linguistic theory. Not all psycholinguistic studies focused on syntax. Some dealt with semantics, particularly the representation of the meanings of words, and a few of these studies made use of the newly developed mental chronometry. One experiment that proved seminal was reported by Collins and Quillen (1969). Participants were asked simple questions about the meaning of a word, such as ‘Is a robin a bird,’ and ‘Is a robin an animal?’; the greater the categorical difference between the two 11 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

terms in a question, the longer it took to answer. These results were taken to support a model of semantic knowledge in which meanings were organized in a hierarchical network, e.g., the concept ‘robin ‘is directly connected to the concept ‘bird,’ which in turn is directly connected to the concept ‘animal,’ and information can flow from ‘robin’ to ‘animal’ only by going through ‘bird’. 1.3.3 The Rise of Cognitive Science The third phase saw a steep rise in the field of cognitive psychology. In this phase, scientific research had grown and spread in several areas of cognitive processes. Themajor areas of research in this period were in the area of memory and language. This period is also characterized by the development of models for representations. The models were used to present processes in the form of images Memory and Language In the early 1970s, the areas of memory and language began to intersect with each other. In 1973 John Anderson and Gordon Bower published Human Associative Memory. This book presented a model of memory mainly for linguistic materials. The model combined information processing with then recent developments in the field of linguistics and artificial intelligence (AI). It was successful in linking the three major research directions that led to the cognitive revolution. The model used networks like those represented semantic knowledge and used memory- search processes to interrogate these networks. The book byAnderson and Bower was quickly followed by other large-scale theoretical efforts that combined information processing, modern linguistics, and computer models. These efforts included Kitsch (1974), which focused on memory for paragraphs rather than sentences, and Norman, Rinehart, and the LNR Research Group (1975), Anderson (1976), and Schunk and Abelson (1977). They took a more computer-science perspective and focused on stories and other large linguistic units. As cognitive psychologists became more and more aware of related developments in linguistics and artificial intelligence, the researchers in the latter disciplines also started to become aware of pertinent work in psychology. This evolved the interdisciplinary movement called ‘cognitive science. ‘In addition to psychology, Artificial Intelligence(AI), and linguistics, the fields of cultural anthropology and philosophy of mind also became involved. The movement eventuated in numerous interdisciplinary collaborations, as well as in individual psychologists becoming more interdisciplinary. Representational Issues In the 1970s and early 1980s, cognitive science was much concerned with issues about mental representations. Whereas, the memory-for-language models described earlier had assumed representations that were language-like or propositional, other researchers argued that representations could also be imaginal, like visual image. 12 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Shepard and Cooper (1972) provided evidence that people could mentally rotate their representations of objects. Rosslyn (1980) surveyed numerous phenomena that further implicated visual imagery. Keeping in line with the inter disciplinaries of cognitive science, AI researchers and philosophers entered the debate about propositional versus imaginal representations. The cognitive science movement affected most areas of cognitive psychology. These areas range from object recognition to reasoning to expertise in problem solving. The movement continues tube influential and increasingly focuses on computational models of cognition. What has changed since its inception in the 1970s is the kind of computational model in favor. 1.3.4 Newer Directions: Connectionism and Cognitive Neuroscience Connectionist Modeling The computer models had dominated cognitive psychology from its inception. These models used complex symbols as representations and processed these representations in a rule-based fashion. Starting in the early 1980s, there was an alternative model of cognition that started to attract interest. This model was named‘connectionist’ or the ‘parallel distributed processing’ models. These proposals have the form of neural networks, consisting of nodes or representations. These representations are densely interconnected and have connections varying in strength. In 1981 Hinton and Anderson published a book surveying then existent connectionist models, and in the same year McClelland and Rinehart (1981) presented a connectionist model of word recognition that explained a wide variety of experimental results. The floodgates had been opened, and connectionist models of perception, memory, and language proliferated, to the point where they now dominate computational approaches to cognition. Cognitive Neuroscience The other major new direction in cognitive psychology is the growing interest in the neural bases of cognition. This movement is referred to as ‘cognitive neuroscience. Subsequent generations of cognitive psychologists solidified their commitments to a purely cognitive level of analyses. Their argument was that the distinction between cognitive and neural levels of analyses was analogous to that between computer software and hardware. Hence on other words cognitive psychology and cognitive science were concerned primarily with the software. Since the early 1990s, views about the significance of neural analyses have changed dramatically. There is a growing consensus that the standard information processing analyses of cognition can be substantially worked upon by knowing how cognition is implemented in the brain.While many factors may have been responsible for the change in view, three will be mentioned here. 13 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 First, the rise of connectionist models that were loosely inspired by brain function had the side effect of increasing interest in what was known in detail about brain function.  Second, in the 1970s and 1980sthere were breakthroughs in systems-level neuro science that had implications for mainstream cognitive psychology.  The third factor responsible for the rise of cognitive neuroscience is methodological: the development of neuroimaging techniques that produce maps of neural activity while the brain is performing some cognitive task. One major technique is positron emission tomography (PET). A more recent technique is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). It is now being used to study virtually every domain of human cognition. The following timeline shows some of the important events in the history of cognitive psychology:  Kohler (1925) published a book called, The Mentality of Apes. In it he reported observations which suggested that animals could show insightful behavior. He rejected behaviorism in favor of an approach which became known as Gestalt psychology.  Norbert Wiener (1948) published Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, introducing terms such as input and output.  Tolman (1948) work on cognitive maps – training rats in mazes, showed that animals had an internal representation of behavior.  Birth of Cognitive Psychology often dated back to George Miller’s (1956) “The Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus 2.”  Newell and Simon’s (1972) development of the General Problem Solver.  In 1960, Miller founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard with the famous cognitivist developmentalist, Jerome Bruner.  Ulric Neisser (1967) publishes \"Cognitive Psychology\", which marks the official beginning of the cognitive approach.  Process models of memory Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi Store Model.  The cognitive approach is highly influential in all areas of psychology (e.g., biological, social, Behaviorism, developmental, etc.) 1.4. BASIC ASSUMTIONS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 1. Meditational processes occur between stimulus and response: Behaviorists rejected the idea of studying the mind since internal mental processes cannot be observed and objectively measured.However, cognitive psychologists regard it as indispensable to look at the mental processes of an organism and how these influence behaviors. 14 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Instead of the simple stimulus-response links as proposed by behaviorism, the mediational processes of the organism are important to understand. Without understandingthis area, psychologists cannot have a comprehensive understanding of behavior. 2. Psychology should be seen as a science: Cognitive psychologists follow the example of the behaviorists as they also prefer objective, controlled, scientific methods for investigating behavior.They use the results of their investigations (scientific experiments) as the basis for making inferences about mental processes. 3. Humans are information processors: Information processing in humans resembles to that seen in computers. It is based on based on three process namely, transforming information, storing information and retrieving information from memory.Information processing models of cognitive processes such as memory and attention assume that mental processes follow a clear sequence. For example:  Input processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli.  Storage processes cover everything that happens to stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding and manipulation of the stimuli.  Output processes are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimulus. 1.5. SCOPE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 1. Nature versus nurture Thesis/Antithesis: Which is more influential in human cognition; is it nature ornurture? If we believe that innate characteristics of human cognition are moreimportant, our research areaswill focus on studying these innate characteristics of cognition.If we believe that the environment plays an important role in cognition,we might conduct research exploring how distinctive characteristics of the environmentseem to influence cognition. Synthesis: We can explore how co-variations and interactions in the environment(e.g., an impoverished environment) adversely affect someone whose genes otherwisemight have led to success in a variety of tasks. 