MAP601_Systems and Theories

44 System and Theories Brief History of Behaviourism Behaviourism was formally established with the 1913 publication of John B. Watson’s classic paper, “Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It.” It is best summed up by the following quote from Watson, who is often considered the “father” of behaviourism: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” Simply put, strict behaviourists believe that all behaviours are the result of experience. Any person, regardless of his or her background, can be trained to act in a particular manner given the right conditioning. From about 1920 through the mid-1950s, behaviourism grew to become the dominant school of thought in psychology. Some suggest that the popularity of behavioural psychology grew out of the desire to establish psychology as an objective and measurable science. Researchers were interested in creating theories that could be clearly described and empirically measured but also used to make contributions that might have an influence on the fabric of everyday human lives. Behaviourism emerged as a reaction to mentalism, a subjective approach to research used by psychologists in the latter half of the 19th century. In mentalism, the mind is studied by analogy and by examining one’s own thoughts and feelings—a process called introspection. Mentalist observations were considered too subjective by the behaviourists, as they differed significantly among individual researchers, often leading to contradictory and irreproducible findings. There are two main types of behaviourism: methodological behaviourism, which was heavily influenced by John B. Watson’s work, and radical behaviourism, which was pioneered by psychologist B.F. Skinner. Methodological Behaviourism by John B. Watson In 1913, psychologist John B. Watson published the paper that would be considered the manifesto of early behaviourism: “Psychology as the behaviourist views it.” In this paper, Watson rejected CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 45 mentalist methods and detailed his philosophy on what psychology should be: the science of behaviour, which he called “behaviourism.” It should be noted that although Watson is often labeled the “founder” of behaviourism, he was by no means the first person to criticise introspection, nor was he the first to champion objective methods for studying psychology. After Watson’s paper, however, behaviourism gradually took hold. By the 1920s, a number of intellectuals, including well-regarded figures such as the philosopher and later Nobel Laureate Bertrand Russell, recognised the significance of Watson’s philosophy. Radical Behaviourism Of the behaviourists after Watson, perhaps the most well known is B.F. Skinner. Contrasting many other behaviourists of the time, Skinner’s ideas focused on scientific explanations rather than methods. Skinner believed that observable behaviours were outward manifestations of unseen mental processes, but that it was more convenient to study those observable behaviours. His approach to behaviourism was to understand the relationship between an animal’s behaviours and its environment. Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning Behaviourists believe humans learn behaviours through conditioning, which associates a stimulus in the environment, such as a sound, to a response, such as what a human does when they hear that sound. Key studies in behaviourism demonstrate the difference between two types of conditioning: classical conditioning, which is associated with psychologists like Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson, and operant conditioning, associated with B.F. Skinner. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs The Pavlov’s dogs experiment is a widely known experiment involving dogs, meat, and the sound of a bell. At the start of the experiment, dogs would be presented meat, which would cause them to salivate. When they heard a bell, however, they did not. For the next step in the experiment, the dogs heard a bell before they were brought food. Over time, the dogs learned that a ringing bell meant food, so they would begin to salivate when they heard the bell even though they didn’t react to the bells before. Through this experiment, the dogs gradually learned to associate the sounds of a bell with food, even though they didn’t react to the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

46 System and Theories bells before. The Pavlov’s dogs experiment demonstrates classical conditioning: the process by which an animal or human learns to associate two previously unrelated stimuli with each other. Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the response to one stimulus (salivating at the smell of food) with a “neutral” stimulus that previously did not evoke a response (the ringing of a bell.) This type of conditioning involves involuntary responses. Classical Conditioning: Little Albert In another experiment that showed the classical conditioning of emotions in humans, the psychologist J.B. Watson and his graduate student Rosalie Rayner exposed a 9-month-old child, whom they called “Little Albert,” to a white rat and other furry animals, like a rabbit and a dog, as well as to cotton, wool, burning newspapers, and other stimuli—all of which did not frighten Albert. Later, however, Albert was allowed to play with a white lab rat. Watson and Rayner then made a loud sound with a hammer, which frightened Albert and made him cry. After repeating this several times, Albert became very distressed when he was presented with only the white rat. This showed that he had learned to associate his response (becoming afraid and crying) to another stimulus that had not frightened him before. Operant Conditioning: Skinner Boxes Psychologist B.F. Skinner placed a hungry rat in a box containing a lever. As the rat moved around the box, it would occasionally press the lever, consequently discovering that food would drop when the lever was pressed. After some time, the rat began running straight toward the lever when it was placed inside the box, suggesting that the rat had figured out that the lever meant it would get food. In a similar experiment, a rat was placed inside a Skinner box with an electrified floor, causing the rat discomfort. The rat found out that pressing the lever stopped the electric current. After some time, the rat figured out that the lever would mean that it would no longer be subject to an electric current, and the rat began running straight toward the lever when it was placed inside the box. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 47 3.6 Gestalt Psychology Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that believes all objects and scenes can be observed in their simplest forms. This referred to as the 'Law of Simplicity,’ the theory proposes that the whole of an object or scene is more important than its individual parts. Observing the whole helps we find order in chaos and unity among outwardly unrelated parts and pieces of information. Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that was founded in the 20th century. It provided a framework for the study of perception. The premise of Gestalt psychology emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts and that attributes of the whole can't be deduced by analyzing any of the parts on their own accord. Gestalt theory began in Austria and Germany as a reaction to associationism and structuralism schools of thought. Associationism theory suggests that pairs of thoughts connect based on experience. Structuralism is viewed as one of the first schools of thought in psychology. The premise of structuralism is breaking down mental processes into basic components. Gestalt theory focuses on the study of consciousness, objects of direct experience and the science of phenomena. Gestalt psychology proposes a unique perspective on human perception. According to Gestalt psychologists, we don’t just see the world; we actively interpret what we see, depending on what we are expecting to see. A famous French author, Anaïs Nin, who was not a psychologist, framed that idea in an interesting way: ‘We do not see the world as it is; we see it as we are.’ Gestalt psychology encourages people to ‘think outside of the box’ and look for patterns. Gestalt Psychology (1935) suggested that the laws of perception were equally applicable to learning. A learning situation is a problem situation and the learner has to see the problem as a whole and find its solution by insight. The law of organization of perception as applicable to learning is the law of Pragnaz and four laws of organization subordinate to it the laws of similarity, proximity, closure and good continuation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

48 System and Theories Figure: 3.4 Gestalt Psychology Laws of Perceptual Organisation One of the laws of perceptual organisation is that of apparent motion, through which the whole is more important than the individual parts. When you view an animated cartoon or any kind of film, you will perceive motion when the individual frames are strung together. You will not see the individual frames; you will see action and motion that tells a story. For example, in a cartoon, a character may run off the edge of the cliff and, for a moment, tread air until he looks down, sees his situation and then plummets to the floor of a canyon to become a flat coyote, cat or bunny. In reality, all of this apparent motion is nothing more than a sequence of frames strung together and proof that ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’. In watching the cartoon, we perceive the motion, but we do not perceive the individual frames that create the illusion of motion. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 49 Dialogical Relationship To create the conditions under which a dialogic moment might occur, the therapist attends to his or her own presence, creates the space for the client to enter in and become present as well (called inclusion), and commits him or herself to the dialogic process, surrendering to what takes place, as opposed to attempting to control it. With presence, the therapist judiciously “shows up” as a whole and authentic person, instead of assuming a role, false self or persona. The word ‘judicious’ used above refers to the therapists taking into account the specific strengths, weaknesses and values of the client. The only good client is a live client, so driving a client away by injudicious exposure of intolerable [to this client] experience of the therapist is obviously counter-productive. For example, for an atheistic therapist to tell a devout client that religion is myth would not be useful, especially in the early stages of the relationship. To practice inclusion is to accept however the client chooses to be present, whether in a defensive and obnoxious stance or a superficially cooperative one. To practice inclusion is to support the presence of the client, including his or her resistance, not as a gimmick but in full realisation that this is how the client is actually present and is the best this client can do at this time. Finally, the Gestalt therapist is committed to the process, trusts in that process, and does not attempt to save him or herself from it. Field-theoretical Strategies Field theory is a concept borrowed from physics in which people and events are no longer considered discrete units but as parts of something larger, which are influenced by everything including the past, and observation itself. “The field” can be considered in two ways. There are ontological dimensions and there are phenomenological dimensions to one’s field. The ontological dimensions are all those physical and environmental contexts in which we live and move. They might be the office in which one works, the house in which one lives, the city and country of which one is a citizen, and so forth. The ontological field is the objective reality that supports our physical existence. The phenomenological dimensions are all mental and physical dynamics that contribute to a person’s sense of self, one’s subjective experience—not merely elements of the environmental context. These might be the memory of an uncle’s inappropriate affection, one’s color blindness, one’s sense of the social matrix in operation at the office in which one works, and so forth. The way that Gestalt therapists choose to work with field dynamics makes what they do strategic. Gestalt therapy focuses upon character structure; according to Gestalt theory, the character structure is dynamic rather than CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

