MAP601_Systems and Theories

144 System and Theories being associated with inhibiting responses such as fear or fatigue. The role of motivation is to create a state of arousal and activity which produces responses that can be conditioned. Application Contiguity theory is intended to be a general theory of learning, although most of the research supporting the theory was done with animals. Guthrie did apply his framework to personality disorders (e.g., Guthrie, 1938). Example The classic experimental paradigm for Contiguity theory is cats learning to escape from a puzzle box (Guthrie and Horton, 1946). Guthrie used a glass panelled box that allowed him to photograph the exact movements of cats. These photographs showed that cats learned to repeat the same sequence of movements associated with the preceding escape from the box. Improvement comes about because irrelevant movements are unlearned or not included in successive associations. Principles In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e., do things). Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements, instruction must present very specific tasks. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a generalised response. The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the one that will be associated. Edwin Ray Guthrie was a behavioural psychologist. He first worked as a mathematics teacher, and philosopher, but switched to psychology when he was 33. He spent most of his career at the University of Washington, where he became full professor and then emeritus professor in psychology. Guthrie is best known for his theory that all learning was based on a stimulus-response association. This was variously described as one trial theory, non-reinforcement, and contiguity learning. The theory was: “A combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that movement”. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-behavioural Perspective 145 One word that his co-workers and students used to describe Guthrie and his theories was “simple”, and perhaps he did prefer to use simple terms to illustrate complex ideas. However, “It is undoubtedly true that many reviews of Guthrie in the literature have mistaken incompleteness for simplicity”. His simple nature carried into his teachings where he took great pride in working with and teaching students. Early Life and Education Guthrie was born in Lincoln, Nebraska, to a father who owned a store selling pianos and bicycles, and a mother who was a school teacher. He remarked that his theories got an early start when he and a friend read Darwin’s Origin of Species and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals while they were both in eighth grade. Guthrie graduated at the age of 17 after writing a rather inflammatory senior thesis that argued “that both science and religion, being dependent on words, and words being symbols dependent for their meanings on the experience of their users and auditors, would have no chance at expressing Absolute Truth”. Guthrie received the title of lay reader in his local Episcopal Church while pursuing a philosophy degree from the University of Nebraska. This university he credited with helping him pursue his varied interests because “the university had none of the present apparatus of required courses and set curricula. This freedom made possible the inclusion of courses in both Latin and Greek which had been begun in high school; mathematics through calculus”. Psychology Interest While Guthrie was going to graduate school he was the only student in a seminary taught by Wilhelm Wundt’s protégé H.K. Wolfe, where they debated the philosophy of science. Guthrie later characterised the classes that he took for his degree as philosophy courses that “took much interest in issues that would now be recognised as psychological”. His focus upon a theoretical approach to psychology as opposed to an experimental research approach can be found in his account of his single experimental psychology course which he described as “a research course under Bolton devoted a winter to observations with an aesthesiometer on the limen of twoness, and served to quench interest in psychophysics, which was the chief preoccupation of psychological laboratories in those times”. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

146 System and Theories His professional psychology career did not start in full until he met Stevenson Smith, who founded the psychology department at the University of Washington in 1917. Guthrie and Smith helped write Chapters in General Psychology in 1921. This book and work with Smith, focused Guthrie’s continuing psychological works towards how exactly learning works and what effects a person’s capability of learning. He and his wife, Helen MacDonald, travelled to France where they met Pierre Janet. Janet’s writing had a great impact on Guthrie's thinking, so profound in fact that Guthrie and his wife translated Janet’s Principles of Psychology together. Guthrie added to Janet’s writings an objective theory of learning. One Trial Theory Guthrie’s theories went against those of Watson’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning due mainly to Guthrie’s insistence that their “desire for results of immediate practical applications” led to their theories being wrong. Guthrie’s learning theory is called one-trial learning and he developed it with Smith at the University of Washington. Guthrie and Smith's theory states that all learning is done within a single exposure to a situation. Guthrie admitted that his own theory required the assumption that people react to a given situation the same way so long as it was still effective. Guthrie’s more ambiguous theories and assumptions were put into more understandable terms after his death. These notes focused upon the following three principles, the principle of association, the principle of postremity and the principle of response probability. The principle of association says that any stimulus that accompanies a behaviour or immediately precedes it by less than half a second becomes a cue for that specific behaviour. The principle of postremity theorizes that a stimulus when followed by more than two responses only becomes associated with the response closest to the stimulus. The principle of response probability states that the chance of a particular response occurring at a specified time relates to the size of the stimulus for that response present at the specified time. The more cues for a stimulus the higher the chance of a desired response. Punishment Guthrie also had theories as to how punishment worked that were at odds with the likes of Thorndike and other learning theorists of his own time. Guthrie thought that punishment was only as CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-behavioural Perspective 147 effective as the amount of change in behaviour the punishment caused. Guthrie’s theory required that presentation of punishment happen while the stimulus is still around. He did warn that if the punishment did not stop the undesirable response or if it was not presented in the presence of the stimulus that the punishment could actually strengthen the undesired response. Breaking Habits Guthrie believed that dozens of tiny movements make up what most see as a single behaviour; much like waving good-bye actually involves dozens of muscle movements. Guthrie viewed habits as a response connecting with a large number of stimuli, which causes the habit to happen more often to a wide variety of things. He postulated that there were three different ways to break a habit, the threshold method, the fatigue method, and the incompatible response method. The threshold method involves introducing stimuli that are associated with the habit response at such a weak level that it does not actually elicit the response. The strength of the stimuli is increased slowly until the stimuli can be presented at full strength without eliciting the habit response. Guthrie compared this method to “horse whispering”. The fatigue method is quite simple. You keep presenting the stimulus until the person with the habit no longer replies with their habitual response. Guthrie considered this method similar to “breaking the horse.” The incompatible response method pairs the stimuli that cause the habitual behaviour with another stimulus that triggers a response that is opposite or incompatible with the habit that you want to get rid of. Historical Relevance According to his students, Guthrie’s writings and theories were intentionally vague and “ambiguous” much to his insistence on his work not being biased in a similar fashion and due to this resulted in most of his theories not being tested while Guthrie was alive. Thankfully, his peers and students turned his theories into more precise ideas that allowed experiments to test them. His theories on learning were wrong but his ideas about behaviourism helped make the case that Psychology as a whole had important applications to real life issues. His real effect on the course of Psychology however, came from those he left behind. His student Voeks was the one who formalised CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