2. Rationalism versus empiricism Thesis/Antithesis: How should we discover the truth about ourselves and aboutthe world around us? Should we achieve this by trying to reason logically? From our experience and what we already know? Or should we do so by observing and testing ourobservations of what we can perceive through our senses? 15 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Synthesis: We can combine theory along with empirical methods to learn the most wecan about cognitive phenomena. 3. Structures versus processes Thesis/Antithesis: Should we study the structures (contents, attributes, and products)of the human mind? Or should our focus be on the processes of humanthinking? Synthesis: We can explore how mental processes operate on mental structures. 4. Domain generality versus domain specificity Thesis/Antithesis: Are the processes we observe limited to single domains?Or arethey general across a variety of domains? Do observations in one domainalso applyto all domains, or do they apply only to the specific domains observed? Synthesis: We can explore those processes might be domain-general as well as whichmight be domain-specific. 5. Validity of causal inferences versus ecological validity Thesis/Antithesis: Should we study cognition by using highly controlled experiments so that the results increase the probability of valid inferences regarding causality? Orobtaining ecologically valid findings but probably at the expense of experimentalcontrol? Synthesis: We can combine a variety of methods, including laboratory methods and more naturalistic ones, so that we can converge on findings that hold up, regardlessof the method of study. 6. Applied versus basic research Thesis/Antithesis: Should we conduct research into fundamental cognitive processes?Or should we study ways in which to help people use cognition effectivelyin practical situations? Synthesis: We can combine the two kinds of research dialectically so that basicresearch leads to applied research, which leads to further basic research, andso on. 7. Biological versus behavioral methods Thesis/Antithesis: Should we study the brain and its functioning directly, perhapseven scanning the brain while people are performing cognitive tasks? Or shouldwe study people’s behavior in cognitive tasks, looking at measures such as percentcorrect and reaction time? Synthesis: We can try to synthesize biological and behavioral methods so that weunderstand cognitive phenomena at multiple levels of analysis. 1.6. SUMMARY  Cognitive psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information. 16 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Cognitive Psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language.  Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as \"attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking\".  Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern disciplines.  Cognitive psychologists have its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children.  Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response.  Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms—rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or heuristics—rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions.  Cognitive psychology is based on two assumptions:  Human cognition can at least in principle be fully revealed by the scientific method, that is, individual components of mental processes can be identified and understood, and  Internal mental processes can be described in terms of rules or algorithms in information processing models. There has been much recent debate on these assumptions  Ulric \"Dick\" Neisser is considered as the father of cognitive psychology.  The cognitive approach began to revolutionize psychology in the late 1950sand early 1960’s. It became the dominant approach (i.e., perspective) in psychology by the late 1970s.  There are three major contributing theories in cognitive psychology: Albert Ellis' rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Aaron Beck's cognitive therapy (CT) Donald Meichenbaum's cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)  One of the strengths of the cognitive approach is it has always employed highly controlled and rigorous methods of study in order to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes at work. 17 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The cognitive approach is probably the most dominant approach in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. 1.7. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS  Cognitive neuroscience: The study of how mental processes occur in the central nervous system, focusing on relationships between mental functions and the physiological functioning of neurons, which is an integration of the fields of neuroscience and cognitive psychology. It has been very successful in exploring the causes of functional impairments and finding routes to remediation.  Cognitive psychology: This term describes a sub-discipline of psychology that examines mental processes involved in perception (both visual and auditory), reasoning and problem solving, language processing, memory, and the processing of various types of information.  Cognitive science: The interdisciplinary science of mind which includes and attempts to integrate approaches from psychology, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, computer science, and physiology.  Information processing(IP) 1. A cognitive approach to psychology in which processes of the central nervous system are modeled using computer programming concepts. This area includes study of sensation and perception, attention, learning, memory, decision making, and response mechanisms. 2. The acquisition, storage, and manipulation of data by computers. 1.8. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. With the help of a flow chart explain the history of cognitive psychology? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. With the help of a flow chart explain the areas of study covered under cognitive psychology? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 1.9. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Describe the various areas studied by cognitive psychologists. 2. Identify some of the major events that led to rise of cognitive psychology in the 1950’s. 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Cognitive psychology functions on a few basic assumptions. Explain these assumptions of cognitive psychology in detail. 4. Cognitive Neuroscience is one of the key areas studied by cognitive psychologists in the 21st century. Elaborate on the above statement 5. Identify and elaborate on the areas of research cognitive psychologists are interested in. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Who is a pioneer contributor to theCognitive Psychology? (a) Jean Piaget (b) Kohler (c) Chomsky (d)Kohlberg 2, _________________ psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, andthink about information (a) Physiological (b) Developmental (c) Cognitive (d) Educational 3. The word ‘cognition’ is derived from the Latin word_____________, meaning “to know” or “to come to know”. (a) cognine (b) consure (c) conscience (d)cognoscere 4. Who from the following has given the model of attention. 19 (a) Broadbent (b) Atkinson (c) Shiffrin CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(d) Sternberg 5. ________________ is one of the latest developments in cognitive psychology (a) Memory studies (b) Cognitive neuroscience (c) Language (d) Attention Answer 1 (a) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (a) 5 (b) 1.10. REFERENCES  Kellogg, R. T. (2003). Cognitive Psychology (2nd ed.). California, USA.: Sage Publications  Neisser, U. (2014). Cognitive Psychology (Classic ed.). New York: Psychology Press  Eysenck, M. W. and Keane, M. T. (2015) Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook (7th ed.). New York: Psychology Press  Galotti, K.M. (2008), Cognitive Psychology: In and out of the Laboratory. Delhi: Thomson.  Sternberg, R. J. & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive psychology (6th ed.). USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.  Groome, D. (2014). An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology: Processes and Disorders. (3rd ed.). New York: Psychology Press.  Mazur, J.E. (1986), Learning and Behaviors. (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.  Galotti, K.M. (1999), Cognitive Psychology: In and Outside Laboratory. Mumbai: Thomson Asia.  Hilgard, E. R. (1987). Psychology in America. Michigan: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich  Kesal, F. S. and Bevan, W. (1985). Notes towards a history of cognitive psychology. In C.W. Buxton (ed.). Points of views of modern history of psychology. (pg. 259-294) New York: Academic Press.  Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158  Chomsky, N. (1959). On certain formal properties of grammars. Information and Control, 2(2), 137-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0019-9958(59)90362-6 20 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 2 PATTERN RECOGNITION Structure 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Perception and Perceptual Processing 2.3 Pattern Recognition 2.4 Theories of Pattern Recognition 2.4.1 Template based matching model 2.4.2 Prototype based matching model 2.4.3 Feature based matching model 2.5 Fundamental Principles and Mechanisms 2.6 Bottom up and Top down processing 2.7 Object Background and Superiority Effect 2.8 Summary 2.9 Key Words/ Abbreviations 2.10 Learning Activity 2.11 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 2.12 References 2.0. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, you will be able to,  Explain the concept of perception  Explore the concept of pattern recognition  Describe the theories of pattern recognition  Explain the fundamental principles of pattern recognition  Compare bottom up and top down approach to pattern recognition  Analyse the function of pattern recognition works 2.1. INTRODUCTION With the technology development and integration of photogrammetry, RS and GIS going further, a new branch of information science, geo-informatics rose and has been developedrapidly. The integration of geo-informatics with the earth science, information science, computer science, artificial intelligence, expert system etc. forms a huge complicated systemconcerning the acquisition, processing, storing, representation,distribution and application of information about the earth. Onlyfor the image information processing, a great progress has beenmade on the aspect of technology and algorithm during the pastseveral 21 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