50 System and Theories fixed in nature. To become aware of one’s character structure, the focus is upon the phenomenological dimensions in the context of the ontological dimensions. 3.7 Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is defined as a set of psychological theories and therapeutic techniques that have their origin in the work and theories of Sigmund Freud. The core idea at the center of psychoanalysis is the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. By bringing the content of the unconscious into conscious awareness, people are then able to experience catharsis and gain insight into their current state of mind. Through this process, people are then able to find relief from psychological disturbances and distress. Doctrines of Psychoanalysis (a) The way that people behave is influenced by their unconscious drives. (b) The development of personality is heavily influenced by the events of early childhood; Freud suggested that personality was largely set in stone by the age of five. (c) Bringing information from the unconscious into consciousness can lead to catharsis and allow people to deal with the issue. (d) People utilise a number of defense mechanisms to protect themselves from information contained in the unconscious. (e) Emotional and psychological problems such as depression and anxiety are often rooted in conflicts between the conscious and unconscious mind. (f) A skilled analyst can help bring certain aspects of the unconscious into awareness by using a variety of psychoanalytic strategies such as dream analysis and free association. Freud believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining insight. The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e., make the unconscious conscious. It is only having a cathartic (i.e., healing) experience can the person be helped and “cured”. Freud’s theories of psychosexual stages, the unconscious, and dream symbolism remain a popular topic among both psychologists and lay persons, despite the fact that his work is sometimes CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 51 viewed with skepticism by many today. Many of Freud’s observations and theories were based on clinical cases and case studies, making his findings difficult to generalise to a larger population. Regardless, Freud’s theories changed how we think about the human mind and behaviour and left a lasting mark on psychology and culture. Another theorist associated with psychoanalysis is Erik Erikson. Erikson expanded upon Freud’s theories and stressed the importance of growth throughout the lifespan. Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory of personality remains influential today in our understanding of human development. According to the American Psychoanalytic Association, psychoanalysis helps people understand themselves by exploring the impulses they often do not recognise because they are hidden in the unconscious. Today, psychoanalysis encompasses not only psychoanalytic therapy but also applied psychoanalysis (which applies psychoanalytic principles to real-world settings and situations) as well as neuro-psychoanalysis (which applied neuroscience to psychoanalytic topics such as dreams and repression). While traditional Freudian approaches may have fallen out of favour, modern approaches to psychoanalytic therapy emphasise a nonjudgmental and empathetic approach. Clients are able to feel safe as they explore feelings, desires, memories, and stressors that can lead to psychological difficulties. Research has also demonstrated that the self-examination utilised in the psychoanalytic process can help contribute to long-term emotional growth. 3.8 Summary The psychological schools are the great classical theories of psychology. Each has been highly influential; however, most psychologists hold eclectic viewpoints that combine aspects of each school. There are different schools in psychology, among of these are Structuralism, Functionalism, the Gestalt Psychology, Behaviourism, Psychoanalysis, Humanism and Cognitive Psychology. Structuralism is led by Wudnt and Titchener. This school of psychology is primarily deals with the study of the element which form the structure of the mind. Structuralist used the method of “Introspection”. Functionalism was developed at the University of Chicago. It was led by John Dewey and James Angell. It also developed at the Harvard University with William James. Functionalist are involved in studying the functions of consciousness. They believed that the learning process was aided by consciousness. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

52 System and Theories Behaviourism is a systematic approach to understanding the behaviour of humans and other animals. It assumes that behaviour is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual’s history, including especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual’s current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviourists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining behaviour, they focus primarily on environmental events. Behaviourism refers to a psychological approach which emphasises scientific and objective methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviours, and states all behaviours are learned through interaction with the environment. For the next step in the experiment, the dogs heard a bell before they were brought food. Over time, the dogs learned that a ringing bell meant food, so they would begin to salivate when they heard the bell even though they did not react to the bells before. Through this experiment, the dogs gradually learned to associate the sounds of a bell with food, even though they did not react to the bells before. 3.9 Key Words/Abbreviations  Structuralism: Structuralism in psychology is a theory of consciousness developed by Wilhelm Wundt and his student Edward Bradford Titchener.  Functionalism: Functionalism refers to a psychological school of thought that was a direct outgrowth of Darwinian thinking which focuses attention on the utility and purpose of behaviour that has been modified over years of human existence.  Behaviourism: Behaviourism is a systematic approach to understanding the behaviour of humans and other animals.  Radical Behaviourism: Radical behaviourism refers to the philosophy behind behaviour analysis, and is to be distinguished from methodological behaviourism which has an intense emphasis on observable behaviours by its inclusion of thinking, feeling, and other private events in the analysis of human and animal psychology.  Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus, in order to produce a behavioural response known as a conditioned response. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 53  Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour. 3.10 Learning Activity 1. You are required to prepare the report on “Structuralism and Functionalism”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. You are suggested to identify the distinguish between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3. You are required to prepare a report on “Psychoanalysis”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3.11 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Discuss in details about Schools of Psychology. 2. Explain in details about Structuralism. 3. What is Functionalism? Discuss the contributions of James and Functionalism. 4. Explain about the History of Functionalism. 5. What is Behaviourism? Explain the history of Behaviourism. 6. Explain the Methodological Behaviourism. 7. What is Radical Behaviourism? Explain the Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning. 8. Explain in details about Gestalt psychology. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

54 System and Theories 9. Discuss about Laws of Perceptual Organisation. 10. Explain in details about Psychoanalysis. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is the part of schools of Psychology? (a) Structuralism (b) Functionalism (c) Gestalt Psychology (d) All the above 2. Who is led by Structuralism? (b) John B. Watson (a) Wudnt and Titchener (d) Gestalt psychology (c) Sigmund Freud 3. When the Behaviourism was established? (a) 1913 (b) 1970 (c) 1940 (d) 1921 4. Behaviourists believe humans learn behaviours through conditioning, which associates a stimulus in the environment, such as __________. (a) A sound (b) A response (c) A human (d) All the above 5. Psychoanalysis was founded by __________. (a) Wudnt and Titchener (b) John B. Watson (c) Sigmund Freud (d) Gestalt Psychology Answers: 1. (d), 2. (a), 3. (a), 4. (a), 5. (c) 3.12 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 55 UNIT 4 PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORIES Structure: 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Sigmund Freud 4.3 Ideas of Sigmund Freud 4.4 Psychoanalytical Theory of Sigmund Freud 4.5 Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind 4.6 Summary 4.7 Key Words/Abbreviations 4.8 Learning Activity 4.9 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 4.10 References 4.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe and analyse the theories of psychoanalysis  Explain Psychoanalytical Theory of Sigmund Freud  Ellaborate Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

