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Cfl4EBIG4Rfl INSTITUTE OF UflIVERSITT DISTANCE & ONLINE LEARNING CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Discover. Learn. Empower. (Psycho\\ogy) Advanced Counseling Skills II MAP610 www.cuchd.in

MASTER OF PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER-II ADVANCED COUNSELLING SKILLS – II MAP610

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UNIT-1 CONTENT UNIT-2 UNIT-3 PSYCHOANALYTICAL APPROACH 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 The Origins of Psychoanalytic Approach 4 Assumptions of Psychoanalytic Approach 5 Key Concepts 6 The Counselling Process 7 Application of Counselling Techniques 8 Summary 9 Key Words/ Abbreviations 10 Learning Activity 11 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 12 Suggested Readings ADLERIAN APPROACH 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Key Concepts 4 The Therapeutic Process 5 Application of Counselling Techniques 6 Summary 7 Key Words/ Abbreviations 8 Learning Activity 9 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 10 Suggested Readings PERSON CENTERED APPROACH 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Key Concepts

UNIT-4 4 Six Factors Necessary for Growth in Rogerian Theory UNIT-5 5 The Therapeutic Process 6 Application of Counselling Techniques 7 Summary 8 Key Words/ Abbreviations 9 Learning Activity 10 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 11 Suggested Readings EXISTENTIAL APPROACH 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Key Concepts 4 The Therapeutic Process 5 Application of Counselling Techniques 6 Summary 7 Key Words/ Abbreviations 8 Learning Activity 9 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 10 Suggested Readings GESTALT APPROACH 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Key Concepts 4 Some Principles of Gestalt Therapy Theory 5 The Therapeutic Process 6 Application of Counselling Techniques 7 Summary 8 Key Words/ Abbreviations 9 Learning Activity 10 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 11 Suggested Readings

UNIT-6 BEHAVIOURAL THERAPIES UNIT-7 1 Learning Objectives UNIT-8 2 Introductions 3 Historical Backgrounds 4 Four Areas of Development 5 Key Concepts 6 The Therapeutic Process 7 Application of Counselling Techniques 8 Summary 9 Key Words/ Abbreviations 10 Learning Activity 11 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 12 Suggested Readings RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy 4 Key Concepts 5 The Therapeutic Process 6 Application of Counselling Techniques 7 Summary 8 Key Words/ Abbreviations 9 Learning Activity 10 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 11 Suggested Readings COGNITIVE APPROACH 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Basic Principles of Cognitive Therapy 4 Applications of Cognitive Therapy 5 Summary

UNIT-9 6 Key Words/ Abbreviations UNIT-10 7 Learning Activity 8 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 9 Suggested Readings COUNSELEE APPRAISAL 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Autobiography 4 Case Study 5 Questionnaire 6 Observation 7 Interview 8 Summary 9 Key Words/ Abbreviations 10 Learning Activity 11 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 12 Suggested Readings PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Definition of Psychological Tests 4 Application of Psychological Tests 5 Commonly Used Intelligence Tests 6 Commonly Used Personality Tests 7 Commonly Used Aptitude Tests 8 Commonly Used Interest Tests 9 Neuro-Psychological Tests 10 Summary 11 Key Words/ Abbreviations 12 Learning Activity 13 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive)

14 Suggested Readings UNIT 1 PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH STRUCTURE 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 The Origins of Psychoanalytic Approach 4 Assumptions of Psychoanalytic Approach 5 Key Concepts 6 The Counselling Process 7 Application of Counselling Techniques 8 Summary 9 Key Words/ Abbreviations 10 Learning Activity 11 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 12 Suggested Readings LEARNING OBJECTIVES This unit focus on the psycho-analytic approach to counselling. In this chapter, you will study, • Key concepts in psycho-analytic approach • Assumptions

• The counselling process • Application of techniques INTRODUCTION Psychoanalytic therapy is one of the most well-known treatment modalities, but it is also frequently misunderstood by mental health consumers. The goal of this therapy is to help patients better understand the unconscious forces that can play a role in their current behaviours, thoughts, and emotions. This type of therapy is based upon the theories of Sigmund Freud, who founded the school of thought known as psychoanalysis. Freud described the unconscious as the reservoir of desires, thoughts, and memories that are below the surface of conscious awareness. He believed that these unconscious influences could often lead to psychological distress and disturbances. The psychodynamic approach represents one of the major traditions within contemporary counselling and psychotherapy. Psychodynamic counselling places great emphasis on the counsellor’s ability to use what happens in the immediate, unfolding relationship between client and counsellor to explore the types of feeling and relationship dilemma that have caused difficulties for the client in his or her everyday life. The aim of psychodynamic counselling is to help clients to achieve insight and understanding around the reasons for their problems, and translate this insight into a mature capacity to cope with current and future difficulties. To enable this process to take place, the counsellor needs to be able to offer the client an environment that is sufficiently secure and consistent to permit safe expression of painful or shameful fantasies, impulses and memories. Although psychodynamic counselling has its origins in the ideas of Sigmund Freud, current theory and practice have gone far beyond Freud’s initial formulation. While Freud was convinced that repressed sexual wishes and memories lay at the root of the patient’s problems, later generations of practitioners and theorists have developed a more social, relationship- oriented approach. Psychodynamic methods have been applied to understanding and treating a wide range of problems, and have been adapted to a variety of ways of working, including brief therapy, group therapy and marital/couples counseling.

THE ORIGINS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is widely regarded as being not only one of the founders of modern psychology, but also a key influence on Western society in the twentieth century. As a boy Freud had ambitions to be a famous scientist, and he originally trained in medicine, becoming in the 1880s one of the first medical researchers to investigate the properties of the newly discovered coca leaf (cocaine). However, the anti-Semitism in Austrian middle-class society at that time meant that he was unable to continue his career in the University of Vienna, and he was forced to enter private practice in the field that would now be known as psychiatry. Freud spent a year in Paris studying with the most eminent psychiatrist of the time, Charcot, who taught him the technique of hypnosis. Returning to Vienna, Freud began seeing patients who were emotionally disturbed, many of them suffering from what was known as ‘hysteria’. He found that hypnosis was not particularly effective for him as a treatment technique, and gradually evolved his own method, called ‘free association’, which consisted of getting the patient to lie in a relaxed position (usually on a couch) and to ‘say whatever comes to mind’. The stream-of-consciousness material that emerged from this procedure often included strong emotions, deeply buried memories and childhood sexual experiences, and the opportunity to share these feelings and memories appeared to be helpful for patients. One of them, Anna O., labelled this method ‘the talking cure’. Further information about the development of Freud’s ideas and the influence on his thought of his own early family life, his Jewishness, his medical training and the general cultural setting of late nineteenth-century Vienna, can be found in a number of books and articles. Freud’s method of treatment is called psychoanalysis. From the time his theory and method became known and used by others (starting from about 1900) his ideas have been continually modified and developed by other writers on and practitioners of psychoanalysis. As a result, there are now many counsellors and psychotherapists who would see themselves as working within the broad tradition initiated by Freud, but who would call themselves psychodynamic in orientation rather than psychoanalytic. Counsellors working in a psychodynamic way with clients all tend to make similar kinds of assumption about the nature of the client’s problems, and the manner in which these problems can best be worked on.