148 System and Theories Guthrie’s theories into a more testable form and his colleague William Kaye Estes took Guthrie’s ideas and created a statistical theory of learning that he is now famous for. Guthrie on Education Edwin Ray Guthrie was interested in the application of psychology and his learning theories in education. In the preface of his book Educational Psychology (1950), he states, “the ultimate test of a theory of learning is its influence on the all-round growth of young people when applied in the classroom.” He hypothesised that pairing a stimulus and response could result in learning after only one trial. Guthrie believed that learning takes place through association and conditioning, and one pairing is often enough to establish a connection, rather than repeated stimulus-response pairings. These association and connectionist theories are the bases of Guthrie’s contiguity theory of learning. The law of contiguity refers to associating, or learning, two stimuli or events that occur simultaneously. When the stimulus and response occur together, they are learned due to the connection of their contiguity. Guthrie acknowledged the use of reinforcement and rewards, but he did not deem them necessary for learning. He believed that organisms played a large part in their learning when developing habits and skills due to “movement-produced stimuli”. Therefore, he asserts that the students do not learn from what the teacher does, but from what they do themselves. In other words, students do not learn something merely by hearing or reading it; rather, the information must elicit an “active response” in the learner. He believed that the ideal school environment is one that permits “freedom of responsible action.” He advocated for an environment that does not repress individual differences but rather appreciates them and allows the students as much self-direction as possible. Guthrie described that an effective teacher would be one that would modify and revise the content of their lessons because students are dynamic in their learning and are “constantly organising and reorganising experiences”. According to Visible Learning for Teachers (2012), which evaluates effective teaching strategies, Hattie makes a significant point to advocate for flexible, adaptable instruction that is modified by the students’ prior knowledge, experiences, and individual differences as well as their rates of learning. The applications of Guthrie’s theories have carried on to present education practices. In Educational Psychology (1950), he asserted that effective study skills included a clear goal, mastery of fundamentals, knowledge of learning phenomena, concentration, and practice. There is CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-behavioural Perspective 149 evidence that goal setting is indeed effective in learning and retaining material. Similarly, Guthrie advocated for making clear objectives for student learning by connecting the target response to the educational stimulus. Although he believed in one-trial learning, Guthrie valued practice in the classroom. The purpose of practice is to ensure that students continue to “relearn” the material because of the uniqueness of each learning experience. He asserted that distributed, or spaced, practice is the most effective and efficient method for learning and retaining content. Distributed practice has indeed been shown to be highly effective in improving student learning and is recommended for use in classrooms today. 7.7 Summary Neo-behaviourism is a behaviour which cannot be fully understood simply in terms of observable stimuli and reactions. Neo-behaviourism introduces mediating variables into the behaviourist stimulus- response scheme. Behaviourism is the theoretical perspective in which learning and behaviour are described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships. Theories of learning have been significantly shaped by two perspectives, behaviourism and neo-behaviourism. Both perspectives of learning theories were not developed as a consequence of research in any one academic field and these theories have influenced the conduct in many disciplines, for both researchers and practitioners. Present study is aimed at investigating both perspectives of learning theories, behaviourism and neo- behaviourism. With several sub-categories of behavioural and neo-behavioural theories of learning, only those theories will be discussed that cast a profound impact on discipline of learning. Skinner also looked at variable schedules. Variable ratio means you change the “x” each time – first it takes 3 presses to get a goodie, then 10, then 1, then 7 and so on. Variable interval means you keep changing the time period – first 20 seconds, then 5, then 35, then 10 and so on. With the variable interval schedule, the rats no longer “pace” themselves, because they can no longer establish a “rhythm” between behaviour and reward. Most importantly, these schedules are very resistant to extinction. It makes sense, if you think about it. If you have not gotten a reinforcer for a while, well, it could just be that you are at a particularly “bad” ratio or interval, just one more bar press, maybe this’ll be the one time you get reinforced. A question Skinner had to deal with was how we get to more complex sorts of behaviours. He responded with the idea of shaping, or “the method of successive approximations.” Basically, it CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

150 System and Theories involves first reinforcing a behaviour only vaguely similar to the one desired. Once that is established, you look out for variations that come a little closer to what you want, and so on, until you have the animal performing a behaviour that would never show up in ordinary life. Skinner and his students have been quite successful in teaching simple animals to do some quite extraordinary things. Contiguity theory suggests that forgetting is due to interference rather than the passage of time; stimuli become associated with new responses. Previous conditioning can also be changed by being associated with inhibiting responses such as fear or fatigue. The role of motivation is to create a state of arousal and activity which produces responses that can be conditioned. 7.8 Key Words/Abbreviations  Neo-behavioural Perspective: Neo-behaviourism is a behaviour which cannot be fully understood simply in terms of observable stimuli and reactions. Neo-behaviourism introduces mediating variables into the behaviourist stimulus-response scheme.  Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour.  Guthrie – Learning of Contiguity: Contiguity theory or law of contiguity and one trial learning are ideas introduced in 1920s by American philosopher, mathematician and psychologist Edwin Guthrie in collaboration with Stevenson Smith. 7.9 Learning Activity 1. You are suggested to prepare the report on “Neo-behavioural Perspective”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. You are required to identify the Guthrie – Learning of Contiguity. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-behavioural Perspective 151 7.10 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Explain in details about Neo-behavioural Perspective. 2. What is Inductive Behaviour? 3. Discuss about Skinner – Inductive Behaviour. 4. Discuss about B.F. Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning. 5. Explain in details about Guthrie – Learning of Contiguity. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is a behaviour which cannot be fully understood simply in terms of observable stimuli and reactions? (a) Neo-behaviourism (b) Behaviourism (c) Consumerism (d) Stimulus-response 2. Which of the following is the assumption of behaviourism? (a) The environment influences behaviour (b) Learning is described through stimuli and responses (c) Learning must involve a behavioural change (d) All the above 3. Who considered free will an illusion and human action dependent on consequences of previous actions? (a) Skinner (b) Philip Kotler (c) Lincoln (d) Peterson CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

152 System and Theories 4. The contributions to Psychological Theory include __________. (a) Behaviourism (b) Theoretical structure (c) Control of operant behaviour (d) All the above 5. Which of the following often referred to as b-mod is the therapy technique based on Skinner’s work? (a) Psychological Work (b) Behaviour Modification (c) Political Work (d) None of the above Answers: 1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (a), 4. (d), 5. (b) 7.11 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 153 UNIT 8 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY Structure: 8.0 Learning Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Humanistic-Existential 8.3 Using Humanistic and Existential Therapies 8.4 Maslow in Psychology 8.5 Abraham Maslow’s Humanism 8.6 Rogers in Psychology 8.7 Rogers’ Person-centred Therapy 8.8 Rollo May in Psychology 8.9 Summary 8.10 Key Words/Abbreviations 8.11 LearningActivity 8.12 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 8.13 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