56 System and Theories 4.1 Introduction According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, personality develops through a series of stages, each characterised by a certain internal psychological conflict. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behaviour is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego and superego. This “structural theory” of personality places great importance on how conflicts among the parts of the mind shape behaviour and personality. These conflicts are mostly unconscious. According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is critically shaped through a series of five psychosexual stages, which he called his psychosexual theory of development. During each stage, a child is presented with a conflict between biological drives and social expectations; successful navigation of these internal conflicts will lead to mastery of each developmental stage, and ultimately to a fully mature personality. Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development. 4.2 Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire. He qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology and became an affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938, Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis. He died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In founding psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freud’s redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the clinical analysis of symptom formation and the underlying mechanisms of repression. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, ego and super ego. Freud postulated the existence of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 57 libido, a sexualised energy with which mental processes and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and a death drive, the source of compulsive repetition, hate, aggression and neurotic guilt. In his later works, Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Figure 4.1: Sigmund Freud The overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry and psychotherapy, and across the humanities. It thus continues to generate extensive and highly contested debate with regard to its therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status, and whether it advances or is detrimental to the feminist cause. Nonetheless, Freud’s work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. W.H. Auden’s 1940 poetic tribute to Freud describes him as having created “a whole climate of opinion/under whom we conduct our different lives”. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

58 System and Theories 4.3 Ideas of Sigmund Freud Early Work Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873. He took almost nine years to complete his studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological research, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system, and because of his interest in studying philosophy with Franz Brentano. He entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons, receiving his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25. Amongst his principal concerns in the 1880s was the anatomy of the brain, specifically the medulla oblongata. He intervened in the important debates about aphasia with his monograph of 1891, Zur Auffassung der Aphasien, in which he coined the term agnosia and counselled against a too locationist view of the explanation of neurological deficits. Like his contemporary Eugen Bleuler, he emphasised brain function rather than brain structure. Freud was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which was then known as “cerebral paralysis”. He published several medical papers on the topic, and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William John Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom. Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness in order to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions. Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging a patient to talk about dreams and engage in free association, in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so. Another important element of psychoanalysis is transference, the process by which patients displace onto their analysts feelings and ideas which derive from previous figures in their lives. Transference was first seen as a regrettable phenomenon that interfered with the recovery of repressed memories and disturbed patients’ objectivity, but by 1912, Freud had come to see it as an essential part of the therapeutic process. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 59 The origin of Freud’s early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to Josef Breuer. Freud credited Breuer with opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical method by his treatment of the case of Anna O. In November 1880, Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21-year- old woman for a persistent cough that he diagnosed as hysterical. He found that while nursing her dying father, she had developed a number of transitory symptoms, including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent, and observed that she entered states of absence. He found that when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy stories in her evening states of absence her condition improved, and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. Following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated again. Breuer recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously, and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom. In the years immediately following Breuer’s treatment, Anna O. spent three short periods in sanatoria with the diagnosis “hysteria” with “somatic symptoms”, and some authors have challenged Breuer’s published account of a cure. Richard Skues rejects this interpretation, which he sees as stemming from both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical revisionism that regards both Breuer’s narrative of the case as unreliable and his treatment of Anna O. as a failure. Psychologist Frank Sulloway contends that “Freud’s case histories are rampant with censorship, distortions, highly dubious ‘reconstructions,’ and exaggerated claims”. Seduction Theory In the early 1890s, Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Breuer had described to him, modified by what he called his “pressure technique” and his newly developed analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruction. According to Freud’s later accounts of this period, as a result of his use of this procedure most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported early childhood sexual abuse. He believed these stories, which he used as the basis for his seduction theory, but then he came to believe that they were fantasies. He explained these at first as having the function of “fending off” memories of infantile masturbation, but in later years he wrote that they represented Oedipal fantasies, stemming from innate drives that are sexual and destructive in nature. Another version of events focuses on Freud’s proposing that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses in letters to Fliess in October 1895, before he reported that CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

60 System and Theories he had actually discovered such abuse among his patients. In the first half of 1896, Freud published three papers, which led to his seduction theory, stating that he had uncovered, in all of his current patients, deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in early childhood. In these papers, Freud recorded that his patients were not consciously aware of these memories, and must therefore be present as unconscious memories if they were to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neurosis. The patients were subjected to considerable pressure to “reproduce” infantile sexual abuse “scenes” that Freud was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious. Patients were generally unconvinced that their experiences of Freud’s clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He reported that even after a supposed “reproduction” of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief. Cocaine As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He believed that cocaine was a cure for many mental and physical problems, and in his 1884 paper “On Coca” he extolled its virtues. Between 1883 and 1887, he wrote several articles recommending medical applications, including its use as an antidepressant. He narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific priority for discovering its anesthetic properties of which he was aware but had mentioned only in passing. Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for morphine addiction. He had introduced cocaine to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow, who had become addicted to morphine taken to relieve years of excruciating nerve pain resulting from an infection acquired after injuring himself while performing an autopsy. His claim that Fleischl-Marxow was cured of his addiction was premature, though he never acknowledged that he had been at fault. Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of “cocaine psychosis”, and soon returned to using morphine, dying a few years later still suffering from intolerable pain. The application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world, Freud’s medical reputation became somewhat tarnished. After the “Cocaine Episode” Freud ceased to publicly recommend use of the drug, but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before discontinuing its use in 1896. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 61 The Unconscious The concept of the unconscious was central to Freud’s account of the mind. Freud believed that while poets and thinkers had long known of the existence of the unconscious, he had ensured that it received scientific recognition in the field of psychology. Freud states explicitly that his concept of the unconscious as he first formulated it was based on the theory of repression. He postulated a cycle in which ideas are repressed, but remain in the mind, removed from consciousness yet operative, then reappear in consciousness under certain circumstances. The postulate was based upon the investigation of cases of hysteria, which revealed instances of behaviour in patients that could not be explained without reference to ideas or thoughts of which they had no awareness and which analysis revealed were linked to the (real or imagined) repressed sexual scenarios of childhood. In his later re-formulations of the concept of repression in his 1915 paper ‘Repression’ (Standard Edition XIV) Freud introduced the distinction in the unconscious between primary repression linked to the universal taboo on incest (‘innately present originally’) and repression (‘after expulsion’) that was a product of an individual’s life history (‘acquired in the course of the ego’s development’) in which something that was at one point conscious is rejected or eliminated from consciousness. In his account of the development and modification of his theory of unconscious mental processes, he sets out in his 1915 paper ‘The Unconscious’ (Standard Edition XIV), Freud identifies the three perspectives he employs: the dynamic, the economic and the topographical. The dynamic perspective concerns firstly the constitution of the unconscious by repression and secondly the process of “censorship” which maintains unwanted, anxiety inducing thoughts as such. Here, Freud is drawing on observations from his earliest clinical work in the treatment of hysteria. In the economic perspective the focus is upon the trajectories of the repressed contents “the vicissitudes of sexual impulses” as they undergo complex transformations in the process of both symptom formation and normal unconscious thought such as dreams and slips of the tongue. These were topics Freud explored in detail in The Interpretation of Dreams and The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. Whereas both these former perspectives focus on the unconscious as it is about to enter consciousness, the topographical perspective represents a shift in which the systemic properties of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

62 System and Theories the unconscious, its characteristic processes and modes of operation such as condensation and displacement, are placed in the foreground. Dreams In Freud’s theory dreams are instigated by the daily occurrences and thoughts of everyday life. In what Freud called the “dream-work”, these “secondary process” thoughts (“word presentations”), governed by the rules of language and the reality principle, become subject to the “primary process” of unconscious thought (“thing presentations”) governed by the pleasure principle, wish gratification and the repressed sexual scenarios of childhood. Because of the disturbing nature of the latter and other repressed thoughts and desires which may have become linked to them, the dream-work operates a censorship function, disguising by distortion, displacement and condensation the repressed thoughts so as to preserve sleep. In the clinical setting Freud encouraged free association to the dream’s manifest content, as recounted in the dream narrative, so as to facilitate interpretative work on its latent content the repressed thoughts and fantasies and also on the underlying mechanisms and structures operative in the dream-work. 4.4 Psychoanalytical Theory of Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behaviour is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego and superego. This theory, known as Freud’s structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behaviour and personality. Dynamic interactions among these fundamental parts of the mind are thought to progress through five distinct psychosexual stages of development. Over the last century, however, Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development. Key Points (i) Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behaviour is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego and superego. (ii) This “structural theory” of personality places great importance on how conflicts among the parts of the mind shape behaviour and personality. These conflicts are mostly unconscious. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 63 (iii) According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is critically shaped through a series of five psychosexual stages, which he called his psychosexual theory of development. (iv) During each stage, a child is presented with a conflict between biological drives and social expectations; successful navigation of these internal conflicts will lead to mastery of each developmental stage, and ultimately to a fully mature personality. (v) Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development. Psychosexual Stages of Development Various psychosexual stages of development are as follows: 1. Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year) In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby’s mouth. It gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands, which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting and breastfeeding. Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviours, particularly when under stress. 2. Anal Stage (1 to 3 Years) The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed). Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child’s future relationship with all forms of authority. Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight- fisted with their cash and possessions. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