ASSUMPTIONS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH The main distinctive features of the psychodynamic approach are: 1 An assumption that the client’s difficulties have their ultimate origins in childhood experiences. 2 An assumption that the client may not be consciously aware of the true motives or impulses behind his or her actions. 3 The use in counselling and therapy of interpretation of the transference relationship. KEY CONCEPTS Some major concepts of psychoanalytic theory include the dynamics of the unconscious and its influence on behaviour, the role of anxiety, an understanding of transference and countertransference, and the development of personality at various stages in the life cycle. A. View of Human Nature The Freudian view of human nature is basically deterministic. According to Freud, our behaviour is determined by irrational forces, unconscious motivations, and biological and instinctual drives as these evolve through key psychosexual stages in the first 6 years of life. Instincts are central to the Freudian approach. Although he originally used the term libido to refer to sexual energy, he later broadened it to include the energy of all the life instincts. These instincts serve the purpose of the survival of the individual and the human race; they are oriented toward growth, development, and creativity. Libido, then, should be understood as a source of motivation that encompasses sexual energy but goes beyond it. Freud includes all pleasurable acts in his concept of the life instincts; he sees the goal of much of life as gaining pleasure and avoiding pain. Freud also postulates death instincts, which account for the aggressive drive. At times, people manifest through their behaviour an unconscious wish to die or to hurt themselves or others. Managing this aggressive drive is a major challenge to the human race. In Freud’s view, both sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act as they do.

B. Structure of Personality According to the psychoanalytic view, the personality consists of three systems: the id, the ego, and the superego. These are names for psychological structures and should not be thought of as manikins that separately operate the personality; one’s personality functions as a whole rather than as three discrete segments. The id is the biological component, the ego is the psychological component, and the superego is the social component. From the orthodox Freudian perspective, humans are viewed as energy systems. The dynamics of personality consist of the ways in which psychic energy is distributed to the id, ego, and superego. Because the amount of energy is limited, one system gains control over the available energy at the expense of the other two systems. Behaviour is determined by this psychic energy. The Id The id is the original system of personality; at birth a person is all id. The id is the primary source of psychic energy and the seat of the instincts. It lacks organization and is blind, demanding, and insistent. A cauldron of seething excitement, the id cannot tolerate tension, and it functions to discharge tension immediately. Ruled by the pleasure principle, which is aimed at reducing tension, avoiding pain, and gaining pleasure, the id is illogical, amoral, and driven to satisfy instinctual needs. The id never matures, remaining the spoiled brat of personality. It does not think but only wishes or acts. The id is largely unconscious, or out of awareness. The Ego The ego has contact with the external world of reality. It is the “executive” that governs, controls, and regulates the personality. As a “traffic cop,” it mediates between the instincts and the surrounding environment. The ego controls consciousness and exercises censorship. Ruled by the reality principle, the ego does realistic and logical thinking and formulates plans of action for satisfying needs. What is the relation of the ego to the id? The ego, as the seat of intelligence and rationality, checks and controls the blind impulses of the id. Whereas the id knows only subjective reality, the ego distinguishes between mental images and things in the external world.

The Superego The superego is the judicial branch of personality. It includes a person’s moral code, the main concern being whether an action is good or bad, right or wrong. It represents the ideal rather than the real and strives not for pleasure but for perfection. The superego represents the traditional values and ideals of society as they are handed down from parents to children. It functions to inhibit the id impulses, to persuade the ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones, and to strive for perfection. The superego, then, as the internalization of the standards of parents and society, is related to psychological rewards and punishments. The rewards are feelings of pride and self-love; the punishments are feelings of guilt and inferiority. C. Consciousness and the Unconscious Perhaps Freud’s greatest contributions are his concepts of the unconscious and of the levels of consciousness, which are the keys to understanding behaviour and the problems of personality. The unconscious cannot be studied directly but is inferred from u. Clinical evidence for postulating the unconscious includes the following: (1) Dreams, which are symbolic representations of unconscious needs, wishes, and conflicts; (2) Slips of the tongue and forgetting, for example, a familiar name; (3) Posthypnotic suggestions; (4) Material derived from free-association techniques; (5) Material derived from projective techniques; and (6) The symbolic content of psychotic symptoms. For Freud, consciousness is a thin slice of the total mind. Like the greater part of the iceberg that lies below the surface of the water, the larger part of the mind exists below the surface of awareness. The unconscious stores all experiences, memories, and repressed material. Needs and motivations that are inaccessible—that is, out of awareness—are also outside the sphere of conscious control. Most psychological functioning exists in the out-of-awareness realm. The aim of psychoanalytic counselling, therefore, is to make the unconscious motives conscious, for only

then can an individual exercise choice. Understanding the role of the unconscious is central to grasping the essence of the psychoanalytic model of behaviour. Unconscious processes are at the root of all forms of neurotic symptoms and behaviours. From this perspective, a “cure” is based on uncovering the meaning of symptoms, the causes of behaviour, and the repressed materials that interfere with healthy functioning. It is to be noted, however, that intellectual insight alone does not resolve the symptom. D. Anxiety Also essential to the psychoanalytic approach is its concept of anxiety. Anxiety is a feeling of dread that results from repressed feelings, memories, desires, and experience that emerge to the surface of awareness. It can be considered as a state of tension that motivates us to do something. It develops out of a conflict among the id, ego, and superego over control of the available psychic energy. The function of anxiety is to warn of impending danger. There are three kinds of anxiety: reality, neurotic, and moral. Reality anxiety is the fear of danger from the external world, and the level of such anxiety is proportionate to the degree of real threat. Neurotic and moral anxieties are evoked by threats to the “balance of power” within the person. E. Ego-Defense Mechanisms Ego-defence mechanisms help the individual cope with anxiety and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed. Rather than being pathological, ego defences are normal behaviours that can have adaptive value provided they do not become a style of life that enables the individual to avoid facing reality. The defences employed depend on the individual’s level of development and degree of anxiety. Defence mechanisms have two characteristics in common: (1) They either deny or distort reality, and (2) They operate on an unconscious level. F. Development of Personality

A significant contribution of the psychoanalytic model is delineation of the stages of psychosexual and psychosocial stages of development from birth through adulthood. The psychosexual stages refer to the Freudian chronological phases of development, beginning in infancy. The psychosocial stages refer to Erickson’s basic psychological and social tasks to be mastered from infancy through old age. This stage perspective provides the counsellor with the conceptual tools for understanding key developmental tasks characteristic of the various stages of life. Freud postulated three early stages of development that often bring people to counselling when not appropriately resolved. First is the oral stage that deals with the inability to trust one-self and others resulting in the fear of loving and forming close relationships and low self-esteem. Next, is the anal stage that deals with the inability to recognize and express anger, leading to the denial of one’s own power as a person and the lack of a sense of autonomy. Third, is the phallic stage that deals with the inability to fully accept one’s sexuality and sexual feelings, and also to difficulty in accepting oneself as a man or woman. According to the Freudian psychoanalytic view, these three areas of personal and social development—love and trust, dealing with negative feelings, and developing a positive acceptance of sexuality—are all grounded in the first 6 years of life. This period is the foundation on which later personality development is built. When a child’s needs are not adequately met during these stages of development, an individual may become fixated at that stage and behave in psychologically immature ways later on in life. Building on many of Freud’s basic ideas, Erikson broadened the developmental perspective by including psychosocial trends. In his model, each of the eight stages of human development is characterized by a crisis, or turning point. We can either master the developmental task or fail to resolve the core struggle. Erik Erikson (1963) built on Freud’s ideas and extended his theory by stressing the psychosocial aspects of development beyond early childhood. His theory of development holds that psychosexual growth and psychosocial growth take place together, and that at each stage of life we face the task of establishing equilibrium between ourselves and our social world. He describes development in terms of the entire life span, divided by specific crises to be resolved.