154 System and Theories 8.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the Humanistic and Existential viewpoint  Explain the Maslow in Psychology 8.1 Introduction The Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This view of psychology and human behaviour emphasises the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behaviour and to treat people suffering from mental illnesses. Freud conceived of the mind as being composed of three key elements: the id, the ego and the superego. The id is the part of the psyche that includes all the primal and unconscious desires. The ego is the aspect of the psyche that must deal with the demands of the real world. The superego is the last part of the psyche to develop and is tasked with managing all of our internalised morals, standards, and ideals. 8.2 Humanistic-Existential Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in answer to the limitations of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and B.F. Skinner’s behaviourism. With its roots running from Socrates through the Renaissance, this approach emphasises the individual’s inherent drive toward self-actualisation, the process of realising and expressing one’s own capabilities and creativity. This psychological perspective helps the client gain the belief that all people are inherently good. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence and pays special attention to such phenomena as creativity, free will, and positive human potential. It encourages viewing ourselves as a “whole person” greater than the sum of our parts and encourages self-exploration rather than the study of behaviour in other people. Humanistic psychology acknowledges spiritual aspiration as an integral part of the psyche. It is linked to the emerging field of transpersonal psychology. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 155 Primarily, this type of therapy encourages a self-awareness and mindfulness that helps the client change their state of mind and behaviour from one set of reactions to a healthier one with more productive self-awareness and thoughtful actions. Essentially, this approach allows the merging of mindfulness and behavioural therapy, with positive social support. In an article from the Association for Humanistic Psychology, the benefits of humanistic therapy are described as having a “crucial opportunity to lead our troubled culture back to its own healthy path. More than any other therapy, Humanistic-Existential therapy models democracy. It imposes ideologies of others upon the client less than other therapeutic practices. Freedom to choose is maximised. We validate our clients’ human potential.” In the 20th century, humanistic psychology was referred to as the “third force” in psychology, distinct from earlier, less humanistic approaches of psychoanalysis and behaviourism. Conceptual Origins Eastern philosophy and psychology also play a central role in humanistic psychology, as well as Judeo-Christian philosophies of personalism, as each shares similar concerns about the nature of human existence and consciousness. As behaviourism grew out of Ivan Pavlov’s work with the conditioned reflex, and laid the foundations for academic psychology in the United States associated with the names of John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner; Abraham Maslow gave behaviourism the name “the second force”. Historically, “the first force” were psychologists like Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Melanie Klein, Harry Stack Sullivan and others. In the late 1930s, psychologists, interested in the uniquely human issues, such as the self, self- actualisation, health, hope, love, creativity, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning that is, a concrete understanding of human existence included Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Clark Moustakas, who were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a psychology, focused on these features of human capital demanded by post-industrial society. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

156 System and Theories 8.3 Using Humanistic and Existential Therapies Many aspects of humanistic and existential approaches (including empathy, encouragement of affect, reflective listening, and acceptance of the client’s subjective experience) are useful in any type of brief therapy session, whether it involves psychodynamic, strategic, or cognitive-behavioural therapy. They help establish rapport and provide grounds for meaningful engagement with all aspects of the treatment process. While the approaches discussed in this chapter encompass a wide variety of therapeutic interventions, they are united by an emphasis on lived experience, authentic (therapeutic) relationships and recognition of the subjective nature of human experience. There is a focus on helping the client to understand the ways in which reality is influenced by past experience, present perceptions, and expectations for the future. Schor describes the process through which our experiences assume meaning as apperception (Schor, 1998). Becoming aware of this process yields insight and facilitates the ability to choose new ways of being and acting. For many clients, momentary circumstances and problems surrounding substance abuse may seem more pressing, and notions of integration, spirituality and existential growth may be too remote from their immediate experience to be effective. In such instances, humanistic and existential approaches can help clients focus on the fact that they do, indeed, make decisions about substance abuse and are responsible for their own recovery. 8.4 Maslow in Psychology Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist perhaps best known as one of the founders of humanistic psychology and for his famous hierarchy of needs. Maslow felt that Freud’s psycho- analytic theory and Skinner’s behavioural theory were too focused on the negative or pathological aspects of existence and neglected all of the potential and creativity that human beings possess. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggested that people have a number of needs, and as these needs are met they are able to go on to pursue other needs. The needs at the base of his hierarchy are more basic in nature, gradually moving up into more social, emotional and self-actualising needs as one moves up the hierarchy. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 157 Figure 8.1: Abraham Maslow Maslow’s Early Life Abraham Maslow was born on April 1, 1908, in Brooklyn, New York, where he grew up the first of seven children born to his Jewish parents who emigrated from Russia. Maslow later described his early childhood as unhappy and lonely, and he spent much of his time in the library immersed in books. Eventually, Maslow went on to study law at City College of New York (CCNY) and married his first cousin Bertha Goodman. He later switched to the University of Wisconsin where he developed an interested in psychology and found a mentor in psychologist Harry Harlow who served as his CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

158 System and Theories doctoral advisor. Maslow earned all three of his degrees in psychology from the University of Wisconsin: a Bachelor’s degree in 1930, a Master’s degree in 1931 and a Doctorate in 1934. Career and Humanistic Theories Abraham Maslow began teaching at Brooklyn College in 1937 and continued to work as a member of the school’s faculty until 1951. During this time, he was heavily influenced by Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer and anthropologist Ruth Benedict. Maslow believed that they were such exceptional people that he began to analyse and take notes on their behaviour. This analysis served as the basis for his theories and research on human potential. During the 1950s, Maslow became one of the founders and driving forces behind the school of thought known as humanistic psychology. His theories including the hierarchy of needs, self- actualisation and peak experiences became fundamental subjects in the humanist movement. The process of self-actualisation played a critical role in Maslow’s theory. He defined this tendency as “the full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, potentialities, etc.” In other words, people are constantly in the process of striving to reach their full potential. Self-actualisation is not an endpoint or a destination. It is an ongoing process in which people continue to stretch themselves and achieve new heights of well-being, creativity and fulfillment. Maslow believed that self-actualising people possess a number of key characteristics. Some of these include self-acceptance, spontaneity, independence and the ability to have peak experiences. Contributions of Abraham Maslow to Psychology At a time when most psychologists focused aspects of human nature that were considered abnormal, Abraham Maslow shifted focus to look at the positive sides of mental health. His interest in human potential, seeking peak experiences and improving mental health by seeking personal growth had a lasting influence on psychology. While Maslow’s work fell out of favour with many academic psychologists and some suggest his hierarchy might be due for an update, his theories are enjoying a resurgence due to the rising interest in positive psychology. Maslow died in California on June 8, 1970, due to a heart attack. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 159 Humanistic Psychology Soon after Maslow began his career, he became frustrated with the two “forces” of psychology at the time, which were Freudian psychoanalysis and behavioural psychology (Koznjak, 2017). Maslow believed that psychoanalysis focused too much on “the sick half of psychology” and not enough on “the healthy half”. On the other hand, he believed that behaviourism did not focus enough on how humans differ from the animals studied in behaviourism. He thus contributed to the third force of psychology that arose in response to this frustration: humanistic psychology. Humanistic psychology gained influence for its “appreciation for the fundamental inviolability of the human experience” (Bugental, 1963). One of these factors was the Gestalt psychology- influenced idea that human beings were more than just the sum of their parts, and that understanding humanity would take more than just understanding each part of a person. From this idea sprouted Maslow’s main contribution to humanistic psychology (and psychology in general), his theory of motivation that focused on his hierarchy of needs. Aside from developing the hierarchy of needs, Abraham Maslow also co-founded the Journal of Humanistic Psychology in 1961 with Anthony Sutich (SAGE Publishing). Maslow cofounded the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology in 1969 as well withAnthony Sutich and Stanislav Grof (Richards, 2017). By starting two influential journals in the field, Maslow ensured his mark on humanistic psychology would outlast even the influence of his hierarchy of needs. Maslow was most famous for his proposal that human motivation is founded on a hierarchy of needs. The fundamental principle behind this hierarchy is that people are born with certain needs, the fulfillment of which allows us to move forward and fulfill other more complex needs. Maslow also proposed that man has many different needs, some of which take precedence over the others. Survival and physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, oxygen, shelter and sleep are found in the lowest layer of the hierarchy of needs which, in a sense, means that they are the highest priority needs. These are the basic needs that should first be met before people can even consider other higher level needs. If a person is hungry or homeless, he will not care much for completing a college degree or belonging to a circle of close friends. His efforts will understandably be directed at fulfilling his urgent needs. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