64 System and Theories 3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years) Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent. 4. Latency Stage (6 Tears to Puberty) No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies and friendships. Much of the child’s energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender. 5. Genital Stage (Puberty to Adult) This is the last stage of Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20s. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 65 For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse. 4.5 Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego and superego. Conflicts among these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of them “desires,” determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike in any given situation determines how we will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioural tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal control over those drives. Figure 4.2: Conflict within the Mind According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the superego. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

66 System and Theories The Id The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream. The Superego The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people call their “conscience” or their “moral compass”. It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not take their ice cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if both your id and your superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to override your superego’s concern, you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions. The Ego In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the “self,” and its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. So, if you walked past the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your id (“I want that ice cream right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take someone else’s ice cream”) and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the compromise—satisfying your desire for ice cream while also avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame. Freud believed that the id, ego and superego are in constant conflict and that adult personality and behaviour are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout childhood. He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and that imbalances in this system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and depression) and unhealthy behaviours. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 67 Figure 4.3: The Id, Ego and Superego According to Freud’s structural model, the personality is divided into the id, ego and superego. In this figure, the smaller portion above the water signifies the conscious mind, while the much larger portion below the water illustrates the unconscious mind. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

68 System and Theories Criticism of Freud’s Theories Although Freud’s theories have many advantages that helped to expand our psychological understanding of personality, they are not without limits. Narrow Focus In his singular emphasis on the structure of the human mind, Freud paid little to no attention to the impact of environment, sociology, or culture. His theories were highly focused on pathology and largely ignored “normal,” healthy functioning. He has also been criticised for his myopic view of human sexuality to the exclusion of other important factors. No Scientific Basis Many critics point out that Freud’s theories are not supported by any empirical (experimental) data. In fact, as researchers began to take a more scientific look at his ideas, they found that several were unable to be supported: in order for a theory to be scientifically valid, it must be possible to disprove (“falsify”) it with experimental evidence, and many of Freud’s notions are not falsifiable. Misogyny Feminists and modern critics have been particularly critical of many of Freud’s theories, pointing out that the assumptions and approaches of psychoanalytic theory are profoundly patriarchal (male- dominated), anti-feminist, and misogynistic (anti-woman). Karen Horney, a psychologist who followed Freud, saw the mainstream Freudian approach as having a foundation of “masculine narcissism.” Feminist Betty Friedan referred to Freud’s concept of “penis envy” as a purely social bias typical of the Victorian era and showed how the concept played a key role in discrediting alternative notions of femininity in the early to mid-20th century. 4.6 Summary Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire. He CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 69 qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology and became an affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938, Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis. He died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873. He took almost nine years to complete his studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological research, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system, and because of his interest in studying philosophy with Franz Brentano. He entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons, receiving his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25. Amongst his principal concerns in the 1880s was the anatomy of the brain, specifically the medulla oblongata. Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness in order to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions. According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego and superego. Conflicts among these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of them “desires”, determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike in any given situation determines how we will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioural tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialised internal control over those drives. The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream. 4.7 Key Words/Abbreviations  The Unconscious: The unconscious is the portion of the mind of which a person is not aware. Freud said that it is the unconscious that exposes the true feelings, emotions, and thoughts of the individual. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

70 System and Theories  Psychosexual development: Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.  Psychotherapy: Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction with adults, to help a person change behaviour and overcome problems in desired ways.  The Id: The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges.  The Superego: The superego is concerned with social rules and morals similar to what many people call their” conscience” or their “moral compass.”  The Ego: The ego is the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. 4.8 Learning Activity 1. You are required to prepare a live project on “Ideas of Sigmund Freud and their implications”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. You are suggested to identify the ego related to Sigmund Freud Theory. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 4.9 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Write the biography of Sigmund Freud and his contribution regarding psychology. 2. Discus various ideas of Sigmund Freud. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychoanalytical Theories 71 3. Discuss about Psychoanalytical Theory of Sigmund Freud. 4. Discuss about Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind. 5. Explain about Criticism of Freud’s Theories. 6. Discuss about Classical Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory. 7. Explain about Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Who were an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology? (a) Wudnt and Titchener (b) Sigmund Freud (c) John B. Watson (d) Gestalt Psychology 2. Who developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, establishing its central role in the analytic process? (a) Wudnt and Titchener (b) John B. Watson (c) Sigmund Freud (d) Gestalt Psychology 3. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behaviour is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind __________. (a) The id, ego and superego (b) The ego, performance and id (c) The id, superego and attitude (d) Non the of the above 4. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behaviour is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind __________. (a) The Id (b) Ego (c) Superego (d) All the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

72 System and Theories 5. Which of the following is not the criticism of Freud’s Theories? (a) Narrow Focus (b) No Scientific Basis (c) Physiology (d) Misogyny Answers: 1. (b), 2. (c), 3. (a), 4. (d), 5. (c) 4.10 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 73 UNIT 5 NEO-FREUDIANS Structure: 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Carl Jung 5.3 Analytic Psychology 5.4 Jung and Freud 5.5 The Way to Individuation 5.6 Personality Mapping 5.7 Jung’s Stages of Development 5.8 Alfred Adler 5.9 Individual Psychology 5.10 Summary 5.11 Key Words/Abbreviations 5.12 LearningActivity 5.13 Unit End Exercises 5.14 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

74 System and Theories 5.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the analytical and individual psychology  Describe Analytic Psychology 5.1 Introduction Neo-Psychoanalytical Psychologists were thinkers who agreed with the basis of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory, but changed and adapted the theory to incorporate their own beliefs, ideas and theories. Many of these thinkers agreed with Freud's concept of the unconscious mind and the importance of early childhood. There were a number of points that other thinkers disagreed with or directly rejected. Neo-Psychoanalytic theory refers to the definition and dynamics of personality development which underlie and guide psychoanalytic and psychodynamic psychotherapy. Neo-pscyhoanalytics such as Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Erik Erikson argue that personality continues to develop after infancy, and so experiences in later years can contribute to the experience of anxiety. There were a number of Neo-Psychoanalytic thinkers who broke with the Freudian psychoanalytic tradition to develop their own psychodynamic theories. Some of these individuals were initially part of Freud's inner circle including Carl Jung and Alfred Adler. Freud and Jung once had a close friendship, but Jung broke away to form his own ideas. Jung referred to his theory of personality as analytical psychology, and he introduced the concept of the collective unconscious. He described this as a universal structure shared by all members of the same species containing all of the instincts and archetypes that influence human behavior. Jung still placed great emphasis on the unconscious, but his theory placed a higher emphasis on his concept of the collective unconscious rather than the personal unconscious. Like many of the other neo-Freudians, Jung also focused less on sex than did Freud. Adler believed that Freud's theories focused too heavily on sex as the primary motivator for human behavior. Instead, Adler placed a lesser emphasis on the role of the unconscious and a CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 75 greater focus on interpersonal and social influences. His approach, known as individual psychology, was centered on the drive that all people have to compensate for their feelings of inferiority. The inferiority complex, he suggested, was a person's feelings and doubts that they do not measure up to other people or to society's expectations. Neo-psychoanalytical perspective is developed of various personality theories have been formulated since the birth of professional psychology. Such theories serve as a helpful lens in understanding the etiology and maintenance of psychological disturbances, one of the most prevalent of which is anxiety. Anxiety is defined as a highly unpleasant affective state similar to intense fear which can include feelings of threat, vague objectless fear, a state of uneasiness and tension, and a generalized feeling of apprehension. The causes of anxiety include factors contained in the biological, psychological, and social domains, which are mediated by a range of risk and protective factors. Prevalence rates for total anxiety disorders range between 10.6% and 16.6%, with women showing higher prevalence rates across all categories. Personality theorists differ in their views on how anxiety manifests and is maintained throughout development. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, placed a large emphasis on instinctual biological forces as determinants of personality and disorder. Freud theorized that anxiety originates from experiences during infancy that remain unresolved and live in the subconscious. 5.2 Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work was influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy, and religious studies. Jung worked as a research scientist at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler. During this time, he came to the attention of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. The two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated, for a while, on a joint vision of human psychology. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