decades, but there still exist a lot of difficulties concerning the automatic classification, pattern recognition, imageanalysis and understanding, the representation of informationand the utilization of knowledge etc. Generally speaking, theknowledge level on these issues lags far behind the human’scognitive level at present. Taking the pattern recognition fromimage as an example,a number of difficult issues arise in visualpattern recognition. The origin and development of cognitive science has a historyof several decades, but it is only in recent years that the theoretical research about cognitive science has attracted enough attention from the field of geo-informatics. At present, thetheory of cognitive science has been generally acknowledgedas the important components of fundamental theory of geo- spatial information science. In this paper, three theoretical modelsof visual pattern recognition based on the basic theory of cognitive psychology, which is the essence of cognitive science,are built, and the related visual perception mechanism is discussed. Cognitive psychology is one of the branches ofpsychology,and it is also the main component partsof cognitive science. Cognitive psychology takesthe human brain’s mechanism for information processing as its theoretical core, i. e. comparing thehuman brain with the computer,and treating the human brain as an information processing system thatworks like a computer. The main research area ofcognitive psychology concerns the psychological orcognitive process of perception, attention, mental image, memory, thought, language learning and pattern recognition as well as the organization ofknowledge etc. The main purpose of the above research is to reveal the human’s internal psychological mechanism. Generally speaking, the cognitive process includes the procedures of information acquisition andinformation processing (i. e. the thought) as wellas the subjective information generation (alsocalled regeneration). To understand this issue innarrow sense, cognition is the process of knowledge state changes, i. e. the process of subjectiveinformation generation. Fig: 2.1 General model of cognition 2.2. PERCEPTION AND PERCEPTION PROCESSING Cognitive psychologists treat most of the cognitive process as \"perceptive\". Perceptive process accepts the sensation input and transforms it into abstract codes. In the field of cognitive psychology research,two opposite theories exist about the cognitive process of perception. 22 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The first standpoint thinks that the perception has close relationship with human's knowledge and experience.  The second standpoint thinks that perception is direct and has nothing to do with the knowledge or experience. The perceptual process consists of six steps:  The presence of objects,  Observation of objects,  Selection of objects,  Organization of objects,  Interpretation of objects, and  Response to the objects. However, the development of cognitive science researches soon started to go deep.With this the cognitive psychologists have enough reasons to think that perception depends on the past experience and knowledge, perception information is the result of mutual action between reality stimulation and memory information. The cognitive psychology focuses on the significance of past experience and knowledge. The cognitive procedure involved in the reality stimulation about the outside world in the process of perception generation and perception process should include two mutually related processing approaches, i. e. the bottom-up processing and the top-down processing. The bottom-up processing starts with external stimulation.It focuses on the analysis of smaller perception elements first and then moves to the perception analysis of larger elements After a series of processing, it gives the explanation of sensation stimulation. The top-down processing is a knowledge-guided perception processing, and the higher level processing controls the lower level processing. Lindsay and Norman (1977) called the bottom-up processing data-driven processing and the top-down processing concept-driven processing. They are two approaches opposite to each other in processing direction. Without the effect of stimulation, the top-down processing can only bring about illusion. On the other hand, it is hard to cope with the situation of double meanings or uncertainty for some stimulation if only based on the bottom-up processing. If the united perception result is expected, it is necessary to integrate the two approaches. 2.3. PATTERN RECOGNITION Modern cognitive psychology has presented several theoretical models about Human's pattern recognition, such as template-based matching model, prototype-based matching model and feature-based matching model, some of which are greatly affected by the artificial intelligence (AI). A further research and understanding of these theoretical models is 23 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

meaningful to the pattern recognition issues concerning the field of computer vision and geo- informatics. 2.4. THEORIES OF PATTERN RECOGNITION 2.4.1. Template-based matching model The core of template-based matching model is that in human's memory there should exist plenty of various duplicates about the real world pattern, which are called templates and formed from the past living experiences. The real world patterns and the templates are corresponding to each other. When an outside stimulation affects human's sensory organ, the stimulation information will be coded first and then compared with the stored templates in order to find the best matching pair. The template with the best matching is probably the pattern of that stimulation, so the pattern can be recognized. According to the basic viewpoint of templatebased matching, it is necessary to have the corresponding templates stored in the memory in advance in order to recognize a special pattern. However, the real-world patterns are various and may be different in shape, size and direction etc., it means that each distinct case has a corresponding template,otherwise, the recognition of pattern will fail. In this case, in order to realize pattern recognition correctly, people are required to store countless templates in the memory,which will greatly increase the burden of memory,and it is also contradictory to human's high flexibility in the process of pattern recognition. In order to overcome this shortcoming, some scholars suggest adding a pre-processing process to the template-based matching, that is, adjusting the shape, size and direction of stimulation in the initial stage of pattern recognition,and standardizing them in order to greatly reduce the number of templates. To do this seems logical,but the problem is how to adjust the stimulation from outside world if we have no idea what the pattern is to be recognized in advance. In fact, template-based matching is a kind of bottom-up processing model. In order to make the pre-processing efficiently, the top-down processing model should be considered. Human's perception contains the mutual relation between the bottom-up and the top-down processing mechanism, only when the template-based matching is integrated with the mechanism of the top-down processing, the matching model can be completed. Fig 2.2.: Template-based matching model 24 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2.4.2. Prototype-based matching model The prototype-based matching model was presented in order to remedy the shortcoming of the prototype-based matching model. The main characteristic of the template-based matching model is that,what stored in human's memory is not thought to be the templates of outside world pattern, but is the prototypes of real-world objects. These prototypes reflect the basic features of a certain kind ofobjects. For this reason, the prototype-based matching is also called component-based matching sometimes. According to the viewpoint of the prototypebased matching model, outside stimulation is only needed to compare with the prototypes during the pattern recognition process. Since the prototype is a kind of summarized token, so the accurate matching of above comparison need not to be strictlysatisfied, only approximate matching is required. Even if there exist some differences in shape, size and direction for certain objects, all these objects can still be recognized through the matching with prototypes, it means the new and unfamiliar patterns can also be recognized so long as the related prototypes are available. Fig 2.3.: Prototype-based matching model To the prototype-based matching model, the key is whether the prototypes are available or not. Besides, the prototype-based matching model only contains the bottom-up processing except the top down processing, which is obviously a drawback. Compared with the prototype-based matching model, the top-down processing mechanism seems to be more important. 2.4.3. Feature-based matching model Pattern consists of a certain number of elements or component parts by a specified relationship, these elements or component parts are usually called features, and the relationship among them can also be called features sometimes. All complicated stimulation is thought to be composed of differentiated and separated features in the featurebased matching model. The calculation of feature's existence and then comparing this calculation value with the list of known feature's value can accomplish the pattern recognition. The feature-based matching model emphasizes on the importance of feature and feature analysis. The successfulness of feature-based matching depends on the separation degree of stimulation. The status and function of the features here are similar to that of template in the template-based matching; i. e. the feature can be treated as a tiny template or a component 25 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