160 System and Theories Next in line are the safety needs which aside from safety, also include, security, protection and stability. Upon meeting physiological needs, an individual can now focus on securing his physical safety and that of his immediate surroundings. A person needs to feel safe and protected with other people in an environment that is free from harm. The need may be fulfilled by developing structure, setting limits and maintaining order in one’s life and may be manifested by settling down in a safe neighbourhood, striving for job security, keeping a sizeable bank account, planning for retirement, and so on. Upon being assured of safety and security, the individual can now focus on seeking out friendships and groups in order to experience a sense of belonging. The third level needs include the need to be loved and accepted and the need to belong. When the person is at this stage of need fulfillment, he can now devote his efforts to finding ways to be accepted and to fit in. The assurance of having a place in this world is now sought after. Most people at this stage strive for membership in clubs or fraternities, find partners, cultivate loving relationships, raise children, and assume active roles in the community, church or in a civic organisation. As the more basic needs of love and belongingness are met, the loftier needs that come next in hierarchy which are the needs for achievement, education, respect and competence now gain more and more precedence. At this level, people dedicate their efforts to adding to their accomplishments and gaining the respect, admiration, and appreciation of others. Self-respect is also a very important need that an individual must fulfill at this point in life, as are being confident and competent and demonstrating independence and freedom. People usually focus on climbing the professional ladder at this stage, gaining more knowledge and experience and working toward achieving a solid sense of self-worth. At the top of the pyramid of needs is the need for self-actualisation, which entails an extensive understanding of the self and the actualisation of one’s full potentials. Individuals who have reached this stage of self-actualisation know who they truly are and feel comfortable and content in the stature and place they have established for themselves. At this stage, the person accepts the world, has found his place in it and considers people as inherently good. However, Maslow believed that very few people really ever reach this stage of development and are able to fulfill this need. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 161 The ultimate goal of men is to reach the top of the pyramid by gradually fulfilling the more basic needs, one level at a time. Sometimes, however, extraordinary circumstances such as the experience of extreme hunger for extended periods causes an individual to be fixated on eating too much or keeping an unreasonable amount of food in stock. A person who lived as a child in an area consumed by armed conflict may obsess over having enough money and supplies. Abraham Maslow was said to have brought the human being back into the study of psychology particularly at a time when deterministic theories such as the behaviourist and the psychoanalytic traditions were flourishing. He reminded everyone that psychology should first and foremost be about real people and all the good that they can do. Pyramid of Need Hierarchy Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Figure 8.2: Pyramid of Need Hierarchy CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

162 System and Theories 1. Physiological Needs: These are biological requirements for human survival, e.g., air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex and sleep. If these needs are not satisfied, the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met. 2. Safety Needs: Protection from elements, security, order, law, stability and freedom from fear. 3. Love and Belongingness Needs: After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behaviour. Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends and work). 4. Esteem Needs: Maslow classified theses needs into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (e.g., dignity, achievement, mastery and independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status and prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity. 5. Self-actualisation Needs: Realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming. 8.5 Abraham Maslow’s Humanism As a leader of humanistic psychology, Abraham Maslow approached the study of personality psychology by focusing on subjective experiences and free will. He was mainly concerned with an individual’s innate drive toward self-actualisation—a state of fulfillment in which a person is achieving at his or her highest level of capability. Maslow positioned his work as a vital complement to that of Freud, saying: “It is as if Freud supplied us the sick half of psychology and we must now fill it out with the healthy half.” CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 163 In his research, Maslow studied the personalities of people who he considered to be healthy, creative and productive, including Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln and others. He found that such people share similar characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others and accepting of themselves. Personality and the Hierarchy of Needs Maslow is perhaps most well-known for his hierarchy of needs theory, in which he proposes that human beings have certain needs in common and that these needs must be met in a certain order. These needs range from the most basic physiological needs for survival to higher-level self- actualisation and transcendence needs. Maslow’s hierarchy is most often presented visually as a pyramid, with the largest, most fundamental physiological needs at the bottom and the smallest, most advanced self-actualisation needs at the top. Each layer of the pyramid must be fulfilled before moving up the pyramid to higher needs, and this process is continued throughout the lifespan. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow developed a human hierarchy of needs that is conceptualised as a pyramid to represent how people move from one level of needs to another. First physiological needs must be met before safety needs, then the need for love and belonging, then esteem, and finally self- actualisation. Maslow believed that successful fulfillment of each layer of needs was vital in the development of personality. The highest need for self-actualisation represents the achievement of our fullest potential, and those individuals who finally achieved self-actualisation were said to represent optimal psychological health and functioning. Maslow stretched the field of psychological study to include fully-functional individuals instead of only those with psychoses, and he shed a more positive light on personality psychology. Characteristics of Self-actualisers Maslow viewed self-actualisers as the supreme achievers in the human race. He studied stand- out individuals in order to better understand what characteristics they possessed that allowed them to achieve self-actualisation. In his research, he found that many of these people shared certain personality traits. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

164 System and Theories Most self-actualisers had a great sense of awareness, maintaining a near-constant enjoyment and awe of life. They often described peak experiences during which they felt such an intense degree of satisfaction that they seemed to transcend themselves. They actively engaged in activities that would bring about this feeling of unity and meaningfulness. Despite this fact, most of these individuals seemed deeply rooted in reality and were active problem-seekers and solvers. They developed a level of acceptance for what could not be changed and a level of spontaneity and resilience to tackle what could be changed. Most of these people had healthy relationships with a small group with which they interacted frequently. According to Maslow, self-actualised people indicate a coherent personality syndrome and represent optimal psychological health and functioning. Criticism of Maslow’s Theories Maslow’s ideas have been criticised for their lack of scientific rigor. As with all early psychological studies, questions have been raised about the lack of empirical evidence used in his research. Because of the subjective nature of the study, the holistic approach allows for a great deal of variation but does not identify enough constant variables in order to be researched with true accuracy. Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of society on personality development. Furthermore, the hierarchy of needs has been accused of cultural bias mainly reflecting Western values and ideologies. Critics argue that this concept is considered relative to each culture and society and cannot be universally applied. 8.6 Rogers in Psychology Carl Rogers’ humanistic personality theory emphasises the importance of the self-actualising tendency in forming a self-concept. Carl Rogers was an influential humanistic psychologist who developed a personality theory that emphasised the importance of the self-actualising tendency in shaping human personalities. Rogers believed that humans are constantly reacting to stimuli with their subjective reality (phenomenal field), which changes continuously. Over time, a person develops a self-concept based on the feedback from this field of reality. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 165 In the development of self-concept, positive regard is key. Unconditional positive regard is an environment that is free of preconceived notions of value. Conditional positive regard is full of conditions of worth that must be achieved to be considered successful. Human beings develop an ideal self and a real self-based on the conditional status of positive regard. How closely one’s real self matches up with their ideal self is called congruity. Rogers believed that fully functioning people could achieve “the good life,” in which they constantly aim to fulfill their potential and allow their personalities to emanate from their experiences. Figure 8.3: Carl Rogers Like Maslow’s theories, Rogers’ were criticised for their lack of empirical evidence in research. Carl Rogers was a prominent psychologist and one of the founding members of the humanist movement. Along with Abraham Maslow, he focused on the growth potential of healthy individuals CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