According to Erikson, a crisis is equivalent to a turning point in life when we have the potential to move forward or to regress. At these turning points, we can either resolve our conflicts or fail to master the developmental task. To a large extent, our life is the result of the choices we make at each of these stages. Implications on Counselling By taking a combined psychosexual and psychosocial perspective, counsellors have a helpful conceptual framework for understanding developmental issues as they appear in therapy. The key needs and developmental tasks, along with the challenges inherent at each stage of life, provide a model for understanding some of the core conflicts clients explore in their therapy sessions. Questions such as these can give direction to the therapeutic process: • What are some major developmental tasks at each stage in life, and how are these tasks related to counselling? • What themes give continuity to this individual’s life? • What are some universal concerns of people at various points in life? How can people be challenged to make life-affirming choices at these points? • What is the relationship between an individual’s current problems and significant events from earlier years? • What choices were made at critical periods, and how did the person deal with these various crises? • What are the sociocultural factors influencing development that needs to be understood if therapy is to be comprehensive? Psychosocial theory gives special weight to childhood and adolescent factors that are significant in later stages of development while recognizing that the later stages also have their significant crises. Themes and threads can be found running throughout clients’ lives. THE COUNSELLING PROCESS A. Goals of Counselling

Two goals of Freudian psychoanalytic counselling are to make the unconscious conscious and to strengthen the ego so that behaviour is based more on reality and less on instinctual cravings or irrational guilt. Successful analysis is believed to result in significant modification of the individual’s personality and character structure. Therapeutic methods are used to bring out unconscious material. Then childhood experiences are reconstructed, discussed, interpreted, and analyzed. It is clear that the process is not limited to solving problems and learning new behaviours. Rather, there is a deeper probing into the past to develop the level of self- understanding that is assumed to be necessary for a change in character. Psychoanalytic counselling is oriented toward achieving insight, but not just an intellectual understanding; it is essential that the feelings and memories associated with this self-understanding be experienced. B. Counsellor’s Role One of the central functions of analysis is to help clients acquire the freedom to love, work, and play. Other functions include assisting clients in achieving self-awareness, honesty, and more effective personal relationships; in dealing with anxiety in a realistic way; and in gaining control over impulsive and irrational behaviour. The analyst must first establish a working relationship with the client and then do a lot of listening and interpreting. Particular attention is given to the client’s resistances. The analyst listens, learns, and decides when to make appropriate interpretations. A major function of interpretation is to accelerate the process of uncovering unconscious material. The analyst listens for gaps and inconsistencies in the client’s story, infers the meaning of reported dreams and free associations, and remains sensitive to clues concerning the client’s feelings toward the analyst. C. Client’s Experience in Counselling Clients interested in traditional (or classical) psychoanalysis must be willing to commit themselves to an intensive and long-term counselling process. After some face-to-face sessions with the analyst, clients lie on a couch and engage in free association; that is, they say whatever comes to mind without self-censorship. This process of free association is known as the “fundamental rule.” Clients report their feelings, experiences, associations, memories, and fantasies to the analyst. Lying on the couch encourages deep, uncensored reflections and reduces the stimuli that might interfere with getting in touch with internal conflicts and productions. It

also reduces clients’ ability to “read” their analyst’s face for reactions and, hence, fosters the projections characteristic of transference. D. Relationship Between Counsellor and Client There are some differences between how the therapeutic relationship is conceptualized by classical analysis and current relational analysis. The classical analyst stands outside the relationship, comments on it, and offers insight producing interpretations. Contemporary psychoanalytic theory and practice highlights the importance of the therapeutic relationship as a therapeutic factor in bringing about change. Transference is the client’s unconscious shifting to the analyst of feelings and fantasies that are reactions to significant others in the client’s past. Transference involves the unconscious repetition of the past in the present. “It reflects the deep patterning of old experiences in relationships as they emerge in current life” APPLICATION OF COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES There are a number of counselling techniques or strategies used in psychoanalytic or psychodynamic therapy: A. Systematic use of the relationship between the counsellor and client Psychoanalytic counsellors and therapists tend to behave towards their clients in a neutral manner. It is unusual for psychoanalytically trained counsellors to share much of their own feelings or own lives with their clients. The reason for this is that the counsellor is attempting to present himself or herself as a ‘blank screen’ on to which the client may project his or her fantasies or deeply held assumptions about close relationships. The therapist expects that as therapy continues over weeks or months, the feelings clients hold towards him or her will be similar to the feelings they had towards significant, authority figures in their own past. By being neutral and detached, the therapist ensures that the feelings the client has towards him or her are not caused by anything the therapist has done, but are a result of the client projecting an image of his or her mother, father, and so on to the therapist. This process is called ‘transference’ and is a powerful tool in psychoanalytic therapy, since it allows the therapist to

observe the early childhood relationships of the client as these relationships are re-enacted in the consulting room. The aim would be to help the client to become aware of these projections, first in the relationship with the therapist but then in relationships with other people, such as his or her spouse, boss, friends, and so on. B. Identifying and analyzing resistances and defenses. Transference manifests itself in the therapeutic process when clients’ earlier relationships contribute to their distorting the present with the therapist. The transference situation is considered valuable because its manifestations provide clients with the opportunity to re- experience a variety of feelings that would otherwise be inaccessible. Through the relationship with the therapist, clients express feelings, beliefs, and desires that they have buried in their unconscious. As the client talks about his or her problem, the therapist may notice that he or she is avoiding, distorting or defending against certain feelings or insights. Freud saw it as important to understand the source of such resistance, and would draw the patient’s attention to it if it happened persistently. For example, a student seeing a counsellor for help with study problems, who then persistently blames tutors for his difficulties, is probably avoiding his own feelings of inadequacy, or dependency, by employing the defense mechanism of projection (i.e. attributing to others characteristics you cannot accept in yourself). Through appropriate interpretations and working through of these current expressions of early feelings, clients are able to become aware of and to gradually change some of their long-standing patterns of behaviour. Analytically oriented therapists consider the process of exploring and interpreting transference feelings as the core of the therapeutic process because it is aimed at achieving increased awareness and personality change. C. Free association or ‘saying whatever comes to mind’. Free association is a central technique in psychoanalytic therapy, and it plays a key role in the process of maintaining the analytic framework. In free association, clients are encouraged to say whatever comes to mind, regardless of how painful, silly, trivial, illogical, or irrelevant it may

be. In essence, clients flow with any feelings or thoughts by reporting them immediately without censorship. As the analytic work progresses, most clients will occasionally depart from this basic rule, and these resistances will be interpreted by the therapist when it is timely to do so. Free association is one of the basic tools used to open the doors to unconscious wishes, fantasies, conflicts, and motivations. This technique often leads to some recollection of past experiences and, at times, a release of intense feelings (catharsis) that have been blocked. This release is not seen as crucial in itself, however. During the free-association process, the therapist’s task is to identify the repressed material that is locked in the unconscious. The sequence of associations guides the therapist in understanding the connections clients make among events. Blockings or disruptions in associations serve as cues to anxiety-arousing material. The therapist interprets the material to clients, guiding them toward increased insight into the underlying dynamics. The intention is to help the person to talk about himself or herself in a fashion that is less likely to be influenced by defense mechanisms. It is as though in free association the person’s ‘truth’ can slip out. D. Working on dreams and fantasies. Dream analysis is an important procedure for uncovering unconscious material and giving the client insight into some areas of unresolved problems. During sleep, defenses are lowered and repressed feelings surface. Freud sees dreams as the “royal road to the unconscious,” for in them one’s unconscious wishes, needs, and fears are expressed. Some motivations are so unacceptable to the person that they are expressed in disguised or symbolic form rather than being revealed directly. Dreams have two levels of content: latent content and manifest content. Latent content consists of hidden, symbolic, and unconscious motives, wishes, and fears. Because they are so painful and threatening, the unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses that make up latent content are transformed into the more acceptable manifest content, which is the dream as it appears to the dreamer. The process by which the latent content of a dream is transformed into the less threatening manifest content is called dream work. The therapist’s task is to uncover disguised meanings by studying the symbols in the manifest content of the dream.