template. But the feature-based matching is different from the template-based matchingafter all. The former has certain advantages. 1) The recognition in this case is based on the features and their relationships, so it is not necessary to consider the stimulation changes caused by the differences of size, shape and direction etc., thus one can avoid the difficulty and burden of pre-processing process and make the recognition more flexible. 2) The same features can appear in different patterns,which can greatly lighten the burden of memory. 3) Because feature extraction, analysis and information integration are all required for the recognition purpose, the feature-based matching process is provided with the learning ability in certain degree. But unfortunately, that different patterns have the same features will make the recognition hard to realize,and even cause the wrong recognition. However, compared with other pattern recognition models, the feature-based matching model does have greater flexibility. 2.5. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND MECHANISMS Mental Patterns The functionality of pattern recognition is actually a scientifically accepted mechanism that performs important role in biological neural systems, and in parallel is actually a very established computer application been a top area at artificial intelligence research. So, the manifestation, existence and functionality of the pattern recognition mechanism is a very established scientific fact. There is no serious doubt that the brain has the ability to recognize patterns, react to patterns, remember patterns, repeat patterns, associate patterns, etc. Conceptually, experiments and scientific observations with human and animals since Pavlov and Hebb until today, and several models from artificial neural mechanism to neural networks, and even traditional computer artificial intelligence also show, incorporate, work or implement the concept of pattern recognition and processing. So, the aspect and property of pattern recognition is a very established concept about the mind, generally related to the concept of perception. Specialized publications on neurobiology and psychology and theoretical and applied recognition systems show how active is the research on the field of pattern recognition. Various scientific studies on mind research works with the concept of pattern recognition or deals with it through their argumentation in a very broad sense. But none yet took the mechanism or the concept as a fundamental explanatory basis for the functioning of the mind. Instinctive Mental Patterns 26 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Some patterns such as hungry, pain, sleepiness, etc., are the basic mental patterns that are recognized andhave a response from the brain since born or during any stage of our life. The modelling of these mentalinstinctive patterns is important because they can help to understand the possible descriptions of thelearning process proposed below, and other characteristics such as animal and human desire, curiosity, thefreedom of thought, free will, etc. Studies about the cognitive role of emotions, motivation and intuitionare among current works supporting the relevance of instinctive mental patterns. Summarizing, the instinctive mental patterns may be important both as patterns that define the initialconditions of the mind and as the influence on behaviour throughout life. Bio- physically, mental instinctivepatterns may be associated with innate neural-physiological states in the brain structure or to somepatterns of brain preferred responses that have the ability to be activated even without learning or priormemorization. Mental Patterns Memorization The brain has the mental capacity to record some patterns so that they are activated (recalled) more easily in the future processing. These patterns are stored as memory, and can be reactivated as a response or remembering. The memorization of external patterns in the brain is widely scientifically known and accepted since the experiments of Pavlov and Hebb to the modern experiments with memory. The memory bio-physical background can be modelled as an increase in the likelihood, frequency or the intensity of recognition or activation of a mental pattern related to an external physical pattern detection, or self-functioning pattern detection. Mental Patterns Activation (dynamics or processing) Recognition and memorization of patterns by the brain can be seen among the most important properties of what we can call the processing or dynamics of patterns, i.e., the brain has mechanisms to work with patterns in several ways. Other mechanisms of the brain activation patterns that I propose are: - Repetition of mental patterns (automatic activation) - Association of mental patterns (an active mental pattern actives others mental patterns) The repetition of mental patterns is a mechanism I propose that might be considered analogous to the concept of CPU clock frequency in digital computers, i.e., in some way the brain is constantly activating various mental instinctive patterns, memorized mental patterns or patterns from the contact with the environment. The repetition of patterns of mental activation as will describe, may be a basis for the on-going process of thought, the repetition of patterns of desires, curiosities, comparisons, ratings, etc., and also may be a basis for a scientific definition of free will, self-determination, etc. The bio-physical basis of the repetition of the mental patterns can be any mental pattern firing mechanism commonly studied at neurobiology researches and some theoretical and 27 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

computational models. Perhaps this is the most questionable of the proposed concepts, but, any other neural activation mechanisms one can suggest, it will activate and process mental patterns in a similar manner. I adopted this concept due to its feasibility and to its modelling simplicity. 2.6. BOTTOM-UP VS. TOP-DOWN PROCESSING Fig 2.4.: A stimulus that can be seen in multiple ways There are two general processes involved in sensation and perception. 1. Bottom-up processing Bottom-up processing refers to processing sensory information as it is coming in. In other words, if I flash a random picture on the screen, your eyes detect the features, your brain pieces it together, and you perceive a picture of an eagle. What you see is based only on the sensory information coming in. Bottom-up refers to the way it is built up from the smallest pieces of sensory information. 2. Top-down processing Top-down processing, on the other hand, refers to perception that is driven by cognition. Your brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fills in the blanks, so to speak. First, let us look at a visual example: Look at the shape in the box to the right. Seen alone, your brain engages in bottom-up processing. There are two thick vertical lines and three thin horizontal lines. There is no context to give it a specific meaning, so there is no top-down processing involved. Now, look at the same shape in two different contexts. Surrounded by sequential letters, your brain expects the shape to be a letter and to complete the sequence. In that context, you perceive the lines to form the shape of the letter “B.” Surrounded by numbers, the same shape now looks like the number “13.” When given a context, your perception is driven by your cognitive expectations. Now you are processing the shape in a top-down fashion. 28 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 2.5.: A stimulus seen with related stimuli get a specific meaning 2.7. OBJECT BACKGROUND AND SUPERIORITY EFFECT The purpose of the research on object background is to find out the possible effect of object background information on the recognition result during the visual perception process. In fact, in many cases of pattern recognition process, the object back-ground information can be used for the processing of feature analysis. Fig. 4(a) shows a set of handwritten form letters and figures. The top stimulation in this figure can be regarded as \"15\" or \"is\", the recognition results here totally depends on their background information. From this example, we know that the analysis of background information is beneficial for obtaining a correct result in pattern recognition. The cognitive psychologists call this phenomenon \"Superiority Effect\". Fig2.6.: Fuzzy letters and figures For further study, another set of fuzzy letters and figures are taken as an example. Fig. 4(b) is a set of printing form characters. When the top character in Fig. 4(b) is recognized individually, it is hard to determine whether it is a figure \"0\" or an English letter \"o\". However,when it appears in a string of figures or an English sentence, it can be correctly recognized easily. This further explains the importance of context information to the result of pattern recognition and the superiority of entirety processing. The use of background information does not mean that the \"Superiority Effect\" is always available. During the visual cognitive process, the difference of visual focus point will greatly affect the recognition result. If the position of visual focus changes in the context or graph, the \"Superiority Effect\" will not appear sometimes. In this case, the efficiency of pattern recognition will also be affected. The concept of visual focus point is called \"selective attention\" in the cognitive psychology. The research of \"Superiority Effect\" is one of the hot spot in cognitive psychology at present. 29 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

