21ODMPT655-Research Methods and Statistics –I

MASTER OF ARTS (PSYCHOLOGY) RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS - I MAP604

MASTER OF ARTS (PSYCHOLOGY) RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS – I MAP604 Dr. P. Gupta Dr. Harita M.

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Chairman Prof. (Dr.) R.S. Bawa Vice Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director, IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Manjulika Srivastava, Director, CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Co-ordinator – Prof. Pragya Sharma Co-ordinator – Dr. Rupali Arora Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Co-ordinator – Dr. Deepti Rani Sindhu Co-ordinator – Dr. Raju Kumar Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Co-ordinator – Dr. Shashi Singhal Co-ordinator – Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel & TourismManagement) Co-ordinator – Ms. Nitya Mahajan Co-ordinator – Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Co-ordinator – Dr. Ashita Chadha Co-ordinator – Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Master of Arts (Mass Communication and Bachelor of Arts (Mass Communication and Journalism) Journalism) Co-ordinator – Dr. Chanchal Sachdeva Suri Co-ordinator – Dr. Kamaljit Kaur Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) Pranveer Singh Satvat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Pro VC (Academic) Registrar Prof. (Dr.) H. Nagaraja Udupa Prof. (Dr.) Shiv Kumar Tripathi Director (IDOL) Executive Director (USB) © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.himpub.com For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Methods and Statistics – I Course Code: MAP604 Credits: 3 Course Objectives:  To acquaint students with fundamental knowledge of research methods and design used in Psychology.  To facilitate understanding of the students for using valid scientific methods to improve and create knowledge in the field of Psychology.  To acquaint students with various research methods.  To focus on developing the skills necessary to interpret, critique and conduct research. Syllabus Unit 1 – Introduction to Research: Nature and Importance of Research in Psychology. Unit 2 – Types of Research: Scales of Measurement and Scaling Techniques. Unit 3 – Research Design: Concept and Importance in Research, Features of a Good Research Design, Exploratory Research Design, Descriptive Research Designs – Concept, Types and Uses. Unit 4 – Experimental Design: Concept of Independent and Dependent Variables. Unit 5 – Research Process: Problem Identification and Formulation, Review of Literature, Hypothesis Building and its Types. Unit 6 – Sampling Design and Data Collection: Types and Techniques, Questionnaire Design, Tabulation and Data Editing. Unit 7 – Reliability and Validity: Concepts and Types. Unit 8 – Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics: Mean Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, Variance, Skewness, Kurtosis and Range. Unit 9 – Inferential Statistics: Correlation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Unit 10 – Regression: Meaning and Concepts. Unit 11 – Parametric and Non-parametric Test: Introduction and Applications. Text Books: 1. Garrett, H.E. (1966), Statistics in Psychology and Education, Bombay: Vakils Feefer & Simon Pvt. Ltd. 2. Herson, M. and Barlow, D.H. (1980), Single-case Experimental Designs, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Limited. 3. Singh A.K. (2006), Tests, Measurement and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences (5th Edition), Patna: Bharati Bhavan. Reference Books: 1. Guilford, J.P. (1965), Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education (4th Edition), New Delhi: Subject Publications. 2. Kurtz, A.K. and Mayo, S.T. (1980), Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology, New Delhi: Narosa Publishing House. 3. McGuigan, F.J. (1990), Experimental Psychology, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Limited. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENTS 1 – 10 11 – 34 Unit 1: Introduction to Research 35 – 50 Unit 2: Types of Research 51 – 70 Unit 3: Research Design 71 – 96 Unit 4: Experimental Design 97 – 150 Unit 5: Research Process 151 – 170 Unit 6: Sampling Design and Data Collection 171 – 218 Unit 7: Reliability and Validity 219 – 238 Unit 8: Data Analysis 239 – 258 Unit 9: Inferential Statistics 259 – 282 Unit 10: Regression Unit 11: Parametric and Non-parametric Test CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Research 1 UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH Structure: 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Research in Psychology 1.3 Concept of Research 1.4 Meaning of Research 1.5 Definitions of Research 1.6 Objectives of Research 1.7 Nature of Research in Psychology 1.8 Importance of Research in Psychology 1.9 Summary 1.10 Key Words/Abbreviations 1.11 LearningActivity 1.12 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 1.13 References 1.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the basic concept and importance of research  Describe nature and importance of research in Psychology CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2 Research Methods and Statistics – I 1.1 Introduction Psychological research refers to research that psychologists conduct for systematic study and for analysis of the experiences and behaviours of individuals or groups. Their research can have educational, occupational and clinical applications. Psychometrics is a field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement. One part of the field is concerned with the objective measurement of skills and knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational achievement. Psychologists use many research methods, and categorical distinctions of these methods have emerged. The research methods can be categorized by the kind of data they produce: qualitative or quantitative and both these are used for pure or applied research. The field of psychology commonly uses experimental methods in what is known as experimental psychology. Researchers design experiments to test specific hypotheses the deductive approach, or to evaluate functional relationships the inductive approach. 