Freud saw the dream as ‘the royal road to the unconscious’, and encouraged his patients to tell him about their dreams. Again the purpose is to examine material that comes from a deeper, less defended, level of the individual’s personality. It is assumed that events in dreams symbolically represent people, impulses or situations in the dreamer’s waking life. Other products of the imagination – for example, waking dreams, fantasies and images – can be used in the same way as night dreams in analysis. E. Interpretation. Interpretation consists of the analyst’s pointing out, explaining, and even teaching the client the meanings of behaviour that is manifested in dreams, free association, resistances, and the therapeutic relationship itself. The functions of interpretations are to enable the ego to assimilate new material and to speed up the process of uncovering further unconscious material. Interpretation is grounded in the therapist’s assessment of the client’s personality and of the factors in the client’s past that contributed to his or her psychoanalytic counsellor or therapist will use the processes described above – transference, dreams, free association, and so on – to generate material for interpretation. Through interpreting the meaning of dreams, memories and transference, the therapist is attempting to help clients to understand the origins of their problems, and thereby gain more control over them and more freedom to behave differently. However, effective interpretation is a difficult skill. Some of the issues that the therapist or counsellor must bear in mind when making an interpretation are: • Is the timing right? Is the client ready to take this idea on board? • Is the interpretation correct? Has enough evidence been gathered? • Can the interpretation be phrased in such a way that the client will understand it? Interpretation is grounded in the therapist’s assessment of the client’s personality and of the factors in the client’s past that contributed to his or her difficulties. Under contemporary definitions, interpretation includes identifying, clarifying, and translating the client’s material. F. Other miscellaneous techniques.

When working with children as clients, it is unrealistic to expect them to be able to put their inner conflicts into words. As a result, most child analysts use toys and play to allow the child to externalize his or her fears and worries. Some therapists working with adults also find it helpful to use expressive techniques, such as art, sculpture and poetry. The use of projective techniques, such as the Rorschach Inkblot Test or the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), can also serve a similar function. Finally, some psychodynamic therapists may encourage their clients to write diaries or autobiographies as a means of exploring their past or present circumstances. SUMMARY Psychoanalysis has provided a set of concepts and methods that have found application in a wide variety of contexts. Psychodynamic ideas have proved invaluable not only in individual therapy and counselling, but also in group work, couples counselling and the analysis of organizations. The ideas of Freud have been robust and resilient enough to withstand critique and reformulation from a number of sources. Psychodynamic perspectives have made a significant contribution to research into the process of counselling and therapy. Throughout this book there are many examples of the ways psychodynamic ideas have been used in different contexts and settings. All counsellors and therapists, even those who espouse different theoretical models, have been influenced by psychodynamic thinking and have had to make up their minds whether to accept or reject the Freudian image of the person. There are clearly innumerable similarities and differences between psychodynamic and other approaches. The most essential difference, however, lies in the density of psychodynamic theory, particularly in the area of the understanding of development in childhood. Cognitive–behavioural theory is largely silent on child development, and the person-centred approach, in its use of the concept of ‘conditions of worth’, is little more than silent. Psychodynamic counsellors, by contrast, have at their disposal a highly sophisticated set of concepts with which to make sense of developmental issues. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS • Defense mechanism- In psychoanalysis, any of a number of strategies the ego employs to prevent the energy of an unfulfilled desire from disrupting its plans. It usually involves

repression of the desire and a redirection of the energy. In reaction formation the energy is directed into proclaiming and acting as if one’s self wish were the opposite of the desire. In sublimation the energy is directed into work or other activity having no obvious resemblance to the original desire or its object. In repression the desire and its object are simply pushed into the unconscious and expression of the energy is delayed. In displacement the energy is redirected to an object acceptable to the egos plans. • Psychodynamic approach- The psychological and psychiatric approach that views human behaviour from the standpoint of unconscious motives that mold the personality, influence attitudes, and produce emotional disorder. The emphasis is on tracing behaviour to its origins, as contrasted with the nosological approach, which concentrates on overt signs and symptoms of disorder. See dynamic psychology; psychodynamic psychotherapy. • Psychodynamic theory- A constellation of theories of human functioning that are based on the interplay of drives and other forces within the person, especially (and originating in) the psychoanalytic theories developed by Sigmund Freud and his colleagues and successors, such as Anna Freud, Carl Jung, and Melanie Klein. Later psychodynamic theories, while retaining concepts of the interworking of drives and motives to some degree, emphasize the process of change and incorporate interpersonal and transactional perspectives of personality development. See psychodynamic approach; psychodynamics. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Explain in detail, the contribution of Freud to explaining of personality structure. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Question 1. What is psycho-analytical approach to counselling? 2. What are the three levels of consciousness?

3. What are the components of personality? 4. Explain the process of psycho-analytical counselling? 5. Write a note on application of psycho-analytical techniques to counselling? B. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 1. Who is recognised as the father of psychoanalysis? (A) Sigmund Freud (B) Tolman (C) Alfred Adler (D) William James 2. The goal of psycho-analytical therapy is (A) Self- actualization (B) Self-regulation (C) Uncovering hidden conflicts (D) All of these 3. Which of the following is the correct order of emergence of the Psycho-social strengths? (A) Love, Fidelity, Wisdom, Care (B) Fidelity, Care, Wisdom, Love (C) Fidelity, Love, Care, Wisdom (D) Care, Wisdom, Fidelity, Care

4. Which of the following sequence is correct? (A) Anal, Oral, Phallic, Latency, Genital (B) Oral, Anal, Phallic, Genital, Latency (C) Latency, Oral, Anal, Phallic, Genital (D) Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital 5. According to Freud, the id is to the principle as the ego is to the principle. (A) Aggressive, Sexual (B) Sexual, Aggressive (C) Pleasure, Reality (D) Reality, Pleasure Answer: 1. (A) 2 (C) 3 (B) 4 (D) 5 (C) SUGGESTED READINGS • Introduction to Clinical Mental Health Counselling: Contemporary Issues by Joshua C. Watson, Michael K. Schmitt

• Counselling: A Comprehensive Profession by Samuel T. Gladding and Promila Batra • Handbook of Counselling Psychology edited by Steven D. Brown, Robert W. Lent • Theories and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy by Gerald Coorey • An Introduction to Counselling by John McLeod

UNIT 2 ADLERIAN APPROACH STRUCTURE: 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Key Concepts 4 The Therapeutic Process 5 Application of Counselling Techniques 6 Summary 7 Key Words/ Abbreviations 8 Learning Activity 9 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 10 Suggested Readings LEARNING OBJECTIVES This unit focus on the Adlerian approach to counselling. In this chapter, you will study, • Key concepts in Adlerian approach • View of Human Nature • The counselling techniques • Therapeutic Process INTRODUCTION Along with Freud and Jung, Alfred Adler was a major contributor to the initial development of the psychodynamic approach to therapy. After 8 to 10 years of collaboration, Freud and Adler parted company, with Freud taking the position that Adler was a heretic who had deserted him. Adler resigned as president of Individual Psychology in 1912. Freud then asserted that it was not possible to support Adlerian concepts and still remain in good standing as a psychoanalyst.