On one hand, it concentratedly reflects some important issues on perception and pattern recognition, such as the organization of perception, the effect of experience and knowledge, the mechanism of bottom-up processing and top-down processing etc.; On the other hand, the \"Superiority Effect\" can help us to understand the human's instinct that is different from the machine pattern recognition. To further understand the \"Superiority Effect\" needs to integrate the viewpoints of psychology, physiology, artificial intelligence and some other disciplines. 2.8. SUMMARY  Everything in the world has its own pattern.  Pattern recognition is a skill of how people identify the objects in their environment which is what we do all the time in our daily life. For example, you can recognize your teachers, friends, and also which items can eat or cannot eat.  Pattern recognition involves identification of faces, objects, words, melodies, etc.Pattern recognition refers to the process of recognizing a set of stimuli arranged in a certain pattern that is characteristic of that set of stimuli.  From the perspective of geo-informatics, the main purpose of theoretical research of pattern recognition model based on the cognitive psychology can be concluded as follows.  Understanding the human's visual cognitive mechanism;  Taking this visual cognitive mechanism as the theoretical guidance, to develop an image understanding system which can automatically constitute the scene description from the image data.  Bottom-up processing is an explanation for perceptions that start with an incoming stimulus and working upwards until a representation of the object is formed in our minds.  In top-down processing, perceptions begin with the most general and move toward the more specific.  At present, our understanding degree and the research profundity to the visual cognitive mechanism lag far behind the development of the means of image information processing.  The basic theory of human's visual cognitive mechanism and computer vision is still in the process of searching and forming. The research of fundamental theory in this field should be strengthened. 30 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Template theories propose that patterns are really not “described” at all. Rather, templates are holistic, or unanalysed, entities that we compare with other patterns by measuring how much two patterns overlap.  Feature theory used to describe a pattern by listing out its attributes. For example, we might describe a friend as having long blond hair, a short nose and bushy eyebrows or else can say.  Structural theory describes how features join together to create a structure which represents a guiding principle of Gestalt psychology. It emphasizes the relations among the features. 2.9. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS  Perception- Perception is the process or result of becoming aware of objects, relationships, and events by means of the senses.  Pattern recognition-Pattern recognition is the ability to recognize and identify a complex whole composed of, or embedded in, many separate elements. 2.10. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is pattern recognition? With the help of a flow chart explain the different models of pattern recognition? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What are the fundamental principles and mechanisms of perception? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2.11. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Explain why perception and perceptual processes are key to studying cognitive psychology. 2. Explain the concept of pattern recognition and its role in cognitive psychology. 3. Describe some of the key principles and processes involved with relation to perception. 4. Various theories have been propagated to explain the process of perception. Explain any two theories in detail. 31 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. Perception can be understood by either top down or bottom up processes. Explain what do you mean by these processes. 6. What is the relationship between object and background and explain the superiority effect in relation to perception. B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. Because it has the exterior features associated with the concept of a dog, a wolf is perceived as a dog. This is an example of _________________ (a) Centration (b) Equilibration (c) Object permanence (d) Prototype 2. Phonemic Restoration as we perceive speech in a noisy party is an example of ____________ (a) Top down processing (b) Bottom up processing (c) Subliminal processing (d) Supraliminal processing 3. ________________ is a process which means to accept the sensation input and transforms it into abstract codes. (a) Perception (b) Memory (c) Thinking (d) Attention 4. Top down processing is driven by __________________________ 32 (a) Memory (b) Cognition (c) Thinking CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(d) Attention 5. Perceptual processing has ___________ steps (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 5 (d) 8 Answer 1 (d) 2 (d) 3 (a) 4 (b) 5 (b) 2.12. REFERENCES  Kellogg, R. T. (2003). Cognitive Psychology (2nd ed.). California, USA.: Sage Publications  Neisser, U. (2014). Cognitive Psychology (Classic ed.). New York: Psychology Press  Eysenck, M. W. and Keane, M. T. (2015) Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook (7th ed.). New York: Psychology Press  Galotti, K.M. (2008), Cognitive Psychology: In and out of the Laboratory. Delhi: Thomson.  Sternberg, R. J. & Sternberg, K. (2012). Cognitive psychology (6th ed.). USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.  Groome, D. (2014). An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology: Processes and Disorders. (3rd ed.). New York: Psychology Press.  Mazur, J.E. (1986), Learning and Behaviors. (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.  Galotti, K.M. (1999), Cognitive Psychology: In and Outside Laboratory. Mumbai: Thomson Asia.  Shugen, W. Framework of pattern recognition model based on the cognitive psychology. Geo-spat. Inf. Sci. 5, 74–78 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02833890  Lindsay, P. H., and Norman, D. A.(1977). Human information processing: an introduction to psychology. (15th ed.). New York: Academic Press. 33 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 3 COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE Structure 3.0 Learning Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Cognitive Neuroscience 3.3 History of Cognitive Neuroscience 3.4 Cognition of the brain 3.4.1 Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain 3.5 Localization of functions of the brain 3.6 Brain lateralization 3.7 The spinal cord 3.8 Summary 3.9 Key Words/ Abbreviations 3.10 Learning Activity 3.11 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 3.12 References 3.0. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After this unit, you will be able to,  Describe the concept of Cognitive Neuroscience  Outline the history of cognitive neuroscience  Explain the structure and functions of the brain  Analyse the specific locations of the brain meant for specific functions  Describe lateral division of the brain and the function of each part  Explain the structure and function of the spinal cord 3.1. INTRODUCTION Cognitive neuroscience is the field of study linking the brain and other aspects ofthe nervous system to cognitive processing and, ultimately, to behaviour. The brain isthe organ in our bodies that most directly controls our thoughts, emotions, andmotivations. Figure below showsphotos of what the brain actually looks like. We usually think of the brain as beingat the top of the body’s hierarchy—as the boss, with various other organs respondingto it. Like any good boss, however, it listens to and is influenced by its subordinates,the other organs of the body. Thus, the brain is reactive as well as directive. 34 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 3.1.: The brain 3.2. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE Cognitive neuropsychology is concerned with the patterns of cognitive performance in brain- damagedpatients. Those aspects of cognition that are intact or impaired are identified, with this information being ofvalue for two main reasons. First, the cognitive performance of brain-damaged patients can often beexplained by theories within cognitive psychology. Such theories specify the processes or mechanismsinvolved in normal cognitive functioning, and it should be possible in principle to account for many of thecognitive impairments of brain- damaged patients in terms of selective damage to some of thosemechanisms. Second, it may be possible to use information from brain-damaged patients to reject theories proposed bycognitive psychologists, and to propose new theories of normal cognitive functioning. According to Ellis and Young, a major aim of cognitive neuropsychology: “is to draw conclusions about normal, intact cognitive processes from the patterns of impaired andintact capabilities seen in brain-injured patients…the cognitive neuropsychologist wishes to be in aposition to assert that observed patterns of symptoms could not occur if the normal, intact cognitivesystem were not organised in a certain way. The intention is that there should be bi-directional influences of cognitive psychology on cognitiveneuro-psychology, and of cognitive neuropsychology on cognitive psychology. Historically, the formerinfluence was the greater one, but the latter has become more important. Before discussing the cognitive neuropsychological approach in more detail, we will discuss a concreteexample of cognitive neuropsychology in operation. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) argued that there is animportant distinction between a short-term memory store and a long- term memory store, and thatinformation enters into the long-term store through rehearsal and 35 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