76 System and Theories Figure: 5.1 Carl Jung Archetype Archetypes were a concept introduced by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, who believed that archetypes were models of people, behaviors, or personalities. Archetypes, he suggested, were inborn tendencies that play a role in influencing human behavior. Jung believed that the human psyche was composed of three components: the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious.1 According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind while the personal unconscious contains memories including those that have been suppressed. The collective unconscious is a unique component in that Jung believed that this part of the psyche served as a form of psychological inheritance. It contained all of the knowledge and experiences we share as a species. In Jungian psychology, the archetypes represent universal patterns and images that are part of the collective unconscious. Jung believed that we inherit these archetypes much the way we inherit instinctive patterns of behavior. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 77 Unconsciousness The collective unconscious is a concept originally defined by psychoanalyst Carl Jung and is sometimes called the objective psyche. It refers to the idea that a segment of the deepest unconscious mind is genetically inherited and is not shaped by personal experience. According to Jung's teachings, the collective unconscious is common to all human beings and is responsible for a number of deep- seated beliefs and instincts, such as spirituality, sexual behavior, and life and death instincts. Jung believed that the collective unconscious is made up of instincts and archetypes that manifest basic and fundamental pre-existing images, symbols or forms, which are repressed by the conscious mind. Humans may not consciously know of these archetypes, but they hold strong feelings about them. According to Jung, these mythological images or cultural symbols are not static or fixed; instead, many different archetypes may overlap or combine at any given time. Ego The ego comprises the organized part of the personality structure that includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual-cognitive, and executive functions. Conscious awareness resides in the ego, although not all of the operations of the ego are conscious. Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean a sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory. The ego separates out what is real. It helps us to organize our thoughts and make sense of them and the world around us. Jung included the ego in a broadly comprehensive theory of complexes, often referring to it as the ego-complex as illustrated when he said “I understand ego as a complex of ideas which constitutes the center of my field of consciousness and appears to possess a high degree of continuity and identity”. Principle of Entropy The principle of entropy as adapted by Jung to describe personality dynamics states that the distribution of energy in the psyche seeks an equilibrium or balance. Likewise, the energy of the superior attitude, whether it is extraversion or introversion, tends to move in the direction of the inferior attitude. The principle of Equivalence states that if energy is expended in bringing about a certain condition, the amount expended will appear elsewhere in the system. Physics students will recognize this as the first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy: energy can neither be CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

78 System and Theories destroyed nor created). As applied to psychic functioning by Jung, the principle states that if a particular value weakens or disappears, the sum of energy represented by that value will not be lost from the psyche but will reappear in a new value. The lowering of one value inevitably means the raising of another value. For example, as the child’s valuation of its family decreases, its interests in other people and things will increase. A person who loses his or her interest in a hobby will usually find that another one has taken its place. If a value is repressed, its energy can be used to create dreams or fantasies. It is possible, of course for the energy lost from one value to be distributed among several other values. Opposites and equilibrium Jung defines enantiodromia as the emergence of the unconscious opposite in the course of time. This characteristic phenomenon practically always occurs when an extreme, one-sided tendency dominates conscious life; in time an equally powerful counter position is built up which first inhibits the conscious performance and subsequently breaks through the conscious control. It is similar to the principle of equilibrium in the natural world, in that any extreme is opposed by the system in order to restore balance. When things get to their extreme, they turn into their opposite. However, in Jungian terms, a thing psychically transmogrifies into its shadow opposite, in the repression of psychic forces that are thereby catheter into something powerful and threatening. This principle was explicitly understood and discussed in the principles of traditional Chinese religion as in Taoism and yin-yang. Key Concepts of Carl Jung The key concepts of analytical psychology as developed by Jung include: 1. Jung discovered the collective unconscious as the universal basis of our experience of soul and the urge to live life creatively. 2. Jung brought the concept of the archetype into scientific discourse. 3. Jung created a new typology, to which the concepts of extraversion and introversion belong. These concepts are now a normal part of everyday speech practically worldwide. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 79 4. Jung developed the concept of individuation. The individuation process implies that the development of soul belongs to a coming-to-one’s-self. This process requires diverging from collective norms and supporting the development of the full potential of the personality. 5. In seeking an authentic self, one becomes confronted with many different aspects of the personality. These include the persona, the shadow, the anima and animus as well as the Self. These terms have also become a part of everyday language. 6. As researcher of the deeper dimensions of the unconscious, Jung dealt especially with fairy tales, mythology, religion and alchemy. In so doing he developed a completely new conception of symbol. 7. The interpretation of unconscious contents follows in consideration of a telos or final aim. Thereby emerge compensatory meanings that spring from the psyche’s self-regulating tendency. Jung conceived of the psyche as presenting an objective reality, which could also express itself in so-called synchronicities. In his view, this supports the fact of correspondence between the inner world of the psyche and the concrete world outside. 8. Jungian therapeutic treatment is not a matter of following generally applied methods. Far more, therapy is oriented to the variable characteristics and needs of each individual. 9. The suffering of soul is not simply seen as a curable disturbance. Rather, it is considered to be a necessity and impulse for psychological development. The tasks of therapy are to support the individual on the way to becoming one’s self, to support his or her developing consciousness, to enable a greater sense of personal authenticity, and to bring one’s own creativity to life. 10. The goal of therapy is to enable the individual to experience something larger than him/ herself, to open to the language of the unconscious, and to discover meaning in life. 11. The therapeutic relationship is seen as a real relationship between two people, and also as a container which is fundamental to the therapeutic process. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