166 System and Theories and greatly contributed to our understanding of the self and personality. Both Rogers’ and Maslow’s theories focus on individual choices and do not hold that biology is deterministic. They emphasised free will and self-determination, with each individual desiring to become the best person they can become. Humanistic psychology emphasised the active role of the individual in shaping their internal and external worlds. Rogers advanced the field by stressing that the human person is an active, creative, experiencing being who lives in the present and subjectively responds to current perceptions, relationships and encounters. He coined the term actualising tendency, which refers to a person’s basic instinct to succeed at his or her highest possible capacity. Through person-centred counselling and scientific therapy research, Rogers formed his theory of personality development, which highlighted free will and the great reservoir of human potential for goodness. Personality Development and the Self-concept Rogers based his theories of personality development on humanistic psychology and theories of subjective experience. He believed that everyone exists in a constantly changing world of experiences that they are at the center of. A person reacts to changes in their phenomenal field, which includes external objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions. The Phenomenal Field The phenomenal field refers to a person’s subjective reality, which includes external objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions. The person’s motivations and environments both act on their phenomenal field. Rogers believed that all behaviour is motivated by self-actualising tendencies, which drive a person to achieve at their highest level. As a result of their interactions with the environment and others, an individual forms a structure of the self or self-concept an organised, fluid, conceptual pattern of concepts and values related to the self. If a person has a positive self-concept, they tend to feel good about which they are and often see the world as a safe and positive place. If they have a negative self-concept, they may feel unhappy with who they are. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 167 Ideal Self vs. Real Self Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two selves. Figure 8.4: Ideal Self vs. Real Self We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life. Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment. Unconditional Positive Regard In the development of the self-concept, Rogers elevated the importance of unconditional positive regard or unconditional love. People rose in an environment of unconditional positive regard, in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

168 System and Theories which no preconceived conditions of worth are present, have the opportunity to fully actualise. When people are raised in an environment of conditional positive regard, in which worth and love are only given under certain conditions, they must match or achieve those conditions in order to receive the love or positive regard they yearn for. Their ideal self is thereby determined by others based on these conditions, and they are forced to develop outside of their own true actualising tendency; this contributes to incongruence and a greater gap between the real self and the ideal self. “The Good Life” Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development. These principles exist in fluid processes rather than static states. He claimed that a fully functioning person would continually aim to fulfill his or her potential in each of these processes, achieving what he called “the good life.” These people would allow personality and self-concept to emanate from experience. He found that fully functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common: (a) A growing openness to experience – They move away from defensiveness. (b) An increasingly existential lifestyle – Living each moment fully, rather than distorting the moment to fit personality or self-concept. (c) Increasing organismic trust – They trust their own judgment and their ability to choose behaviour that is appropriate for each moment. (d) Freedom of choice – They are not restricted by incongruence and are able to make a wide range of choices more fluently. They believe that they play a role in determining their own behaviour and so feel responsible for their own behaviour. (e) Higher levels of creativity – They will be more creative in the way they adapt to their own circumstances without feeling a need to conform. (f) Reliability and constructiveness – They can be trusted to act constructively. Even aggressive needs will be matched and balanced by intrinsic goodness in congruent individuals. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 169 (g) A rich full life – They will experience joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and courage more intensely. Criticisms of Rogers’ Theories Like Maslow’s theories, Rogers’ were criticised for their lack of empirical evidence used in research. The holistic approach of humanism allows for a great deal of variation but does not identify enough constant variables to be researched with true accuracy. Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of society on personality development. 8.7 Rogers’ Person-centred Therapy Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is best known for his person-centred approach, in which the relationship between therapist and client is used to help the patient reach a state of realisation, so that they can then help themselves. His non-directive approach focuses more on the present than the past and centers on clients’ capacity for self-direction and understanding of their own development. The therapist encourages the patient to express their feelings and does not suggest how the person might wish to change. Instead, the therapist uses the skills of active listening and mirroring to help patients explore and understand their feelings for themselves. Rogers is also known for practicing “unconditional positive regard,” which is defined as accepting a person in their entirety with no negative judgment of their essential worth. He believed that those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualise themselves, while those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard only feel worthy if they match conditions that have been laid down by others. Advantages and Disadvantages Humanistic psychology is holistic in nature. It takes whole persons into account rather than their separate traits or processes. In this way, people are not reduced to one particular attribute or set of characteristics, but instead are appreciated for the complex beings that they are. Humanistic CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

170 System and Theories psychology allows for a personality concept that is dynamic and fluid and accounts for much of the change a person experiences over a lifetime. It stresses the importance of free will and personal responsibility for decision-making. This view gives the conscious human being some necessary autonomy and frees them from deterministic principles. Perhaps, most importantly, the humanistic perspective emphasises the need to strive for positive goals and explains human potential in a way that other theories cannot. However, critics have taken issue with many of the early tenets of humanism, such as its lack of empirical evidence (as was the case with most early psychological approaches). Because of the inherent subjective nature of the humanistic approach, psychologists worry that this perspective does not identify enough constant variables in order to be researched with consistency and accuracy. Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of external societal factors on personality development. In addition, The major tenet of humanistic personality psychology—namely, that people are innately good and intuitively seek positive goals—does not account for the presence of deviance in the world within normal, functioning personalities. 8.8 Rollo May in Psychology Rollo Reece May (April 21, 1909 – October 22, 1994) was an American existential psychologist and author of the influential book Love and Will (1969). He is often associated with humanistic psychology and existentialist philosophy, and alongside Viktor Frankl, was a major proponent of existential psychotherapy. The philosopher and theologian Paul Tillich was a close friend who had a significant influence on his work. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 171 Figure 8.5: Rollo May Theory of Rollo May in Psychology Rollo May is the best known American existential psychologist. Much of his thinking can be understood by reading about existentialism in general, and the overlap between his ideas and the ideas of Ludwig Binswanger is great. Nevertheless, he is a little off of the mainstream in that he was more influenced by American humanism than the Europeans, and more interested in reconciling existential psychology with other approaches, especially Freud’s. May uses some traditional existential terms slightly differently than others, and invents new words for some of existentialism’s old ideas. Destiny, for example, is roughly the same as thrownness combined with fallenness. It is that part of our lives that is determined for us, our raw materials, if you like, for the project of creating our lives. Another example is the word courage, which he uses more often than the traditional term “authenticity” to mean facing one’s anxiety and rising above it. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