other processing activities in the short-termstore. Relevant evidence was obtained by Shallice and Warrington (1970). They studied abrain-damaged patient, KF, who seemed to have severely impaired short-term memory, but essentially intactlong-term memory. The study of this patient served two important purposes. First, it provided evidence to support thetheoretical distinction between two memory systems. Second, it pointed to a real deficiency in thetheoretical model of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). If, as this model suggests, long-term learning andmemory depend on the short-term memory system, then it is surprising that someone with a grossly deficientshort-term memory system also has normal long-term memory. The case of KF shows very clearly the potential power of cognitive neuropsychology. The study of thisone patient provided strong evidence that the dominant theory of memory at the end of the 1960s wasseriously deficient. This is no mean achievement for a study on one patient! Our brains are a central processing unit for everything we do. But how do our brains relate to our bodies? Are they connected or separate? Do our brains define who we are? An ancient legend from India (Rosenzweig & Leiman, 1989) tells of Sita. She marries one man but is attracted to another. These two frustrated men behead themselves. Sita, bereft of them both, desperately prays to the goddess Kali to bring the men back to life. Sita is granted her wish. She is allowed to reattach the heads to the bodies. In her rush to bring the two men back to life, Sita mistakenly switches their heads. She attaches them to the wrong bodies. Now, to whom is she married? Who is who? The mind–body issue has long interested philosophers and scientists. Where is the mind located in the body, if at all? How do the mind and body interact? How are we able to think, speak, plan, reason, learn, and remember? What are the physical bases for our cognitive abilities? These questions all probe the relationship between cognitive psychology and neurobiology. Some cognitive psychologists seek to answer such questions by studying the biological bases of cognition. Cognitive psychologists are especially concerned with how the anatomy (physical structures of the body) and the physiology (functions and processes of the body) of the nervous system affect and are affected by human cognition. 3.3. HISTORY OF COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of study that has emerged from neuroscience and psychology. There were several stages in these disciplines that changed the way researchers approached their investigations and that led to the field becoming fully established. Although the task of it is to describe how the brain creates the mind, historically it has progressed by investigating how a certain area of the brain supports a given mental faculty. 36 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The phrenologist movement failed to supply a scientific basis for its theories and has since been rejected. The aggregate field view, meaning that all areas of the brain participated in all behaviour, was also rejected as a result of brain mapping. Perhaps the first serious attempt to localize mental functions to specific areas in the human brain was by Broca and Wernicke. This was mostly achieved by studying the effects of injuries on different parts of the brain on psychological functions. These studies formed the basis for neuropsychology, one of the central areas of research which began to establish links between behaviour and its neural substrates. Brain mapping began with Hitzig and Fritsch’s experiments published in 1870. These studies formed the research that was further developed through methods such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The Nobel Prize of 1906 recognized Golgi and Cajal’s essential work on the neuron doctrine. Several findings in the 20th century continued to advance the field. Findings like the discovery of ocular dominance columns, recording of single nerve cells in animals, and coordination of eye and head movements were major contributions. Experimental psychology was significant in the foundation of cognitive neuroscience. Findings include the demonstration that some tasks are accomplished via discrete processing stages, the study of attention, and the notion that behavioural data do not provide enough information by themselves to explain mental processes. As a result, some experimental psychologists began to investigate the neural bases of behaviour. A 1967 book by Ulric Neisser, Cognitive Psychology, reported the discussion of a 1956 meeting at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where George A. Miller, Noam Chomsky, and Newell & Simon presented important papers. Around this time, the term “psychology” was falling out of fashion, and researchers were more likely to refer to “cognitive science.” The term cognitive neuroscience itself was coined by Michael Gazzaniga and cognitive psychologist George Armitage Miller while sharing a taxi in 1976. Cognitive neuroscience began to integrate the newly laid theoretical ground in cognitive science, that emerged between the 1950s and 1960s, with approaches in experimental psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience. Neuroscience was formally recognized as a unified discipline in 1971. In the 20th century, new technologies evolved that are now the mainstay of the methodology of cognitive neuroscience, including EEG (human EEG 1920), MEG (1968), TMS (1985) and fMRI (1991). Recently the focus of research has expanded from the localization of brain area(s) for specific functions in the adult brain using a single technology. Studies explore the interactions between different brain areas, using multiple technologies and approaches to understand brain functions, and using computational approaches. Advances in non-invasive functional neuroimaging and associated data analysis methods have made it possible to use highly naturalistic stimuli and tasks in cognitive neuroscience studies. 37 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3.4. COGNITION IN THE BRAIN: THE ANATOMY AND MECHANISMS OF THE BRAIN The nervous system is the basis for our ability to perceive, adapt to, and interact with the world around us. Through this system we receive, process, and then respond to information from the environment. In the following section, we will focus on the supreme organ of the nervous system—the brain—paying special attention to the cerebral cortex, which controls many of our thought processes. In a later section, we consider the basic building block of the nervous system—the neuron. We will examine in detail how information moves through the nervous system at the cellular level. Then we will consider the various levels of organization within the nervous system and how drugs interact with the nervous system. For now, let’s look at the structure of the brain. 3.4.1 Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain What have scientists discovered about the human brain? The brain has three major regions: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. These labels do not correspond exactly to locations of regions in an adult or even a child’s head. Rather, the terms come from the front-to-back physical arrangement of these parts in the nervous system of a developing embryo. Initially, the forebrain is generally the farthest forward, toward what becomes the face. The midbrain is next in line. And the hindbrain is generally farthest from the forebrain, near the back of the neck. In development, the relative orientations change so that the forebrain is almost a cap on top of the midbrain and hindbrain. Nonetheless, the terms still are used to designate areas of the fully developed brain. 38 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Fig 3.2.: Brain Development Fig 3.3.: Brain Structure 3.5. LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN The developing brain goes through many stages. In the embryos of vertebrates, the predecessor to the brain and spinal cord is the neural tube. As the foetus develops, the grooves and folds in the neural tube deepen, giving rise to different layers of the brain. The human brain is split up into three major layers: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. Hindbrain The hindbrain is the well-protected central core of the brain. It includes the cerebellum, reticular formation, and brain stem, which are responsible for some of the most basic autonomic functions of life, such as breathing and movement. The brain stem contains the pons and medulla oblongata. Evolutionarily speaking, the hindbrain contains the oldest parts of the brain, which all vertebrates possess, though they may look different from species to species. Midbrain 39 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The midbrain makes up part of the brain stem. It is located between the hindbrain and forebrain. All sensory and motor information that travels between the forebrain and the spinal cord passes through the midbrain, making it a relay station for the central nervous system. Forebrain The forebrain is the most anterior division of the developing vertebrate brain, containing the most complex networks in the central nervous system. The forebrain has two major divisions: the diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon is lower, containing the thalamus and hypothalamus (which together form the limbic system); the telencephalon is on top of the diencephalon and contains the cerebrum, the home of the highest-level cognitive processing in the brain. It is the large and complicated forebrain that distinguishes the human brain from other vertebrate brains. Region of the Structure in the region Function of the structure brain Fore Brain Cerebral Cortex Involved in receiving and processing sensory information, thinking, other cognitive processing, and planning and sending motor information Basal Ganglia Crucial to the function of the motor system Limbic System Involved in learning, emotions, and motivation (in particular, the hippocampus influences learning and memory, the amygdala influences anger and aggression,and the septum influences anger and fear) Thalamus Primary relay station for sensory information coming into the brain; transmits information to the correct regions of the cerebral cortex through projection fibres that extend from the thalamus to specific regions of the cortex; comprises several nuclei (groups of neurons) that receive specific kinds of sensory information and project that information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex, including four key nuclei for sensory information: (1) from the visual receptors, via optic nerves, to the visual cortex, permitting us to see; (2) from the auditory receptors, via auditory nerves, to the auditory cortex, permitting us to 40 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Hypothalamus hear; (3) from sensory receptors in the somatic nervous system, to the primary somatosensory cortex, permitting us to sense pressure and pain; and (4) from the cerebellum (in the hindbrain) to the primary motor cortex, permitting us to sense physicalbalance and equilibrium Controls the endocrine system; controls the autonomic nervous system, such as internal temperature regulation, appetite and thirst regulation, and other key functions; involved in regulation of behaviour related to species survival (in particular, fighting, feeding, fleeing, and mating); plays a role in controlling consciousness (see reticular activating system); involved in emotions, pleasure, pain, and stress reactions Mid Brain Superior colliculi (above) Involved in vision (especially visual reflexes) Hind Brain Inferior colliculi (below) Involved in hearing Reticular Formation Important in controlling consciousness (sleep arousal), attention, cardiorespiratory function, and movement Gray matter, red nucleus, Important in controlling movement substantia nigra, ventral region Essential to balance, coordination, and muscle Cerebellum tone Pons Involved in consciousness (sleep and arousal); bridges neural transmissions from one part of the Medulla oblongata brain to another; involved with facial nerves Serves as juncture at which nerves cross from one side of the body to opposite side of the brain; involved in cardiorespiratory function, digestion, 41 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