80 System and Theories 12. Analytical Psychology understands psychic reality to be determined by the interplay of opposites. Therefore the Jungian perspective is characterised by work with many polarities, for instance: (a) Individual vs. Collective: The priority of the individual in relation to the collective is stressed, but at the same time the importance of collective factors is acknowledged, in particular how they influence the unconscious of the individual, the community and culture. (b) Consciousness vs. Unconsciousness: Development of consciousness is considered an urgent task, but at the same time one’s relatedness to the unconscious and its instinctive knowledge is considered necessary for reaching the therapeutic goal. (c) Reality of the Inner World vs. Reality of the Outer World: While the creative encounter with personal feelings and inner images is considered the core of therapeutic work, the necessity and importance of a realistic relatedness to the outer everyday world is acknowledged as well. (d) Scientific Knowledge vs. Psychological Reality: While striving to recognise and further the scientific knowledge of the day, Analytical Psychology also guards against reducing complex psychological realities to generalisable concepts and subjecting them to normative strategies of treatment. Extraversion and Introversion Jung was one of the first people to define introversion and extraversion in a psychological context. In Jung’s Psychological Types, he theorises that each person falls into one of two categories, the introvert and the extravert. These two psychological types Jung compares to ancient archetypes, Apollo and Dionysus. The introvert is likened with Apollo, who shines light on understanding. The introvert is focused on the internal world of reflection, dreaming and vision. Thoughtful and insightful, the introvert can sometimes be uninterested in joining the activities of others. The extravert is associated with Dionysus, interested in joining the activities of the world. The extravert is focused on the outside world of objects, sensory perception and action. Energetic and lively, the extravert may lose their sense of self in the intoxication of Dionysian pursuits. Jungian introversion and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 81 extraversion is quite different from the modern idea of introversion and extraversion. Modern theories often stay true to behaviourist means of describing such a trait (sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, etc.) whereas Jungian introversion and extraversion is expressed as a perspective: introverts interpret the world subjectively, whereas extraverts interpret the world objectively. Persona In his psychological theory which is not necessarily linked to a particular theory of social structure, the persona appears as a consciously created personality or identity, fashioned out of part of the collective psyche through socialisation, acculturation and experience. Jung applied the term persona, explicitly because, in Latin, it means both personality and the masks worn by Roman actors of the classical period, expressive of the individual roles played. The persona, he argues, is a mask for the “collective psyche”, a mask that ‘pretends’ individuality, so that both self and others believe in that identity, even if it is really no more than a well-played role through which the collective psyche is expressed. Jung regarded the “persona-mask” as a complicated system which mediates between individual consciousness and the social community: it is “a compromise between the individual and society as to what a man should appear to be”. But he also makes it quite explicit that it is, in substance, a character mask in the classical sense known to theatre, with its double function: both intended to make a certain impression on others, and to hide (part of) the true nature of the individual. The therapist then aims to assist the individuation process through which the client (re)gains their “own self” – by liberating the self, both from the deceptive cover of the persona, and from the power of unconscious impulses. Jung has become enormously influential in management theory; not just because managers and executives have to create an appropriate “management persona” (a corporate mask) and a persuasive identity, but also because they have to evaluate what sort of people the workers are, in order to manage them (for example, using personality tests and peer reviews). Spirituality Jung’s work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals. Our main task, he believed, is to discover and fulfill our deep, innate potential. Based on his study of Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism, Taoism, and other traditions, Jung CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

82 System and Theories believed that this journey of transformation, which he called individuation, is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the self and at the same time to meet the Divine. Unlike Freud’s objectivist worldview, Jung’s pantheism may have led him to believe that spiritual experience was essential to our well-being, as he specifically identifies individual human life with the universe as a whole. He was once asked if he believed in the existence of God, to which he answered, “I do not believe God exists. I know God exists.” Jung’s ideas on religion counterbalance Freudian skepticism. Jung’s idea of religion as a practical road to individuation is still treated in modern textbooks on the psychology of religion, though his ideas have also been criticised. Jung recommended spirituality as a cure for alcoholism, and he is considered to have had an indirect role in establishing Alcoholics Anonymous. Jung once treated an American patient (Rowland Hazard III), suffering from chronic alcoholism. After working with the patient for some time and achieving no significant progress, Jung told the man that his alcoholic condition was near to hopeless, save only the possibility of a spiritual experience. Jung noted that, occasionally, such experiences had been known to reform alcoholics when all other options had failed. Hazard took Jung’s advice seriously and set about seeking a personal, spiritual experience. He returned home to the United States and joined a Christian evangelical movement known as the Oxford Group (later known as Moral Re-Armament). He also told other alcoholics what Jung had told him about the importance of a spiritual experience. One of the alcoholics he brought into the Oxford Group was Ebby Thacher, a long-time friend and drinking buddy of Bill Wilson, later co- founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Thacher told Wilson about the Oxford Group and, through them, Wilson became aware of Hazard’s experience with Jung. The influence of Jung thus indirectly found its way into the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, the original twelve-step programme. The above claims are documented in the letters of Jung and Bill Wilson, excerpts of which can be found in Pass It On, published by Alcoholics Anonymous. Although the detail of this story is disputed by some historians, Jung himself discussed an Oxford Group member, who may have been the same person, in talks given around 1940. The remarks were distributed privately in transcript form, from shorthand taken by an attender (Jung reportedly approved the transcript), and later recorded in Volume 18 of his Collected Works “The Symbolic Life”. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 83 For instance, when a member of the Oxford Group comes to me in order to get treatment, I say, ‘You are in the Oxford Group; so long as you are there, you settle your affair with the Oxford Group. I can’t do it better than Jesus.’ Jung goes on to state that he has seen similar cures among Roman Catholics. The 12-step programme of Alcoholics Anonymous has an intense psychological backdrop, involving the human ego and dichotomy between the conscious and unconscious mind. Paranormal Beliefs Jung had an apparent interest in the paranormal and occult. For decades, he attended seances and claimed to have witnessed “parapsychic phenomena”. Initially, he attributed these to psychological causes, even delivering a 1919 lecture in England for the Society for Psychical Research on “The Psychological Foundations for the belief in spirits”. However, he began to “doubt whether an exclusively psychological approach can do justice to the phenomena in question” and stated that “the spirit hypothesis yields better results”. Jung’s ideas about the paranormal culminated in “synchronicity”, his idea that meaningful connections in the world manifest through coincidence with no apparent causal link. What he referred to as “acausal connecting principle”. Despite his own experiments failing to confirm, the phenomenon he held on to the idea as an explanation for apparent ESP. As well as proposing it as a functional explanation for how the I-Ching worked, although he was never clear about how synchronicity worked. Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Jung influenced one philosophical interpretation (not the science) of quantum physics with the concept of synchronicity regarding some events as non-causal. That idea influenced the physicist Wolfgang Pauli (with whom, via a letter correspondence, he developed the notion of unus mundus in connection with the notion of non-locality) and some other physicists. Alchemy The work and writings of Jung from the 1940s onwards focused on alchemy. In 1944, Jung published Psychology and Alchemy, in which he analysed the alchemical symbols and came to the conclusion that there is a direct relationship between them and the psychoanalytical process. He CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

84 System and Theories argued that the alchemical process was the transformation of the impure soul (lead) to perfected soul (gold), and a metaphor for the individuation process. In 1963, Mysterium Coniunctionis first appeared in English as part of The Collected Works of C.G. Jung. Mysterium Coniunctionis was Jung’s last book and focused on the “Mysterium Coniunctionis” archetype, known as the sacred marriage between sun and moon. Jung argued that the stages of the alchemists, the blackening, the whitening, the reddening and the yellowing, could be taken as symbolic of individuation his favourite term for personal growth. Art Therapy Jung proposed that art can be used to alleviate or contain feelings of trauma, fear, or anxiety and also to repair, restore and heal. In his work with patients and in his own personal explorations, Jung wrote that art expression and images found in dreams could be helpful in recovering from trauma and emotional distress. At times of emotional distress, he often drew, painted, or made objects and constructions which he recognised as more than recreational. Dance/Movement Therapy Dance/movement therapy as an active imagination was created by C.G. Jung and Toni Wolff in 1916 and was practiced by Tina Keller-Jenny and other analysts, but remained largely unknown until the 1950s when it was rediscovered by Marian Chace and therapist Mary Whitehouse, who after studying with Martha Graham and Mary Wigman, became herself a dancer and dance teacher of modern dance, as well as Trudy Schoop in 1963, who is considered one of the founders of the dance/ movement therapy in the United States. Political Views Jung stressed the importance of individual rights in a person’s relation to the state and society. He saw that the state was treated as “a quasi-animate personality from whom everything is expected” but that this personality was “only camouflage for those individuals who know how to manipulate it”, and referred to the state as a form of slavery. He also thought that the state “swallowed up religious forces”, and therefore that the state had “taken the place of God” making it comparable to a religion in which “state slavery is a form of worship”. Jung observed that “stage acts of state” are comparable to religious displays: “Brass bands, flags, banners, parades and monster demonstrations are no CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 85 different in principle from ecclesiastical processions, cannonades and fire to scare off demons”. From Jung’s perspective, this replacement of God with the state in a mass society leads to the dislocation of the religious drive and results in the same fanaticism of the church-states of the Dark Ages wherein the more the state is ‘worshipped’, the more freedom and morality are suppressed; this ultimately leaves the individual psychically undeveloped with extreme feelings of marginalisation. Germany, 1933 to 1939 Jung had many friends and respected colleagues who were Jewish and he maintained relations with them through the 1930s when anti-semitism in Germany and other European nations was on the rise. However, until 1939, he also maintained professional relations with psychotherapists in Germany who had declared their support for the Nazi regime and there were allegations that he himself was a Nazi sympathiser. In 1933, after the Nazis gained power in Germany, Jung took part in restructuring of the General Medical Society for Psychotherapy, a German-based professional body with an international membership. International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy, led by Jung. The German body was to be affiliated to the international society, as were new national societies being set up in Switzerland and elsewhere. The International Society’s constitution permitted individual doctors to join it directly, rather than through one of the national affiliated societies, a provision to which Jung drew attention in a circular in 1934. This implied that German Jewish doctors could maintain their professional status as individual members of the international body, even though they were excluded from the German affiliate, as well as from other German medical societies operating under the Nazis. As leader of the international body, Jung assumed overall responsibility for its publication, the Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie. In 1933, this journal published a statement endorsing Nazi positions and Hitler’s book Mein Kampf. In 1934, Jung wrote in a Swiss publication, the Neue Zürcher Zeitung, that he experienced “great surprise and disappointment” when the Zentralblatt associated his name with the pro-Nazi statement. Jung went on to say “the main point is to get a young and insecure science into a place of safety during an earthquake”. He did not end his relationship with the Zentralblatt at this time, but he did CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