172 System and Theories He is also the only existential psychologist I’m aware of who discusses certain “stages” (not in the strict Freudian sense, of course) of development: (a) Innocence is the pre-egoic, pre-self-conscious stage of the infant. The innocent is premoral, i.e., is neither bad nor good. Like a wild animal who kills to eat, the innocent is only doing what he or she must do. But an innocent does have a degree of will in the sense of a drive to fulfil their needs. (b) Rebellion is the childhood and adolescent stage of developing one’s ego or self-consciousness by means of contrast with adults, from the “no” of the two year old to the “no way” of the teenager. The rebellious person wants freedom, but has as yet no full understanding of the responsibility that goes with it. The teenager may want to spend their allowance in any way they choose yet they still expect the parent to provide the money, and will complain about unfairness if they do not get it. (c) Ordinary is the normal adult ego, conventional and a little boring, perhaps. They have learned responsibility, but find it too demanding, and so seek refuge in conformity and traditional values. (d) Creative is the authentic adult, the existential stage, beyond ego and self-actualising. This is the person who, accepting destiny, faces anxiety with courage. Love and Will Many of May’s unique ideas can be found in the book I consider his best, Love and Will. In his efforts at reconciling Freud and the existentialists, he turns his attention to motivation. His basic motivational construct is the daimonic. The daimonic is the entire system of motives, different for each individual. It is composed of a collection of specific motives called daimons. The word daimon is from the Greek, and means little god. It comes to us as demon, with a very negative connotation. But originally, a daimon could be bad or good. Daimons include lower needs, such as food and sex, as well as higher needs, such as love. Basically, he says, a daimon is anything that can take over the person, a situation he refers to as daimonic possession. It is then, when the balance among daimons is disrupted, that they should be considered “evil” as the phrase implies! This idea is similar to Binswanger’s idea of themes, or Horney’s idea of coping strategies. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 173 For May, one of the most important daimons is eros. Eros is love (not sex), and in Greek mythology was a minor god pictured as a young man. (See the story of Eros and Psyche by clicking here) Later, Eros would be transformed into that annoying little pest, Cupid. May understood love as the need we have to “become one” with another person, and refers to an ancient Greek story by Aristophanes: People were originally four-legged, four-armed, two-headed creatures. When we became a little too prideful, the gods split us in two, male and female, and cursed us with the never- ending desire to recover our missing half. There is the type he refers to as “neo-Puritan,” who is all will, but no love. They have amazing self-discipline, and can “make things happen”... but they have no wishes to act upon. So, they become “anal” and perfectionistic, but empty and “dried-up.” The archetypal example is Ebenezer Scrooge. The second type he refers to as “infantile.” They are all wishes but no will. Filled with dreams and desires, they do not have the self-discipline to make anything of their dreams and desires, and so become dependent and conformist. They love, but their love means little. Perhaps, Homer Simpson is the clearest example. The last type is the “creative” type. May recommend, wisely, that we should cultivate a balance of these two aspects of our personalities. He said “Man’s task is to unite love and will.” This idea is, in fact, an old one that we find among quite a few theorists. Otto Rank, for example, makes the same contrast with death (which includes both our need for others and our fear of life) and life (which includes both our need for autonomy and our fear of loneliness). Other theorists have talked about communion and agency, homonymy and autonomy, nurturance and assertiveness, affiliation and achievement, and so on. Myths May’s last book was The Cry for Myth. He pointed out that a big problem in the twentieth century was our loss of values. All the different values around us lead us to doubt all values. As Nietzsche pointed out, if God is dead (i.e., absolutes are gone), then anything is permitted! May says we have to create our own values, each of us individually. This, of course, is difficult to say the least. So we need help, not forced on us, but “offered up” for us to use as we will. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

174 System and Theories Enter myths, stories that help us to “make sense” out of our lives, “guiding narratives.” They resemble to some extent Jung’s archetypes, but they can be conscious and unconscious, collective and personal. A good example is how many people live their lives based on stories from the Bible. Other examples you may be familiar with include Horatio Alger, Oedipus Rex, Sisyphus, Romeo and Juliet, Casablanca, Leave it to Beaver, Star Wars, Little House on the Prairie, The Simpsons, South Park and the Fables of Aesop. As I intentionally suggest with this list, a lot of stories make lousy myths. Many stories emphasise the magical granting of one’s wishes (infantile). Others promise success in exchange for hard work and self-sacrifice (neo-Puritan). Many of our stories today say that valuelessness is itself the best value! Instead, says May, we should be actively working to create new myths that support people’s efforts at making the best of life, instead of undermining them. 8.9 Summary Psychologists in this school of thought believe that unconscious drives and experiences from early childhood are at the root of your behaviours and that conflict arises when societal restrictions are placed on these urges. Behavioural psychologists believe that external environmental stimuli influence your behaviour and that you can be trained to act a certain way. Behaviourists like B.F. Skinner don’t believe in free will. They believe that you learn through a system of reinforcements and punishment. Humanistic psychology includes several approaches to counseling and therapy. Among the earliest approaches we find the developmental theory of Abraham Maslow, emphasising a hierarchy of needs and motivations; the existential psychology of Rollo May acknowledging human choice and the tragic aspects of human existence; and the person-centred or client-centred therapy of Carl Rogers, which is centred on the client’s capacity for self-direction and understanding of his or her own development. Client-centred therapy is non-directive; the therapist listens to the client without judgement, allowing the client to come to insights by themselves. The therapist should ensure that all of the client’s feelings are being considered and that the therapist has a firm grasp on the concerns of the client while ensuring that there is an air of acceptance and warmth. Client-centred therapist engages in active listening during therapy sessions. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 175 Empathy is one of the most important aspects of humanistic therapy. This idea focuses on the therapist’s ability to see the world through the eyes of the client. Without this, therapists can be forced to apply an external frame of reference where the therapist does no longer understand the actions and thoughts of the client as the client would, but strictly as a therapist which defeats the purpose of humanistic therapy. Included in empathising, unconditional positive regard is one of the key elements of humanistic psychology. Concepts of humanistic psychology were embraced in education and social work, peaking in the 1970s-1980s in North America. However, as with the whole language theory, training practices were too superficial in most institutional settings. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggested that people have a number of needs, and as these needs are met they are able to go on to pursue other needs. The needs at the base of his hierarchy are more basic in nature, gradually moving up into more social, emotional and self-actualising needs as one moves up the hierarchy. Rogers is also known for practicing “unconditional positive regard,” which is defined as accepting a person in their entirety with no negative judgment of their essential worth. He believed that those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualise themselves, while those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard only feel worthy if they match conditions that have been laid down by others. 8.10 Key Words/Abbreviations  Congruity: An instance or point of agreement or correspondence between the ideal self and the real self in Rogers’ humanistic personality theory.  Holistic: Relating to the whole instead of a separation into parts.  Humanistic-Existential: Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in answer to the limitations of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and B. F. Skinner’s behaviourism.  Humanistic Psychology: A psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to psychoanalytic theory and behaviourism. This approach emphasises an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualisation and creativity. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

176 System and Theories  Maslow in Psychology: Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist perhaps best known as one of the founders of humanistic psychology and for his famous hierarchy of needs.  Maslow’s Humanism: As a leader of humanistic psychology, Abraham Maslow approached the study of personality psychology by focusing on subjective experiences and free will.  Phenomenal Field: Our subjective reality, all that we are aware of, including objects and people as well as our behaviours, thoughts, images, and ideas.  Rogers in Psychology: Carl Rogers’ humanistic personality theory emphasises the importance of the self-actualising tendency in forming a self-concept. 8.11 Learning Activity 1. You are suggested to identify the relevance of Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology for Society. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. You are required to prepare a report “Impact of Humanistic-Existential” in Indian society. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3. You are suggested to build a team of 5 members and prepare a write-up on “Impact of Person-centred Therapy”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 177 8.12 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Discuss the Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology. 2. Write note on: Humanistic-Existential. 3. Discuss about Counseling and Therapy. 4. Explain importance of using Humanistic and Existential Therapies. 5. Explain about Abraham Maslow’s Humanism. 6. Discuss in brief about Rogers in Psychology. 7. Explain in details about Rogers’ Person-centred Therapy. 8. Discuss about Rollo May in Psychology. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following explore the connection between your mental states and your brain, nerves and hormones to explore how your thoughts, moods and actions are shaped? (a) Biological psychologists (b) Theoretical Perspectives (c) Humanistic-Existential (d) Scientist 2. Which of the following is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the mid- 20th century in answer to the limitations of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory? (a) Biological psychologists (b) Theoretical Perspectives (c) Humanistic-Existential (d) Scientist 3. The important aspects of humanistic and existential approaches include __________. (a) Empathy (b) Encouragement of affect (c) Reflective listening (d) All the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