and swallowing Lower-Level Structures The brain’s lower-level structures consist of the brain stem, the spinal cord, and the cerebellum. The brain’s lower-level structures consist of the brain stem and spinal cord, along with the cerebellum. With the exception of the spinal cord, these structures are largely located within the hindbrain, diencephalon (or interbrain), and midbrain. These lower dorsal structures are the oldest parts of the brain, having existed for much of its evolutionary history. As such they are geared more toward basic bodily processes necessary to survival. It is the more recent layers of the brain (the forebrain) which are responsible for the higher-level cognitive functioning (language, reasoning) not strictly necessary to keep a body alive. The Hindbrain The hindbrain, which includes the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum, is responsible some of the oldest and most primitive body functions. Each of these structures is described below. Medulla Oblongata The medulla oblongata sits at the transition zone between the brain and the spinal cord. It is the first region that formally belongs to the brain (rather than the spinal cord). It is the control center for respiratory, cardiovascular, and digestive functions. Pons The pons connects the medulla oblongata with the midbrain region, and also relays signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum. It houses the control centers for respiration and inhibitory functions. The cerebellum is attached to the dorsal side of the pons. Cerebellum The cerebellum is a separate region of the brain located behind the medulla oblongata and pons. It is attached to the rest of the brain by three stalks (called pedunculi), and coordinates skeletal muscles to produce smooth, graceful motions. The cerebellum receives information from our eyes, ears, muscles, and joints about the body’s current positioning (referred to as proprioception). It also receives output from the cerebral cortex about where these body parts should be. After processing this information, the cerebellum sends motor impulses from the brain stem to the skeletal muscles so that they can move. The main function of the cerebellum is this muscle coordination. However, it is also responsible for balance and posture, and it assists us when we are learning a new motor skill, such as playing a sport or musical instrument. 42 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Recent research shows that apart from motor functions the cerebellum also has some role in emotional sensitivity. The Midbrain The midbrain is located between the hindbrain and forebrain, but it is actually part of the brain stem. It displays the same basic functional composition found in the spinal cord and the hindbrain. Ventral areas control motor function and convey motor information from the cerebral cortex. Dorsal regions of the midbrain are involved in sensory information circuits. The substantia nigra, a part of the brain that plays a role in reward, addiction, and movement (due to its high levels of dopaminergic neurons) is located in the midbrain. In Parkinson’s disease, which is characterized by a deficit of dopamine, death of the substantia nigra is evident. The Diencephalon (“interbrain”) The diencephalon is the region of the embryonic vertebrate neural tube that gives rise to posterior forebrain structures. In adults, the diencephalon appears at the upper end of the brain stem, situated between the cerebrum and the brain stem. It is home to the limbic system, which is considered the seat of emotion in the human brain. The diencephalon is made up of four distinct components: the thalamus, the sub thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the epithalamus. Thalamus The thalamus is part of the limbic system. It consists of two lobes of grey matter along the bottom of the cerebral cortex. Because nearly all sensory information passes through the thalamus it is considered the sensory “way station” of the brain, passing information on to the cerebral cortex (which is in the forebrain). Lesions of, or stimulation to, the thalamus are associated with changes in emotional reactivity. However, the importance of this structure on the regulation of emotional behavior is not due to the activity of the thalamus itself, but to the connections between the thalamus and other limbic-system structures. Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is a small part of the brain located just below the thalamus. Lesions of the hypothalamus interfere with motivated behaviors like sexuality, combativeness, and hunger. The hypothalamus also plays a role in emotion: parts of the hypothalamus seem to be involved in pleasure and rage, while the central part is linked to aversion, displeasure, and a tendency towards uncontrollable and loud laughing. When external stimuli are presented (for example, a dangerous stimuli), the hypothalamus sends signals to other limbic areas to trigger feeling states in response to the stimuli (in this case, fear). The Limbic System The limbic system combines higher mental functions and primitive emotion into one system. 43 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The limbic system is a complex set of structures found on the central underside of the cerebrum, comprising inner sections of the temporal lobes and the bottom of the frontal lobe. It combines higher mental functions and primitive emotion into a single system often referred to as the emotional nervous system. It is not only responsible for our emotional lives but also our higher mental functions, such as learning and formation of memories. The limbic system is the reason that some physical things such as eating seem so pleasurable to us, and the reason why some medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, are caused by mental stress. There are several important structures within the limbic system: the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus. The limbic system 3.4.: All the components of the limbic system work together to regulate some of the brain’s most important processes. The Amygdala The amygdala is a small almond-shaped structure; there is one located in each of the left and right temporal lobes. Known as the emotional center of the brain, the amygdala is involved in evaluating the emotional valence of situations (e.g., happy, sad, scary). It helps the brain recognize potential threats and helps prepare the body for fight-or-flight reactions by increasing heart and breathing rate. The amygdala is also responsible for learning on the basis of reward or punishment. 44 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The amygdala 3.5.: The figure shows the location of the amygdala from the underside (ventral view) of the human brain, with the front of the brain at the top of the image. Due to its close proximity to the hippocampus, the amygdala is involved in the modulation of memory consolidation, particularly emotionally-laden memories. Emotional arousal following a learning event influences the strength of the subsequent memory of that event, so that greater emotional arousal following a learning event enhances a person’s retention of that memory. In fact, experiments have shown that administering stress hormones to individuals immediately after they learn something enhances their retention when they are tested two weeks later. The Hippocampus The hippocampus is found deep in the temporal lobe, and is shaped like a seahorse. It consists of two horns curving back from the amygdala. Psychologists and neuroscientists dispute the precise role of the hippocampus, but generally agree that it plays an essential role in the formation of new memories about past experiences. Some researchers consider the hippocampus to be responsible for general declarative memory (memories that can be explicitly verbalized, such as memory of facts and episodic memory). Damage to the hippocampus usually results in profound difficulties in forming new memories (anterograde amnesia), and may also affect access to memories formed prior to the damage (retrograde amnesia). Although the retrograde effect normally extends some years prior to the brain damage, in some cases older memories remain intact; this leads to the idea that over time the hippocampus becomes less important in the storage of memory. The Thalamus and Hypothalamus Both the thalamus and hypothalamus are associated with changes in emotional reactivity. The thalamus, which is a sensory “way-station” for the rest of the brain, is primarily important due to its connections with other limbic-system structures. The hypothalamus is a small part of the brain located just below the thalamus on both sides of the third ventricle. Lesions of the hypothalamus interfere with several unconscious functions (such as respiration and 45 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