86 System and Theories arrange the appointment of a new managing editor, Carl Alfred Meier of Switzerland. For the next few years, the Zentralblatt under Jung and Meier maintained a position distinct from that of the Nazis, in that it continued to acknowledge contributions of Jewish doctors to psychotherapy. In the face of energetic German attempts to Nazify the international body, Jung resigned from its presidency in 1939, the year the Second World War started. Anti-Semitism and Nazism Jung’s interest in European mythology and folk psychology has led to accusations of Nazi sympathies, since they shared the same interest. He became, however, aware of the negative impact of these similarities: Jung clearly identifies himself with the spirit of German Volkstumsbewegung throughout this period and well into the 1920s and 1930s, until the horrors of Nazism finally compelled him to reframe these neopagan metaphors in a negative light in his 1936 essay on Wotan. There are writings showing that Jung’s sympathies were against, rather than for, Nazism. In his 1936 essay “Wotan”, Jung described the influence of Hitler on Germany as “one man who is obviously ‘possessed’ has infected a whole nation to such an extent that everything is set in motion and has started rolling on its course towards perdition.” Service to the Allies during World War II Jung was in contact with Allen Dulles of the Office of Strategic Services (predecessor of the Central Intelligence Agency) and provided valuable intelligence on the psychological condition of Hitler. Dulles referred to Jung as “Agent 488” and offered the following description of his service: “Nobody will probably ever know how much Professor Jung contributed to the Allied Cause during the war, by seeing people who were connected somehow with the other side”. Jung’s service to the Allied cause through the OSS remained classified after the war. Legacy The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a popular psychometric instrument, and the concepts of socionics were developed from Jung’s theory of psychological types. Jung saw the human psyche as “by nature religious” and made this religiousness the focus of his explorations. Jung is one of the best known contemporary contributors to dream analysis and symbolisation. His influence on popular CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 87 psychology, the “psychologisation of religion”, spirituality and the New Age movement has been immense. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Jung as the 23rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century. 5.3 Analytic Psychology Analytical Psychology is the name given to the psychological-therapeutic system founded and developed by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961). Carl Jung was the son of a pastor in the Swiss Reformed Church, and many of his relatives were ministers too. Jung went to Basel University in 1895 to study medicine, and student life, along with the early death of his father, proved to be emancipatory. His commitment to knowing the nature of the psyche through direct, personal experience and revelation resulted in the precedence he gave to dreams and visions and the idea of understanding them through investigations of philosophy, religion and literature. The death-blow to Jung’s Christian faith came when he felt nothing at all at his confirmation, the religious initiation of which he had been led to expect much. A good deal of his later work can be viewed as a quest to replace the faith he had lost. Renown came first to Jung from his research on word association, in which a person’s responses to stimulus words can reveal complexes: groups of related, often repressed, ideas and impulses that bring about habitual patterns of thought or behaviour. While a young psychiatric resident, Jung read the just-published book by Freud on the interpretation of dreams. Freud’s revolutionary idea of attributing unconscious motivation to human behaviour resonated with similar thoughts Jung was entertaining at the time, and Jung proceeded to devise an experimental method, called the Word Association Test, which could be seen as providing an objective, scientific basis for some of Freud’s ideas. Jung used the psychogalvanometer as a tool for hitting upon a complex. In psychology, a complex is generally an important group of unconscious associations, conflicting beliefs that stand on their own like a splinter identity, or a strong unconscious impulse, lying behind an individual’s condition. Jung described a “complex” as a node in the unconscious; it may be imagined as a knot of unconscious feelings and beliefs, detectable indirectly, through behaviour that is puzzling or hard to account for. Complexes such as the ‘Guilt Complex’ drain energy and integrity from the conscious Ego. What is unconscious tends to be projected onto others: attributed to other people or external situations. The projection may lead to an erroneous perception such as when you CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

88 System and Theories think your friend is angry while he himself feels quite content. To resolve, the complex may give significant relief. The inferiority complex, in particular, has become widely understood and used due to the importance it holds in Adler’s Individual Psychology. Use of the Psychogalvanometer The simple psychogalvanometer was one of the earliest tools of psychological research. A psycho-galvanometer measures the resistance of the skin to the passage of a very small electric current. It has been known for decades that the magnitude of this electrical resistance is affected, not only by the subject’s general mood, but also by immediate emotional reactions. Although these facts have been known for over a hundred years and the first paper to be presented on the subject of the psychogalvanometer was written by Tarchanoff in 1890, it has only been within the last 25 years that the underlying causes of this change in skin resistance have been discovered. This change was found to be related to the level of cortical arousal. The emotional charge on a word, heard by a subject, would have an immediate effect on the subject’s level of arousal. One of the first references to the use of this instrument in Psychoanalysis is in the book by Carl Gustav Jung, entitled ‘Studies in Word Analysis’, published in 1906. He describes a technique of connecting the subject, via hand-electrodes, to an instrument measuring changes in the resistance of the skin. Words on a list were read out to the subject one by one. If a word on this list was emotionally charged, there was a change in body resistance causing a deflection of the needle of the galvanometer, indicating that a complex-related ‘resistance’ was triggered. Any words which evoked a larger than usual response on the meter were assumed to be indicators of possible areas of conflict in the patients, hinting at unconscious feelings and beliefs, and these areas were then explored in more detail with the subject in session. Jung used observed deflections on the meter as a monitoring device to aid his own judgment in determining which particular lines of enquiry were most likely to be fruitful with each subject. 5.4 Jung and Freud Jung was thirty when he sent his work ‘Studies in Word Association’ to Sigmund Freud in Vienna. Freud reciprocated by sending a collection of his latest published essays to Jung in Z rich, which marked the beginning of an intense correspondence and collaboration that lasted more than CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 89 six years and ended shortly before World War I in May 1914, when Jung resigned as the chairman of the International Psychoanalytical Association. His own researches led him away from Freud’s emphasis on the psychosexual origins of neuroses, founding his own analytic psychology in response to Freud’s psychoanalysis. This differed from the Freudian model in downgrading the importance of sexuality and childhood conflicts in the treatment of neuroses, and concentrating more on a patient’s current conflicts. Jung and Freud agreed on the most basic hypothesis: in addition to the rational, conscious aspect of the personality, there is another realm of the psyche of which man is normally not aware, which they called the unconscious. But they soon disagreed as to what the contents of the unconscious is. Freud maintained that the unconscious was composed of repressed, traumatic childhood experiences that involved the clash of emerging instinctual needs and the oppressive reality of the family and society. Psychoanalysis was then developed as a technique, consisting of free associations, designed to bring such conflicts into awareness and thus deal with them from an adult viewpoint. 5.5 The Way to Individuation Jung employed the meter technique successfully for a while, but gradually became dissatisfied with it. Although it certainly seemed correct as far as it went, it did not go far enough. He found he could not, in good conscience, reduce all of a person’s current life situation to repressed childhood instinctuality, especially if instinctuality primarily meant sexuality. Jung identified five primary functions of the psyche that are themselves archetypes, or universal patterns of experience: The Persona is an identity we hold and which we present to the outside world. We may hold several of such: our career role; our role as mother father, son, etc; our political identity, and so on. The Ego is our center of consciousness, our conscious sense of self. Therefore it excludes (although remains influenced by) all of our make-up that is unconscious. Jung says: “So far as we know, consciousness is always Ego-consciousness. In order to be conscious of myself, I must be able to distinguish myself from others. Relationship can only take place where this distinction exists.” The Shadow is an unconscious part of the Ego, and receptacle for that which we have for one reason or another disowned or wish to remain out of sight and those qualities that one would rather not see in oneself, as well as unrealised potentials. The Shadow is intimately connected to the Id and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