178 System and Theories 4. Who was an American psychologist perhaps best known as one of the founders of humanistic psychology and for his famous hierarchy of needs? (a) Abraham Maslow (b) Rogers (c) Rollo May (d) Philip Kotler 5. Which of the following humanistic personality theory emphasises the importance of the self-actualising tendency in forming a self-concept? (a) Abraham Maslow (b) Carl Rogers’ (c) Rollo May (d) Philip Kotler Answers: 1. (a), 2. (c), 3. (d), 4. (a), 5. (b) 8.13 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Field Theory 179 UNIT 9 FIELD THEORY Structure: 9.0 Learning Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Field Theory (Kurt Lewin) 9.3 Main Concepts of Lewin’s Field Theory 9.4 Classroom Implications of Field Theory 9.5 Summary 9.6 Key Words/Abbreviations 9.7 LearningActivity 9.8 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 9.9 References 9.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the Kurt Lewin  Elaborate concepts of Lewin’s Field Theory  Describe Classroom Implications of Field Theory CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

180 System and Theories 9.1 Introduction Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), unlike Pavlov, Skinner and Gestltian psychologists, conducted experiments on the study of behaviour of children. He utilised an elaborate experimental set-up with a view to control the child’s total environment during the course of the investigation for getting detailed information. 9.2 Field Theory (Kurt Lewin) Lewin emphasised the study of behaviour as a function of the total physical and social situation. Lewin holds that psychological laws need not be formulated solely on the basis of statistical averages. Rather the individual case is equally important. Figure 9.1: Kurt Lewin CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Field Theory 181 Even if all general psychological laws were known, we would still need to understand the specific individual and ‘total situation’ in which he exists before we could make any prediction about his behaviour. Thus, Lewin favours an idiographic psychology in which the focus is on the individual, as opposed to nomothetic psychology, where the emphasis is on Statistical average. Lewin describes his viewpoint in the following formula: B = f(PE) where, B represents behaviour f is a function P is the person E is the total environment situation. Lewin explains the individual behaviour on the basis of life-space. An individual’s life-space depends on his psychological force. It includes the person; his drives, tensions, thoughts and his environment, which consists of perceived objects and events. Lewin represents his theory through a diagram in which an individual is in the centre. He moves through his life-space which consists of the totality of facts that determine his behaviour at a given time. A life-space contains the individual himself, the goals he is seeking (positive valence) or avoiding (negative valence), the barriers that restrict the individual’s movements and the path he must follow to reach his goal. Desire creates tensions in the individual and tensions come to a balancing state and the person acts. After the goal has been achieved, the organism (individual) returns to a state of repose until a new desire activate him. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

182 System and Theories In Lewin’s theory, threat, goal and barrier are the main factors. An individual who has to achieve some goal has to cross a barrier. The barrier may be psychological or physical. Because of the changes in the barrier in the life-space of an individual, continuous reconstruction takes place. Lewin’s theory is called field theory as to a psychologist field means the total psychological world in which a person lives at a certain time. It includes matters and events of past, present and future, concrete and abstract, actual and imaginary – all interpreted as simultaneous aspects of a situation. Lewin states that each person exists within a field of forces. The field of forces to which the individual is responding or reacting is called his life-space. Lewin’s theory regards learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new insight or changes old ones. According to the theory, learning is not a mechanistic process of connecting stimuli and responses within a biological organism. Field psychology explains development of insight as a change in cognitive structure of life- space. Figure 9.2: Lewin’s Theory of Learning CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Field Theory 183 Lewin’s theory regards learning as a relativistic process by which a learnt develops new insight or changes old ones. According to the theory, learning is not a mechanistic process of connecting stimuli and response within a biological organism. Field psychology explains development of insight as a change in cognitive structure of life-space. Lewin’s theory may be explained as under: Suppose a person P is moving towards a goal of getting social recognition. But to achieve the goal, he has to apologies. New asking for apology is the barrier coming in his way. The barrier may be physical or psychological forces preventing him from reaching the goal. These forces organise themselves into a pattern which determines his future behaviour. Lewin has classified learning into the following categories: (i) Learning is a change in cognitive structure. (ii) Learning is a change in motivation, i.e., in valences and values. (iii) Learning is acquisition of skills. (iv) Learning is a change in group belonging. Learning of all types involves change in perception. Changes in cognitive structure are caused by the forces in the psychological field – needs, aspirations and valences. Lewin thinks that level of aspiration depends upon the potentialities of an individual and on the influences of the group to which he belongs. Too higher or too level of aspiration discourages learning. 9.3 Main Concepts of Lewin’s Field Theory Lewin’s system leans heavily on concepts derived from topology, a branch of higher mathematics that deals with transformation in space, from vector analysis, or the mathematics of directed lines and from the sciences of chemistry and physics concepts as Valence, equilibrium and field force. Lewin’s most important publication is Principles of Topological Psychology (1936). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

184 System and Theories The main concepts used in Lewin’s field theory are as follows: 1. Topology It is also called topological. Two basic concepts which topological space denotes are: (i) Connectedness, and (ii) Part-whole relationships. Topological concepts are used to represent the structure of life-space in such a way as to define the range of possible perceptions and actions. This is accomplished by showing the arrangements of the functional parts of life-space. The parts are shown as various regions and their boundaries. When an individual structures his life-space, he divides it into regions. 2. Vector The term vector represents a force which is influencing movement towards a goal or away from it. If there is only one vector (force), there is movement in the direction of the vector. However, if there are two or more vectors acting simultaneously in different directions, the movement is in the direction of the resultant force. 3. Life-space It is also called the psychological field. The psychological field is the space in which the person moves psychologically. It contains the whole of one’s psychological reality – one’s self and what one thinks of or what one gains from one’s physical and social environment. 4. The Person in Life-space The person is often represented as a point moving about in his life-space, affected by pulls and pushes upon him, circumventing barriers in his locomotion in his own life-space. 5. Valence When a person is attracted by an object, that object is said to have a positive valence. When a person is repelled by an object, that is said to have a negative valence. The person tends to move towards a region in life-space that has positive valence and he tends to move away from a region in life-space that has negative valence. Because life-space may contain regions with several valences active at a time, these give rise to conflict, especially when the opposing forces are approximately in balance. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Field Theory 185 Lewin specifies three chief kinds of conflict: (i) Two Positive Valence: Such as when a child has to choose between going to picnic and playing with his friends. (ii) A Simultaneous Positive and Negative Valence: Such as when a child is offered for a reward for the school task he does not wish to perform. (iii) Two Negative Valence: Such as when a child is threatened with punishment if he does not do a task which he does not wish to perform. 6. Distance and Direction When there is a close correspondence between life-space and physical space, physical distances and directions may be used for experimental purposes as approximations of distances and directions in life space. 7. Behaviour Lewin regards behaviour as a function of present life space. He insists that behaviour depends upon the present and not upon the past or future. 8. Barrier It is a dynamic part of an environment which resists motion through it. It stands in the way of a person’s reaching his goal. 9. Goal Goal is a region of valence-region of life-space to which a person is psychologically attracted. 10. Tension It is very closely to and is descriptive of psychological needs. Release of tension may be achieved either through reaching a goal or through reconstructing a life-space. 11. Cognitive Structure It is an environment including a person as known by the person. It is synonymous with insight or understanding. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