metabolism) and some so-called motivated behaviors like sexuality, combativeness, and hunger. The lateral parts of the hypothalamus seem to be involved with pleasure and rage, while the medial part is linked to aversion, displeasure, and a tendency for uncontrollable and loud laughter. The Cingulate Gyrus The cingulate gyrus is located in the medial side of the brain next to the corpus callosum. There is still much to be learned about this gyrus, but it is known that its frontal part links smells and sights with pleasant memories of previous emotions. This region also participates in our emotional reaction to pain and in the regulation of aggressive behavior. The Basal Ganglia The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei lying deep in the subcortical white matter of the frontal lobes that organizes motor behavior. The caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus are major components of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia appears to serve as a gating mechanism for physical movements, inhibiting potential movements until they are fully appropriate for the circumstances in which they are to be executed. The basal ganglia are also involved with:  rule-based habit learning (e.g., initiating, stopping, monitoring, temporal sequencing, and maintaining the appropriate movement);  inhibiting undesired movements and permitting desired ones;  choosing from potential actions;  motor planning;  sequencing;  predictive control;  working memory;  Attention. 3.6. BRAIN LATERALIZATION The brain is divided into two halves, called hemispheres. There is evidence that each brain hemisphere has its own distinct functions, a phenomenon referred to as lateralization. The left hemisphere appears to dominate the functions of speech, language processing and comprehension, and logical reasoning, while the right is more dominant in spatial tasks like vision-independent object recognition (such as identifying an object by touch or another nonvisual sense). However, it is easy to exaggerate the differences between the functions of the left and right hemispheres; both hemispheres are involved with most processes. Additionally, neuroplasticity (the ability of a brain to adapt to experience) enables the brain to compensate for damage to one hemisphere by taking on extra functions in the other half, especially in young brains. 46 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Corpus Callosum The two hemispheres communicate with one another through the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is a wide, flat bundle of neural fibers beneath the cortex that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres and facilitates inter-hemispheric communication. The corpus callosum is sometimes implicated in the cause of seizures; patients with epilepsy sometimes undergo a corpus callosotomy, or the removal of the corpus callosum. The Lobes of the Brain The brain is separated into four lobes: the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes. Fig 3.6.: Lobes of the brain Lobes of the brain: The brain is divided into four lobes, each of which is associated with different types of mental processes. Clockwise from left: The frontal lobe is in blue at the front, the parietal lobe in yellow at the top, the occipital lobe in red at the back, and the temporal lobe in green on the bottom. The Frontal Lobe The frontal lobe is associated with executive functions and motor performance. Executive functions are some of the highest-order cognitive processes that humans have. Examples include:  Planning and engaging in goal-directed behavior;  Recognizing future consequences of current actions;  Choosing between good and bad actions;  Overriding and suppressing socially unacceptable responses;  Determining similarities and differences between objects or situations. 47 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The frontal lobe is considered to be the moral center of the brain because it is responsible for advanced decision-making processes. It also plays an important role in retaining emotional memories derived from the limbic system, and modifying those emotions to fit socially accepted norms. The Temporal Lobe The temporal lobe is associated with the retention of short- and long-term memories. It processes sensory input including auditory information, language comprehension, and naming. It also creates emotional responses and controls biological drives such as aggression and sexuality. The temporal lobe contains the hippocampus, which is the memory center of the brain. The hippocampus plays a key role in the formation of emotion-laden, long-term memories based on emotional input from the amygdala. The left temporal lobe holds the primary auditory cortex, which is important for processing the semantics of speech. One specific portion of the temporal lobe, Wernicke’s area, plays a key role in speech comprehension. Another portion, Broca’s area, underlies the ability to produce (rather than understand) speech. Patients with damage to Wernicke’s area can speak clearly but the words make no sense, while patients with damage to Broca’s area will fail to form words properly and speech will be halting and slurred. These disorders are known as Wernicke’s and Broca’s aphasia respectively; an aphasia is an inability to speak. Fig 3.7.: Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas: The locations of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in the brain. The Broca’s area is at the back of the frontal lobe, and the Wernicke’s area is roughly where the temporal lobe and parietal lobe meet. The Occipital Lobe The occipital lobe contains most of the visual cortex and is the visual processing center of the brain. Cells on the posterior side of the occipital lobe are arranged as a spatial map of the retinal field. The visual cortex receives raw sensory information through sensors in the retina of the eyes, which is then conveyed through the optic tracts to the visual cortex. Other areas 48 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

of the occipital lobe are specialized for different visual tasks, such as visuospatial processing, color discrimination, and motion perception. Damage to the primary visual cortex (located on the surface of the posterior occipital lobe) can cause blindness, due to the holes in the visual map on the surface of the cortex caused by the lesions. The Parietal Lobe The parietal lobe is associated with sensory skills. It integrates different types of sensory information and is particularly useful in spatial processing and navigation. The parietal lobe plays an important role in integrating sensory information from various parts of the body, understanding numbers and their relations, and manipulating objects. It’s also processes information related to the sense of touch. The parietal lobe is comprised of the somatosensory cortex and part of the visual system. The somatosensory cortex consists of a “map” of the body that processes sensory information from specific areas of the body. Several portions of the parietal lobe are important to language and visuospatial processing; the left parietal lobe is involved in symbolic functions in language and mathematics, while the right parietal lobe is specialized to process images and interpretation of maps (i.e., spatial relationships). 3.7. THE SPINAL CORD It can be said that the spinal cord is what connects the brain to the outside world. Because of it, the brain can act. The spinal cord is like a relay station, but a very smart one. It not only routes messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes. The top of the spinal cord merges with the brain stem, where the basic processes of life are controlled, such as breathing and digestion. In the opposite direction, the spinal cord ends just below the ribs—contrary to what we might expect, it does not extend all the way to the base of the spine. The spinal cord is functionally organized in 30 segments, corresponding with the vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of the body through the peripheral nervous system. Nerves branch out from the spine at each vertebra. Sensory nerves bring messages in; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs. Messages travel to and from the brain through every segment. Some sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal cord, without any input from the brain. Withdrawal from heat and knee jerk are two examples. When a sensory message meets certain parameters, the spinal cord initiates an automatic reflex. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which initiates a motor command. Seconds are saved, because messages don’t have to go the brain, be processed, and get sent back. In matters of survival, the spinal reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast. 49 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The spinal cord is protected by bony vertebrae and cushioned in cerebrospinal fluid, but injuries still occur. When the spinal cord is damaged in a particular segment, all lower segments are cut off from the brain, causing paralysis. Therefore, the lower on the spine damage is, the fewer functions an injured individual loses. The spinal cord is a tail-like structure embedded in the vertebral canal of the spine. The adult spinal cord is about 40 cm long and weighs approximately 30 g. The spinal cord is attached to the underside of the medulla oblongata, and is organized to serve four distinct tasks: 1. To Convey (Mainly Sensory) Information To The Brain; 2. To Carry Information Generated In The Brain To Peripheral Targets Like Skeletal Muscles; 3. To Control Nearby Organs Via The Autonomic Nervous System; 4. To Enable Sensorimotor Functions To Control Posture And Other Fundamental Movements. The spinal cord connects the brain and brain stem to all of the major nerves in the body. Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord and control the functions of the rest of the body. Impulses are sent from receptors through the spinal cord to the brain, where they are processed and synthesized into instructions for the rest of the body. This data is then sent back through the spinal cord to muscles and glands for motor output. 3.8. SUMMARY  The brain’s lower-level structures are the oldest in the brain, and are more geared towards basic bodily processes than the higher-level structures. Except for the spinal cord, the brain’s lower-level structures are largely located within the hindbrain, diencephalon (or interbrain), and midbrain.  The hindbrain consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum, which control respiration and movement among other functions. The midbrain is interposed between the hindbrain and the forebrain. Its ventral areas are dedicated to motor function while the dorsal regions are involved in sensory information circuits.  The thalamus and hypothalamus are located within the diencephalon (or “interbrain”), and are part of the limbic system. They regulate emotions and motivated behaviours like sexuality and hunger. The spinal cord is a tail-like structure embedded in the vertebral canal of the spine, and is involved in transporting sensorimotor information and controlling nearby organs.  The cerebral cortex, the largest part of the brain, is the ultimate control and information- processing centre in the brain. The cerebral cortex is responsible for many higher-order brain functions such as sensation, perception, memory, association, thought, and 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)