Later, a number of other psychoanalysts deviated from Freud’s orthodox position. These Freudian revisionists, who included Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, and Harry Stack Sullivan, agreed that social and cultural factors were of great significance in shaping personality. Even though these three therapists are typically called neo-Freudians, it would be more appropriate, as Heinz Ansbacher (1979) has suggested, to refer to them as neo-Adlerian, because they moved away from Freud’s biological and deterministic point of view and toward Adler’s social- psychological and teleological (or goal oriented) view of human nature. Adler stresses the unity of personality, contending that people can only be understood as integrated and complete beings. This view also espouses the purposeful nature of behaviour, emphasizing that where we are striving to go is more important than where we have come from. Adler saw humans as both the creators and the creations of their own lives; that is, people develop a unique style of living that is both a movement toward and an expression of their selected goals. In this sense, we create ourselves rather than merely being shaped by our childhood experiences. After Adler’s death in 1937, Rudolf Dreikurs was the most significant figure in bringing Adlerian psychology to the United States, especially as its principles applied to education, individual and group therapy, and family counselling. Dreikurs is credited with giving impetus to the idea of child guidance centres and to training professionals to work with a wide range of clients. KEY CONCEPTS View of Human Nature Adler abandoned Freud’s basic theories because he believed Freud was excessively narrow in his emphasis on biological and instinctual determination. Adler believed that the individual begins to form an approach to life somewhere in the first 6 years of living. His focus was on how the person’s perception of the past and his or her interpretation of early events has a continuing influence. On many theoretical grounds, Adler was in opposition to Freud. According to Adler, for example, humans are motivated primarily by social relatedness rather than by sexual urges; behaviour is purposeful and goal-directed; and consciousness, more than

unconsciousness, is the focus of therapy. Unlike Freud, Adler stressed choice and responsibility, meaning in life, and the striving for success, completion, and perfection. Adler and Freud created very contrasting theories, even though both men grew up in the same city in the same era and were educated as physicians at the same university. Their individual and very different childhood experiences were certainly key factors that shaped their distinctly different views of human nature From the Adlerian perspective, human behaviour is not determined solely by heredity and environment. Instead, we have the capacity to interpret, influence, and create events. Adler asserted that genetics and heredity are not as important as what we choose to do with the abilities and limitations we possess. Although Adlerian reject the deterministic stance of Freud, they do not go to the other extreme and maintain that individuals can become whatever they want to be. Adlerian recognize that biological and environmental conditions limit our capacity to choose and to create. Adlerian put the focus on reeducating individuals and reshaping society. Adler was the forerunner of a subjective approach to psychology that focuses on internal determinants of behaviour such as values, beliefs, attitudes, goals, interests, and the individual perception of reality. He was a pioneer of an approach that is holistic, social, goal oriented, systemic, and humanistic. Adler was also the first systemic therapist, in that he maintained that it is essential to understand people within the systems in which they live. Subjective Perception of Reality Adlerian attempt to view the world from the client’s subjective frame of reference, an orientation described as phenomenological. The approach is phenomenological in that it pays attention to the individual way in which people perceive their world. This “subjective reality” includes the individual’s perceptions, thoughts, feelings, values, beliefs, convictions, and conclusions. Behaviour is understood from the vantage point of this subjective perspective. From the Adlerian perspective, objective reality is less important than how we interpret reality and the meanings we attach to what we experience. As you will see in subsequent chapters, many contemporary theories have incorporated this notion of the client’s subjective worldview as a basic factor explaining behaviour. Some of the other approaches that have a phenomenological

perspective are existential therapy, person-centered therapy, Gestalt therapy, the cognitive behavioural therapies, reality therapy, and the postmodern approaches. Unity and Patterns of Human Personality Adler named his approach Individual Psychology and stressed understanding the whole person— how all dimensions of a person are interconnected components, and how all of these components are unified by the individual’s movement toward a life goal. Adler emphasized the unity and indivisibility of the person. This holistic concept implies that we cannot be understood in parts, but all aspects of ourselves must be understood in relationship (Carlson & Engler-Carlson, 2008). The focus is on understanding whole persons within their socially embedded contexts of family, culture, school, and work. We are social, creative, decision-making beings who act with purpose and cannot be fully known outside the contexts that have meaning in our lives. THE THERAPEUTIC PROCESS Therapeutic Goals Adlerian counselling rests on a collaborative arrangement between the client and the counsellor. In general, the therapeutic process includes forming a relationship based on mutual respect; a holistic psychological investigation or lifestyle assessment; and disclosing mistaken goals and faulty assumptions within the person’s style of living. This is followed by a re-education of the client toward the useful side of life. The main aim of therapy is to develop the client’s sense of belonging and to assist in the adoption of behaviours and processes characterized by community feeling and social interest. This is accomplished by increasing the client’s self-awareness and challenging and modifying his or her fundamental premises, life goals, and basic concepts (Dreikurs, 1967, 1997). For Milliren, Evans, and Neubauer (2007), the goal of Adlerian therapy “is to assist clients to understand their unique lifestyles and help them learn to think about self, others, and the world and to act in such a way as to meet the tasks of life with courage and social interest” Adlerian counsellors educate clients in new ways of looking at themselves, others, and life. Through the process of providing clients with a new “cognitive map,” a fundamental

understanding of the purpose of their behaviour, counsellors assist them in changing their perceptions. Mosak and Maniacci (2008) lists these goals for the educational process of therapy: • Fostering social interest • Helping clients overcome feelings of discouragement and inferiority • Modifying clients’ views and goals—that is, changing their lifestyle • Changing faulty motivation • Encouraging the individual to recognize equality among people • Helping people to become contributing members of society Therapist’s Function and Role Adlerian counsellors realize that clients can become discouraged and function ineffectively because of mistaken beliefs, faulty values, and goals that are never achieved. They operate on the assumption that clients will feel and behave better if they discover and correct their basic mistakes. Therapists tend to look for major mistakes in thinking and valuing such as mistrust, selfishness, unrealistic ambitions, and lack of confidence. Adlerian assume a nonpathological perspective and thus do not label clients by their diagnoses. One way of looking at the role of Adlerian therapists is that they assist clients in better understanding, challenging, and changing their life story. “When individuals develop a life story that they find limiting and problem saturated, the goal is to free them from that story in favor of a preferred and equally viable alternative story” (Disque & Bitter, 1998, p. 434). A major function of the therapist is to make a comprehensive assessment of the client’s functioning. Therapists often gather information about the individual’s style of living by means of a questionnaire on the client’s family constellation, which includes parents, siblings, and others living in the home, life tasks, and early recollections. When summarized and interpreted, this questionnaire gives a picture of the individual’s early social world. From this information on the family constellation, the therapist is able to get a perspective on the client’s major areas of success and failure and on the critical influences that have had a bearing on the role the client has assumed in the world. Client’s Experience in Therapy

In therapy, clients explore what Adlerian call private logic, the concepts about self, others, and life that constitute the philosophy on which an individual’s lifestyle is based. Private logic involves our convictions and beliefs that get in the way of social interest and that do not facilitate useful, constructive belonging. Clients’ problems arise because the conclusions based on their private logic often do not conform to the requirements of social living. The core of the therapy experience consists of clients’ discovering the purposes of behaviour or symptoms and the basic mistakes associated with their coping. Learning how to correct faulty assumptions and conclusions is central to therapy. To provide a concrete example, think of a chronically depressed middle aged man who begins therapy. After a lifestyle assessment is completed, these basic mistakes are identified: • He has convinced himself that nobody could really care about him. • He rejects people before they have a chance to reject him. • He is harshly critical of himself, expecting perfection. • He has expectations that things will rarely work out well. • He burdens himself with guilt because he is convinced he is letting everyone down. Relationship between Therapist and Client Adlerian consider a good client–therapist relationship to be one between equals that is based on cooperation, mutual trust, respect, confidence, collaboration, and goal alignment. They place special value on the counsellor’s modelling of communication and acting in good faith. From the beginning of therapy, the relationship is a collaborative one, characterized by two persons working equally toward specific, agreed-upon goals. Adlerian therapists strive to establish and maintain an egalitarian therapeutic alliance and a person-to-person relationship with their clients. Developing a strong therapeutic relationship is essential to successful outcomes APPLICATION OF COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES Adlerian counselling is structured around four central objectives that correspond to the four phases of the therapeutic process (Dreikurs, 1967). These phases are not linear and do not progress in rigid steps; rather, they can best be understood as a weaving that leads to a tapestry. These phases are as follows:

1. Establish the proper therapeutic relationship. 2. Explore the psychological dynamics operating in the client (an assessment). 3. Encourage the development of self-understanding (insight into purpose). 4. Help the client make new choices (reorientation and re-education). Phase 1: Establish the Relationship The Adlerian practitioner works in a collaborative way with clients, and this relationship is based on a sense of deep caring, involvement, and friendship. Therapeutic progress is possible only when there is an alignment of clearly defined goals between therapist and client. The counselling process, to be effective, must deal with the personal issues the client recognizes as significant and is willing to explore and change. The therapeutic efficacy in the later phases of Adlerian therapy is predicated upon the development and continuation of a solid therapeutic relationship during this first phase of therapy (Watts, 2000; Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Adlerian therapists seek to make person-to-person contact with clients rather than starting with “the problem.” Clients surface their concerns in therapy rather quickly, but the initial focus should be on the person, not the problem. One way to create effective contact is for counsellors to help clients become aware of their assets and strengths rather than dealing continually with their deficits and liabilities. During the initial phase, a positive relationship is created by listening, responding, demonstrating respect for clients’ capacity to understand purpose and seek change, and exhibiting faith, hope, and caring. When clients enter therapy, they typically have a diminished sense of self-worth and self-respect. They lack faith in their ability to cope with the tasks of life. Therapists provide support, which is an antidote to despair and discouragement. For some people, therapy may be one of the few times in which they have truly experienced a caring human relationship. Phase 2: Explore the Individual’s Psychological Dynamics The aim of the second phase of Adlerian counselling is to get a deeper understanding of an individual’s lifestyle. During this assessment phase, the focus is on the individual’s social and cultural context. Rather than attempting to fi t clients into a preconceived model, Adlerian practitioners allow salient cultural identity concepts to emerge in the therapy process, and these

issues are then addressed (Carlson & Englar-Carlson, 2008). This assessment phase proceeds from two interview forms: the subjective interview and the objective interview. An initial assessment of the purpose that symptoms, actions, or difficulties serve in a person’s life can be gained from what Dreikurs (1997) calls “The Question.” Adlerian often end a subjective interview with this question: “How would your life be different, and what would you be doing differently, if you did not have this symptom or problem?” Adlerian use this question to help with differential diagnosis. The objective interview seeks to discover information about • How problems in the client’s life began; • Any precipitating events; • A medical history, including current and past medications; • A social history; • The reasons the client chose therapy at this time; • The person’s coping with life tasks; and • A lifestyle assessment. The Family Constellation Adler considered the family of origin as having a central impact on an individual’s personality. Adler suggested that it was through the family constellation that each person forms his or her unique view of self, others, and life. Factors such as cultural and familial values, gender-role expectations, and the nature of interpersonal relationships are all influenced by a child’s observation of the interactional patterns within the family. Early Recollections As you will recall, another assessment procedure used by Adlerian is to ask the client to provide his or her earliest memories, including the age of the person at the time of the remembered events and the feelings or reactions associated with the recollections. Early recollections are one- time occurrences pictured by the client in clear detail. Adler reasoned that out of the millions of

early memories we might have we select those special memories that project the essential convictions and even the basic mistakes of our lives. Integration and Summary Once material has been gathered from both subjective and objective interviews with the client, integrated summaries of the data are developed. Different summaries are prepared for different clients, but common ones are a narrative summary of the person’s subjective experience and life story; a summary of family constellation and developmental data; a summary of early recollections, personal strengths or assets, and interfering ideas; and a summary of coping strategies. The summaries are presented to the client and discussed in the session, with the client and the counsellor together refining specific points. Phase 3: Encourage Self-Understanding and Insight During this third phase, Adlerian therapists interpret the findings of the assessment as an avenue for promoting self-understanding and insight. Mosak and Maniacci (2008) define insight as “understanding translated into constructive action” (p. 84). When Adlerian speak of insight, they are referring to an understanding of the motivations that operate in a client’s life. Self- understanding is only possible when hidden purposes and goals of behaviour are made conscious. Disclosure and well-timed interpretations are techniques that facilitate the process of gaining insight. Interpretation deals with clients’ underlying motives for behaving the way they do in the here and now. Adlerian disclosures and interpretations are concerned with creating awareness of one’s direction in life, one’s goals and purposes, one’s private logic and how it works, and one’s current behaviour. Phase 4: Re-orientation and Re-education The final stage of the therapeutic process is the action-oriented phase known as re-orientation and re-education: putting insights into practice. This phase focuses on helping people discover a new and more functional perspective. Clients are both encouraged and challenged to develop the courage to take risks and make changes in their life.

Adlerian are interested in more than changes in behaviour. Reorientation involves shifting rules of interaction, process, and motivation. These shifts are facilitated through changes in awareness, which often occur during the therapy session and which are transformed into action outside of the therapy office (Bitter & Nicoll, 2004). In addition, especially at this phase of therapy, Adlerian focus on re-education (see section on therapeutic goals). Adlerian teach, guide, provide information, and offer encouragement to clients who are discouraged. Goals of Adlerian Therapy Alfred Adler was the founder of individual psychology, which is a goal oriented, cognitive social psychology interested in individual people’s belief systems and perceptions. This approach also analyses the effects that people’s behaviors have on others. This psychological approach takes interest in the democratic processes that a person has in the school, home and in the work place. Individual psychology is a promoter of social equality which enables individuals to grant each other mutual respect along with dignity, regardless of inherent differences. This is not simply a set of techniques; rather it has a complete and comprehensive philosophy of living. The three main principles of this psychology are: 1. Individual behavior is goal oriented 2. Human beings are social fundamentally, and each human has a desire to belong as well as have a pace of value as an equal 3. Each individual functions with unity of personality and is indivisible. The Adlerian Theory: Adlerian theory suggests that people are propelled towards self selected goals and are not pushed by causes. What this means is that they are not determined by their genetics and the environment that surrounds them. The theory states that as individuals move through the different stages of life, they tend to choose the objectives that they want to pursue or have the desire to pursue. Social interactions of people are stressed upon greatly. Adlerian Therapy: Family and Play Therapy

Adler advises that all therapists must try to understand each client that comes to them on the basis of the reality of the subject, and not merely the objective. It is important to understand a situation from the perspective of the client. This concept in today’s world is known as the “phenomenological approach” to the case. The success of this particular approach formed the basis of the reality therapy which in essence is person-centered. The same principles and approach have been implemented in cases of family counseling, marriage counseling as well as parent counseling. Adlerian Therapy: Therapeutic Goals The main focus of the Adlerian therapy is to assist the clients in recognizing and identifying their misconceptions and various other assumptions that they may have about themselves, about others and about life in general. This thus helps them in actively participating in the social world. There are several techniques that are involved in the Adlerian therapy which include establishing a relationship. This particular aspect is not merely encouraged as part of the therapy, but in general as well. One of the main focuses of the Adlerians is to establish a bonding with their clients, and then focusing on their problems. The second technique is being subjective, that is recognizing patterns and details of the personal stories as well as conducting objective interviews. These interviews generally include life assessment sessions mainly focusing on how the issues initiated, details regarding the precipitating events, the relevant medical and social history, what made the client seek help, how the client usually copes with the problem and the overall assessment of the client’s lifestyle. The third step involves the self realization, and this particular aspect deals with the unconscious attempts and motives that must be made conscious. The last step involves clients attempting to reeducate themselves in order to become more productive. Adlerian Therapy of Families: Adlerian brief therapy session conducted with families is magnified when it takes place in the setting of an open forum allowing multiple families to participate and with the help of a selected family in focus. This selected family then plays the part of educating the others. Even though this process is not the ideal choice in case of confidentiality but it enhances the accountability of the Adlerian Therapist as well as the general process of counseling. The process focuses and