186 System and Theories 9.4 Classroom Implications of Field Theory Taking into consideration, the field theory as a whole, the classroom teaching-learning implications include the significance of seeing the total situation at the beginning of the lesson or an activity. The teacher should preview the activities involved and the problem to be encountered. Moreover, from the point of view of a field theorist, the teacher should keep in mind that the student, the teacher himself, other teachers, the school and the peer group – are all parts of the total situation. The need for seeing the whole and details of the situation is very necessary. The teacher must assist the students to perceive the goal and the barrier. The goal must be presented in an easier and simplified way. Sometimes partial insight of a situation may provide partial relief from tension. Following are the major educational implications of this theory: 1. Reward and Punishment According to Lewin, the learner because of attraction to rewards may resort to shortest methods. For example, to get distinction in the examination (record) the student may like to cheat (shortcut method). It is, therefore, necessary to put some barriers over the reward situation, to avoid access to such short methods. In the case of punishment, however, there is a tendency to leave the field because of the unpleasantness of the task, unless some strong barriers are there to keep one in the field. Reward activities often become interesting and are liked so that motivation is no longer extrinsic while the activities controlled by the threat of punishment tend to become extremely hated. 2. Success and Failure Psychological analysis of success from the point of view of the learner shows the following possibilities: (i) To reach a goal constitutes success. (ii) To get within the region of the goal may be a success experience. (iii) To make some progress in the direction of the goal also constitutes a success experience. (iv) To select a socially approved goal is also a success experience. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Field Theory 187 Psychological success or failure depends upon ego involvement and the level of aspiration. Success in easy task is not a success experience, since it does not involve the ego of the person. Similarly, failure in a very difficult task is no failure experience. 3. Motivation The repetition of an activity brings change both in the cognitive structure and in the need- tension systems. As a result of this goal, attractiveness changes. Lewin calls goal attractiveness valence and valence change. The valence may change in any of the following ways: (i) Attractive goals may lose attention if the activity related to them is repeated to the points of satiation. (ii) Choice of goals is influenced by previous experiences of success and failure. 4. Memory The field theory states the following regarding memory: (i) Tasks which have no sense in completion are not remembered. (ii) Unfinished tasks are remembered better than finished tasks because of psychological tension. (iii) Tasks which lead to the satisfaction of many needs are remembered better than tasks which lead to the satisfaction of one need. 9.5 Summary Lewin emphasised the study of behaviour as a function of the total physical and social situation. Lewin holds that psychological laws need not be formulated solely on the basis of statistical averages. Rather the individual case is equally important. A life-space contains the individual himself, the goals he is seeking (positive valence) or avoiding (negative valence), the barriers that restrict the individual’s movements and the path he must follow to reach his goal. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

188 System and Theories Desire creates tensions in the individual and tensions come to a balancing state and the person acts. After the goal has been achieved, the organism (individual) returns to a state of repose until a new desire activate him. The need for seeing the whole and details of the situation is very necessary. The teacher must assist the students to perceive the goal and the barrier. The goal must be presented in an easier and simplified way. According to Lewin, the learner because of attraction to rewards may resort to shortest methods. In the case of punishment, however, there is a tendency to leave the field because of the unpleasantness of the task, unless some strong barriers are there to keep one in the field. Reward activities often become interesting and are liked so that motivation is no longer extrinsic while the activities controlled by the threat of punishment tend to become extremely hated. 9.6 Key Words/Abbreviations  Field Theory: Field theory is a psychological theory (more precisely: Topological and vector psychology) which examines patterns of interaction between the individual and the total field, or environment.  Lewin’s Theory: Kurt Lewin theorised a three-stage model of change that is known as the unfreezing-change-refreeze model that requires prior learning to be rejected and replaced. Lewin’s theory states behaviour as “a dynamic balance of forces working in opposing directions”.  Lewin’s Field Theory: Lewin’s theory is called field theory as to a psychologist field means the total psychological world in which a person lives at a certain time  Topology: Topology is the mathematical study of the properties that are preserved through deformations, twistings and stretchings of objects.  Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structures are mental processes that individuals use to process and understand information. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Field Theory 189 9.7 Learning Activity 1. You are required to prepare a live project on “Lewin’s Theory and its Implications”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. “Learning of all types involves change in perception.” Elaborate. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3. You are suggested to explain about the concept Classroom Implications of Field Theory. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 9.8 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Discuss the Field Theory of Kurt Lewin. 2. Explain about learning of all types involves change in perception. 3. Discuss the main concepts of Lewin’s Field Theory. 4. Write notes on: (i) Topology, (ii) Vector and (iii) Life-space. 5. Explain in details about Classroom Implications of Field Theory. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following year Kurt Lewin conducted experiments on the study of _________. (a) Behaviour of Children (b) Behaviour of Parents (c) Teaching Methods (d) All the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

190 System and Theories 2. Which of the following is the life span of Kurt Lewin? (a) 1892-1947 (b) 1890-1947 (c) 1891-1949 (d) 1889-1942 3. Which of the following emphasised the study of behaviour as a function of the total physical and social situation? (a) Kent (b) Abraham Maslow (c) Lewin (d) Rogers 4. Lewin has classified learning into the __________. (a) Learning is a change in cognitive structure (b) Learning is a change in motivation, i.e., in valences and values (c) Learning is acquisition of skills (d) All the above 5. Which of the following is the concept of Lewin’s Field Theory? (a) Topology (b) Life-space (c) Valence (d) All the above Answers: 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (d), 5. (d) 9.9 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Development Perspective of Piaget 191 UNIT 10 DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE OF PIAGET Structure: 10.0 Learning Objectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Development Perspective of Piaget 10.3 Basic Components to Piaget’s Cognitive Theory 10.4 Assimilation and Accommodation 10.5 Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development 10.6 Educational Implications 10.7 Summary 10.8 Key Words/Abbreviations 10.9 LearningActivity 10.10 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 10.11 References 10.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the Piaget  Ellaborate basic components to Piaget’s Cognitive Theory CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

192 System and Theories 10.1 Introduction Piaget’s (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment. 10.2 Development Perspective of Piaget Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children. Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading their IQ. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged. Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based. Piaget's Theory differs from others in several ways: 1. It is concerned with children, rather than all learners. 2. It focuses on development, rather than learning per se. So, it does not address learning of information or specific behaviours. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Development Perspective of Piaget 193 3. It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviours, concepts, ideas, etc. The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses. To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganisation of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment. 10.3 Basic Components to Piaget’s Cognitive Theory Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience or to plan future actions. Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental representation of the world. Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.” In more simple terms, Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behaviour – a way of organising knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts. Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as ‘index cards’ filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information. When Piaget talked about the development of a person’s mental processes, he was referring to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)