90 System and Theories its structures, Thanatos and Eros that contain the animal instincts. It’s the part of the personality that’s forced out of mental awareness by the Ego’s defense mechanisms. The Anima is a node of unconscious beliefs and feelings in a man’s psyche relating to the opposite gender, the Animus is the corresponding complex in a woman’s psyche. As part of the Ego unconscious, these complexes can rise into consciousness when activated by appropriate circumstances. The Self is simply the totality of the entire psyche. It is the function which contains all the other functions and around which they orbit. It may be difficult for the conscious Ego to accept that there may be more to the psyche than that of which it is currently aware. The mind is an immensely complex structure, which has been described with great insight by Jung, Freud, Adler, Assagioli and other eminent psychologists, up to the present day. Each concentrate on different aspects but one does not invalidate the other; taken together they provide a complete understanding. According to Jung, the Ego – the “I” or self-conscious faculty – has four inseparable functions, four fundamental ways of perceiving and interpreting reality: Thinking, Feeling, Sensation and Intuition. Generally, we tend to favour our most developed function, which becomes dominant, while we can broaden our personality by developing the others. Jung noted that the unconscious often tends to reveal itself most easily through a person’s least developed, or “inferior” function. The encounter with the unconscious and development of the underdeveloped function(s) thus tend to progress together. Jung understood and acknowledged the enormous importance of sexuality in the development of the personality, but he perceived the unconscious as encompassing much more. In addition, he saw in unconscious material, especially dreams and fantasies, an unfolding of a process. This process was uniquely expressed in each person, but it had nevertheless a common structure. Jung called it the “individuation process” in which the potential of a person’s psyche is seeking fulfillment. The concept of Individuation is considered by many to be his major contribution. It is a process which generally takes place in the last half of life – a time in the life cycle neglected by many other psychologists. While the first half of life is devoted to making one’s way and establishing oneself in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 91 the world, the last half can be a time of psychological development, of moving toward awareness, integration and wholeness. The barriers to individuation which we must seek to explore and resolve are contained in our ‘Shadow’ personality: those qualities that one would rather not see in oneself, as well as unrealised potentials. The Shadow of beauty is the beast. Because they are repressed such beliefs and feelings are typically unconscious; they influence our entire lives, tell us what we can and cannot do, and drive our behaviours. Even when we are conscious of them, we tend to hide them because we’re ashamed or embarrassed. We do not want anyone to know that we feel unworthy of love or that we’re not good enough so we try to suppress such beliefs and deny them. Being opposite the Persona, the Shadow is not generally acknowledged or accepted by the Ego, but when integrated (rather than repressed) it can be very useful to the individual in seeing or realising the full aspect of the inner self. This energy can be re-directed positively into waking life. For example, a positive side of the Shadow is to provide strength to an intimidated person. The major goal of Jungian therapy is Individuation through the integration of the Ego and the Shadow. By this means a person becomes a psychological ‘individual,’ i.e., a separate indivisible unity or ‘whole’. According to the concept of Equifinality, there is more than one route to integrating the Ego and the Shadow and achieving Individuation: Mind Development courses include extensive practice with the use of right brain mnemonics, techniques of creativity and Image Streaming, and these methods all draw on Shadow Materials in the right hemisphere. Jung may have given us the inspiration, but we have methods that deal with the Shadow with a minimum of pain. Introversion and Extraversion Carl Jung introduced several new terms to the language, among which are ‘introvert’ and ‘extravert.’ Introversion is “the state of or tendency toward being wholly or predominantly concerned with and interested in one’s own mental life.” Introverts tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and relatively non-engaged in social situations. They take pleasure in solitary activities such as reading, writing, watching movies, inventing and designing. An introverted person is likely to enjoy time spent alone CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

92 System and Theories and find less reward in time spent with large groups of people (although they may enjoy one-to-one or one-to-few interactions with close friends). Extraversion is “the act, state, or habit of being predominantly concerned with and obtaining gratification from what is outside the self.” Extraverts tend to enjoy human interactions and to be enthusiastic, talkative, assertive and gregarious. They take pleasure in activities that involve large social gatherings, such as parties, community activities, public demonstrations, and business or political groups. An extraverted person is likely to enjoy time spent with people and find less reward in time spent alone. According to Jung, extraversion and introversion refer to the direction of psychic energy. If a person’s energy usually flows outwards, he or she is an extravert, while if this energy normally flows inwards, this person is an introvert. Extraverts feel energised when interacting with large group of people, but feel a decrease of energy when left alone. Conversely, introverts feel energised when alone, but feel a decrease of energy when surrounded by large group of people. The words introvert and extravert have become part of everyday speech, often confused with ideas like shyness and sociability, partially because introverts tend to be shy and extraverts tend to be sociable. But Jung intended for them to refer more to whether the individual more often faced outward through the persona toward the physical world, or inward toward the collective unconscious and its archetypes. In that sense, the introvert is somewhat more mature than the extravert. Our culture, of course, values the extravert much more. And Jung warned that we all tend to value our own type most! We all exhibit degrees of introversion and extraversion and most people fall in-between the two extremes. The term ambivert was coined to denote people who fall more or less directly in the middle and exhibit both tendencies in respect to different aspects of their lives. An ambivert is normally comfortable with groups and enjoys social interaction, but also relishes time alone and away from the crowd. Note: Mind Development has further coined the term ‘Metavert’ to describe a person free of any compulsion or inhibition with respect to either state and is able to be introverted or extraverted at will and as appropriate to the circumstance. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Neo-Freudians 93 Centroversion In his book, The Origins and History of Consciousness, Erich Neumann combined elements of Jung’s psychological theory and some new elements of his own, showing how the great cycles of world myth depict the hard-won development of Ego-consciousness in humanity, and how this development is recapitulated in each individual’s life. Neumann, a student of Jung, synthesises Jung’s ideas into a unified theory of psychology around his own new concept of “centroversion,” in which Ego-consciousness – the self-aware “I” of an individual – functions as an integrative force when an imbalance has developed through the tendency of differentiation: for example, becoming excessively intellectual or driven by emotions. Centroversion, then, is an integrating process that protects the Ego from overwhelm, and reasserts the unity of the Ego that expresses itself in the individuative path. If the two tendencies of differentiation and centroversion are in a state of equilibrium, then Individuation is facilitated. Neumann defined centroversion as “...the innate tendency of a whole to create unity within its parts and to synthesise their differences in unified systems.” The development of the personality as described by Neumann is threefold. First, there is adaptation to the outside world, extraversion, the man of action. Second is inward adaptation to the psyche and archetypes, or introversion, acquiring wisdom. Third is centroversion, or individuation within the psyche itself for which self-transformation is the goal. With centroversion, left and right brain are in good communication, there is whole-brain thinking, divergent meeting convergent, and the “Unified Ego” equates with Individuation. This makes a much sounder basis for transcending the ego at a higher mystical level, than one centered on non- dual reality which by definition (no separation) has no place for self whatsoever. Non-dual consciousness is certainly a dimension of mystical consciousness, but it cannot be the whole of consciousness, or there is no self-remaining to be enlightened. So, it is two sides of a coin, viewed simultaneously as whole – not just one side mistakenly viewed as the whole (which is what one normally hears from new-age, religious or materialist viewpoints). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)