emphasizes on the interaction within the system itself, which is considered to be better than intra- psychic techniques and experiences. These sessions do not involve details and hence, not much is disclosed. This factor protects the privacy and confidentiality of the family if the session is being conducted in a public place. Adlerian Play Therapy: Adlerian Play Therapy might be perceived to be different since it is intended to attract children, but it is important to understand that it works on the same principle2. During these sessions, the therapist generally focuses on and assesses the overall lifestyle of the clients and aims to establish a bond of trust and respect with the client. Following this, a set of goals are set which are provided by the therapist and mutually agreed upon. The therapist then aims to encourage the client in order to assist him/her in achieving them with the help of various suggestions. The therapist aims to provide the client with all the consultation and encouragement that is required to make amends in the lifestyle, which can help the client in achieving goals. This therapy is being practiced on the basis of principles devised by Alfred Adler3. SUMMARY Adler was far ahead of his time, and most contemporary therapies have incorporated at least some of his ideas. Individual Psychology assumes that people are motivated by social factors; are responsible for their own thoughts, feelings, and actions; are the creators of their own lives, as opposed to being helpless victims; and are impelled by purposes and goals, looking more toward the future than back to the past. The basic goal of the Adlerian approach is to help clients identify and change their mistaken beliefs about, self, others, and life and thus participate more fully in a social world. Clients are not viewed as psychologically sick but as discouraged. The therapeutic process helps individuals become aware of their patterns and make some basic changes in their style of living, which lead to changes in the way they feel and behave. The role of the family in the development of the individual is emphasized. Therapy is a cooperative venture that challenges clients to translate their insights into action in the real world. Contemporary Adlerian theory is an integrative

approach, combining cognitive, constructivist, existential, psychodynamic, and systems perspectives. Some of these common characteristics include an emphasis on establishing a respectful client–therapist relationship, an emphasis on clients’ strengths and resources, and an optimistic and future orientation. The Adlerian approach gives practitioners a great deal of freedom in working with clients. Major Adlerian contributions have been made in the following areas: elementary education, consultation groups with teachers, parent education groups, couples and family therapy, and group counselling. KEY WORDS/ ABBREVIATIONS • Adlerian psychology- The psychological system developed by Alfred Adler (1870 – 1937), in which it is assumed that humans have two basic motivations: to have a sense of connectedness with others (social interest) and to use one’s creative abilities to overcome obstacles and achieve a respected place in society (striving for superiority). Goals are chosen consciously at an early age to achieve the two main motivations, and a person creates a lifestyle around the chosen goals, the methods he/she uses to attain them, and the various ideals, thoughts, memories, and emotions which arise as a result of trying to reach those goals. Pathology arises only when a person chooses a style of life that prevents her/him from having a sense of closeness with others or becomes discouraged and fails to keep trying to solve her/ his problems (inferiority complex). Adlerian psychology is often called individual psychology, as Adler emphasized that each person becomes the individual he or she is through a creative interaction with the environment and can only be understood in relationship to the environment as experienced by the individual. • Adlerian psychotherapy- The psychotherapy techniques developed by Alfred Alder (1870–1937), in which a person is urged to examine his or her goals and the methods he/she uses to achieve them and to use his/her own courage and creative potential to alter them in ways that lead to more satisfaction in life and a greater contribution to society. Pathology arises only when a person chooses a style of life that prevents her/him from

having a sense of closeness and ability to cooperate with others or when he/she becomes discouraged and fails to keep trying to solve her/his problems (inferiority complex). Adler pioneered couples and family therapy as well as therapy for working-class persons. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Write in detail about the contribution of Adler to psychotherapy. 2. Write in detail about the phases of therapy according to Adlerian psychotherapy. UNIT END QUESTIONS (MCQS AND DESCRIPTIVE) A. Descriptive Questions 1. Define Adlerian psychology. 2. Define Adlerian psychotherapy? 3. How does Adlerian therapist view human nature? 4. What are the goals of Adlerian therapy? 5. Write about the role of therapist in Adlerian Counselling. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Adler was a (A) Neo cognitivist (B) Neo behaviourist (C) Neo Freudian

(D) None of the above 2. is not a phase in Adlerian counselling (A) Establish the proper therapeutic relationship. (B) Explore the psychological dynamics operating in the client (an assessment). (C) Discourage the development of self-understanding (insight into purpose). (D) Help the client make new choices (reorientation and re-education). 3. Adlerian counselling focuses on (A) Re-education (B) Both (C) Re-orientation (D) None of the above 4. Neo Freudian psychologists include (A) Karen Horney (B) Harry Stack Sullivan (C) Erich Fromm (D) All of the above

5. rests on a collaborative arrangement between the client and the counsellor. (A) Psycho-analytical Counselling (B) Adlerian Counselling (C) Behavioural Counselling (D) All of the above Answer: 1 (C) 2 (C) 3 (B) 4 (D) 5 (D) SUGGESTED READINGS 1. Adelrian Therapy: Theory and Practice: Author, Jon Carlson PsyD, EdD, Michael Maniacci PsyD and Richard E. Watts, PhD 2. Adlerian Counseling: A Practitioner’s Approach: By Thomas J Sweeny PhD 3. Prochaska, J. O. & Norcross, J. C. (2003). Systems of psychotherapy: A trans- theoretical analyses (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole. 4. Sharf, R. S. (2000). Theories of psychotherapy and counseling: Concepts and cases (2nd ed.). Singapore: Brooks/Cole. 5. Introduction to Clinical Mental Health Counselling: Contemporary Issues by Joshua C. Watson, Michael K. Schmitt 6. Counselling: A Comprehensive Profession by Samuel T. Gladding and Promila Batra 7. Handbook of Counselling Psychology edited by Steven D. Brown, Robert W. Lent

UNIT 3 PERSON CENTERED APPROACH STRUCTURE: 1 Learning Objectives 2 Introduction 3 Key Concepts 4 Six Factors Necessary for Growth in Rogerian Theory 5 The Therapeutic Process 6 Application of Counselling Techniques 7 Summary 8 Key Words/ Abbreviations 9 Learning Activity 10 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive) 11 Suggested Readings LEARNING OBJECTIVES This unit focus on the person centered approach to counselling. In this chapter, you will study, • Key concepts in person centered approach • Assumptions • The counselling process • Application of techniques INTRODUCTION The person-centred approach is based on concepts from humanistic psychology, many of which were articulated by Carl Rogers in the early 1940s. The person-centered approach shares many

concepts and values with the existential perspective. Rogers’s basic assumptions are that people are essentially trustworthy, that they have a vast potential for understanding themselves and resolving their own problems without direct intervention on the therapist’s part, and that they are capable of self-directed growth if they are involved in a specific c kind of therapeutic relationship. The person-centred approach was originally focused on the client being in charge of the therapy which led to the client developing a greater understanding of self, self-exploration, and improved self-concepts. The focus then shifted to the client’s frame of reference and the core conditions required for successful therapy such as ensuring the therapist demonstrates empathic understanding in a non-judgemental way. Rogers basic assumptions are that people are essentially trustworthy, that they have a vast potential for understanding themselves and resolving their own problems without direct intervention on the therapist’s part, and that they are capable of self-directed growth if they are involved in a specific kind of therapeutic relationship. Contemporary person-centered therapy is the result of an evolutionary process that continues to remain open to change and refinement. Rogers did not present the person-centered theory as a fixed and completed approach to therapy. He hoped that others would view his theory as a set of tentative principles relating to how the therapy process develops, not as dogma. Rogers expected his model to evolve and was open and receptive to change. KEY CONCEPTS The core purpose of person-centred therapy is to facilitate our ability to self-actualise - the belief that all of us will grow and fulfil our potential. This approach facilitates the personal growth and relationships of a client by allowing them to explore and utilise their own strengths and personal identity. The counsellor aids this process, providing vital support to the client and they make their way through this journey. A. View of Human Nature A common theme originating in Rogers early writing and continuing to permeate all of his works is a basic sense of trust in the client’s ability to move forward in a constructive manner if

conditions fostering growth are present. His professional experience taught him that if one is able to get to the core of an individual, one finds a trustworthy, positive centre. Rogers expresses little sympathy for approaches based on the assumption that the individual cannot be trusted and instead needs to be directed, motivated, instructed, punished, rewarded, controlled, and managed by others who are in a superior and “expert” position. He maintained that three therapist attributes create a growth-promoting climate in which individuals can move forward and become what they are capable of becoming: (1) congruence (genuineness, or realness), (2) unconditional positive regard (acceptance and caring), and (3) accurate empathic understanding. According to Rogers, if therapists communicate these attitudes, those being helped will become less defensive and more open to themselves and their world, and they will behave in pro-social and constructive ways. Rogers held the deep conviction that “human beings are essentially forward-moving organisms drawn to the fulfilment of their own creative natures and to the pursuit of truth and social responsiveness” SIX FACTORS NECESSARY FOR GROWTH IN ROGERIAN THEORY Rogers identified six key factors that stimulate growth within an individual. He suggested that when these conditions are met, the person will gravitate toward a constructive fulfillment of potential. According to Rogerian theory, the six factors necessary for growth are: 1. Therapist-Client Psychological Contact: This first condition simply states that a relationship between therapist and client must exist in order for the client to achieve positive personal change. The following five factors are characteristics of the therapist- client relationship, and they may vary by degree. 2. Client Incongruence or Vulnerability: A discrepancy between the client’s self-image and actual experience leaves him or her vulnerable to fears and anxieties. The client is often unaware of the incongruence. 3. Therapist Congruence or Genuineness: The therapist should be self-aware, genuine, and congruent. This does not imply that the therapist be a picture of perfection, but that he or she be true to him- or herself within the therapeutic relationship.

4. Therapist Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR): The clients’ experiences, positive or negative, should be accepted by the therapist without any conditions or judgment. In this way, the client can share experiences without fear of being judged. 5. Therapist Empathy: The therapist demonstrates empathic understanding of the clients’ experiences and recognizes emotional experiences without getting emotionally involved. 6. Client Perception: To some degree, the client perceives the therapist’s unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding. This is communicated through the words and behaviours of the therapist. THE THERAPEUTIC PROCESS Therapeutic Goals The goals of person-centered therapy are different from those of traditional approaches. The person-centered approach aims toward the client achieving a greater degree of independence and integration. Its focus is on the person, not on the person’s presenting problem. Rogers (1977) did not believe the aim of therapy was to solve problems. Rather, it was to assist clients in their growth process so clients could better cope with their current and future problems. The techniques employed in person-centred therapy are different from those employed in other therapies. The difference is that other therapies are often focused on something the client can do during the therapy session, whereas the techniques used in person-centred therapy are employed by the therapist to create an environment that facilitates the process of self-awareness. The following techniques will be discussed in relation to the person-centred approach: congruence, unconditional positive regard and acceptance, empathy, and reflection of feelings. APPLICATION OF COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES A. Early Emphasis on Reflection of Feelings Rogers’s original emphasis was on grasping the world of the client and reflecting this understanding. As his view of psychotherapy developed, however, his focus shifted away from a nondirective stance and emphasized the therapist’s relationship with the client. Many followers

of Rogers simply imitated his reflective style, and client-centered therapy has often been identified primarily with the technique of reflection despite Rogers’s contention that the therapist’s relational attitudes and fundamental ways of being with the client constitute the heart of the change process. B. Evolution of Person-Centered Methods Contemporary person-centered therapy is best considered as the result of an evolutionary process of more than 65 years that continues to remain open to change and refinement. One of Rogers’s main contributions to the counselling field is the notion that the quality of the therapeutic relationship, as opposed to administering techniques, is the primary agent of growth in the client. The therapist’s ability to establish a strong connection with clients is the critical factor determining successful counselling outcomes. The person-centered philosophy is based on the assumption that clients have the resourcefulness for positive movement without the counsellor assuming an active, directive role. What is essential for clients’ progress is the therapist’s presence, which refers to the therapist being completely engaged and absorbed in the relationship with the client. The therapist is empathically interested in the client and is congruent in relation to the client. Furthermore, the therapist is willing to be deeply focused on the client in order to understand the individual’s inner world C. The Role of Assessment Assessment is frequently viewed as a prerequisite to the treatment process. Many mental health agencies use a variety of assessment procedures, including diagnostic screening, identify cation of clients’ strengths and liabilities, and various tests. It may seem that assessment techniques are foreign to the spirit of the person-centered approach. What matters, however, is not how the counsellor assesses the client but the client’s self-assessment. From a person-centered perspective, the best source of knowledge about the client is the individual client. Assessment seems to be gaining in importance in short-term treatments in most counselling agencies, and it is imperative that clients be involved in a collaborative process in making decisions that are central to their therapy. Today it may not be a question of whether to

incorporate assessment into therapeutic practice but of how to involve clients as fully as possible in their assessment and treatment process. Application of the Philosophy of the Person-Centered Approach The person-centered approach has been applied to working with individuals, groups, and families. Person-centered therapy has been shown to be as viable as the more goal-oriented therapies. Furthermore, outcome research conducted in the 1990s revealed that effective therapy is based on the client–therapist relationship in combination with the inner and external resources of the client. The basic philosophy of the person-centered approach has applications to education—from elementary school to graduate school. The core conditions of the therapeutic relationship have relevance to educational settings. According to Rogers and Freiberg, both research and experience show that more learning, more problem solving, and more creativity can be found in classrooms that operate within a person-centered climate. In such a climate learner are able to become increasingly self-directing, able to assume more responsibility for the consequences of their choices, and can learn more than in traditional classrooms. Congruence Congruence is also called genuineness. Congruence is the most important attribute in counselling, according to Rogers. This means that, unlike the psychodynamic therapist who generally maintains a 'blank screen' and reveals little of their own personality in therapy, the Rogerian is keen to allow the client to experience them as they really are. The therapist does not have a façade (like psychoanalysis), that is, the therapist's internal and external experiences are one in the same. In short, the therapist is authentic. Congruence is whether or not therapists are genuine and authentic in what they say and do. Quite often, if the therapist is saying one thing but the body language is reflective of something else, clients are aware of this and may impact on their trust and openness in the therapeutic relationship (Seligman, 2006). For example, a therapist may say “I understand where you are coming from” to a client but have a confused look on his or her face. The client can see this confusion and feels uncomfortable with expressing feelings from this point forward.

Unconditional positive regard The next Rogerian core condition is unconditional positive regard. Rogers believed that for people to grow and fulfil their potential it is important that they are valued as themselves. This refers to the therapist's deep and genuine caring for the client. The therapist may not approve of some of the client's actions, but the therapist does approve of the client. In short, the therapist needs an attitude of \"I'll accept you as you are.\" The person-centered counsellor is thus careful to always maintain a positive attitude to the client, even when disgusted by the client's actions. Unconditional positive regard refers to the therapist accepting, respecting and caring about clients (Seligman, 2006). It does not mean the therapist has to agree with everything the client says or does, however, the therapist should see the client as doing the best he or she can and demonstrate this by expressing concern rather than disagreeing with him or her. Unconditional positive regard allows clients to express how they are thinking without feeling judged, and help to facilitate the change process by showing they can be accepted. Empathy Empathy is the ability to understand what the client is feeling. This refers to the therapist's ability to understand sensitively and accurately [but not sympathetically] the client's experience and feelings in the here-and-now. An important part of the task of the person-centered counsellor is to follow precisely what the client is feeling and to communicate to them that the therapist understands what they are feeling. Empathy is a skill used by person-centred therapists to show understanding of the clients emotions. Empathy is different to sympathy in that sympathy is often seen as feeling sorry for the client whereas empathy shows understanding and allows the client to further open up. Non-directiveness