1.2 Research in Psychology Psychology tends to be eclectic, applying knowledge from other fields. Some of its methods are used within other areas of research, especially in the social and behavioural sciences. Psychological research refers to research that psychologists conduct for systematic study and for analysis of the experiences and behaviours of individuals or groups. Their research can have educational, occupational and clinical applications. Psychology is the science that deals with the mind and behaviour. From analysing basic brain functions to examining complex social relationships, psychology research involves a wide range of studies that may include human and/or animal subjects. Understanding the research process of a psychologist involves learning the significance of the scientific method, which is the way that scientists and researchers come to conclusions regarding human behaviour. 1.3 Concept of Research Research in psychology comes under the purview of Social Science Research. Carrying out research in social science subjects, i.e., Commerce, Management, Economics, Sociology, etc. is different from physical science research as we need to study the society based on certain trends, and for this, the laboratory is the society. Research in Management is particularly difficult because CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Research 3 of its convergence with different disciplines. As we know, Management is multidisciplinary in nature wherein different approaches have to be integrated for a comprehensive study. Research, understood in its right spirit, cannot be undertaken with success. Research, in common parlance, refers to a search for knowledge. It refers to the art of scientific investigation. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques, and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. 1.4 Meaning of Research Research is a systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by discovering new facts. 1.5 Definitions of Research The popular definitions on research given by different authors are as follows: According to Kerlinger, research can be defined as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”. According to Emory, research can be defined as “any organised activity designed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem”. The Encyclopedia of Social Sciences defines research as “the manipulation of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge”. According to Martin Shuttle Worth, “Research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge”. According to Creswell, “Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyse information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4 Research Methods and Statistics – I The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as “a studious inquiry or examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws”. According to Clifford Woody, research can be defined as “defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organising and evaluating data, making deductions, reaching conclusions and testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit to the formulating hypothesis”. According to Black and Champion, research can be defined as “obtaining information through empirical observations that can be used for the systematic development of logically related propositions attempting to establish casual relations among variables”. According to Young, research can be defined as “a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematic techniques aims to: (i) discover new facts or verify and test old facts, (ii) analyse their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations, and (iii) develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour”. Business Research can be defined as the systematic and objective process of gathering, recording and analysing data for aid in making business decisions. Business Research can be defined as a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide business decisions. 1.6 Objectives of Research The purpose of research is to find solutions to problems through the application of scientific procedures. Research objectives can be grouped broadly as: (i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights. (ii) To establish generalisations, general laws and contribute to theory building in various fields. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Research 5 (iii) To extend knowledge of human beings, social life and environment. (iv) To promote better decision-making. (v) To identify problem areas and form the basis for innovation. (vi) To determine the association or independence of an activity. (vii) To determine the characteristics of an individual or a group of activities and the frequency of its occurrence. (viii) To test causal relationship between variables. (ix) To develop new tools, concepts and theories for studying unknown phenomena. (x) To aid forecasting, planning and decision-making in an organisation. 1.7 Nature of Research in Psychology Psychological researchers want to learn and understand human behaviour. It can be about how people think, how they feel, how they behave, or some combination of these issues. Research, and the understanding that follows, trickles down from the scientists and alters society. There is constant and competing research. More specifically, psychological research is used to measure, describe and categorise human behaviour. This can result in understanding what might be called normal behaviour. More interesting and more often researched are the abnormal behaviours, those that eventually become categorised and labelled with a diagnosis. A diagnosis is a constellation of common behaviours, thoughts and feelings that occur together. For example, many people suffer from depression, and research has found that exercise, psychotropic medication and therapy have reduced and sometimes eliminated the feelings of sadness, guilt and worthlessness that come from depression. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6 Research Methods and Statistics – I 1.8 Importance of Research in Psychology Psychology is not an absolute science and is often referred to as a ‘Social Science’ or a ‘Soft Science.’ This is because it deals with human thoughts, feelings and behaviour, and as we are all aware, humans are not always predictable and reliable. Instead, we interact with our environment in ways that alter how we behave, how we think, and how we feel. Change one thing and the domino effect can change everything else. Research plays an extremely important role in psychology. Research helps us understand what makes people think, feel and act in certain ways; allows us to categorise psychological disorders in order to understand the symptoms and impact on the individual and society; helps us to understand how intimate relationships, development, schools, family, peers, and religion affect us as individuals and as a society; and helps us to develop effective treatments to improve the quality of life of individuals and groups. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behaviour, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behaviour. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behaviour of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical. It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing. 1.9 Summary Research in Psychology is a systematic process of designing, collecting, analysing, reporting the findings and arriving at solutions for business problems. Research is required for identifying and finding solutions to problems, taking decisions impacting business, finding alternative strategies and developing new concepts. Good research generates dependable data, being derived by practices that are conducted professionally, that can be used reliably for managerial decision-making. It should be carefully planned and conducted so that business managers can reduce decision-making risks. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Research 7 Psychology tends to be eclectic, applying knowledge from other fields. Some of its methods are used within other areas of research, especially in the social and behavioural sciences. Psychological research refers to research that psychologists conduct for systematic study and for analysis of the experiences and behaviours of individuals or groups. Their research can have educational, occupational and clinical applications. Psychology is the science that deals with the mind and behaviour. From analysing basic brain functions to examining complex social relationships, psychology research involves a wide range of studies that may include human and/or animal subjects. Understanding the research process of a psychologist involves learning the significance of the scientific method, which is the way that scientists and researchers come to conclusions regarding human behavior. Research in psychology is a form of systematic inquiry that contributes to knowledge in the field of management. It is directed to solve to management/organisational problems. The research activities cover the wide-ranging support that the R&D team offers to researchers throughout the research process. This is an investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems related to sales, market share, ROI, profitability, customer acquisition, customer satisfaction, customer retention, employee productivity, machine efficiency improving communication among workers, etc. in large companies. The research concerns regarding business environment. The impulsion for environmental responsibility will shift from government regulations to customer response requirements leading to more concentration on business research. 1.10 Key Words/Abbreviations  Research: Research in Psychology is a systematic process of design, collection and analysis.  Psychology: Psychology tends to be eclectic, applying knowledge from other fields.  Research in Psychology: Research in psychology is a form of systematic inquiry that contributes to knowledge in the field of management. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

8 Research Methods and Statistics – I 1.11 Learning Activity 1. You are required to identify the scope of Research in Psychology. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. You are suggested to find out the impact of Scientific Research and prepare a report on the same. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3. You are informed to build a team of five members and prepare a live project report on “Importance of Research in Psychology”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 1.12 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Discuss the concept Research in Psychology. 2. Give the meaning of Research. 3. Define the term Research. Explain the various objectives of Research. 4. Explain the significance of Research. 5. What are the purposes of Research? Explain in details. 6. What is Scientific Research? Discuss the purposes of Scientific Research. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Research 9 7. Explain nature of Research in Psychology. 8. Discuss importance of Research in Psychology. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is the feature(s) of good research? (a) Findings presented unambiguously (b) Researcher’s experience reflected (c) Find out the research gap (d) All the above 2. Which concept in research allows researchers and managers to characterise present or future conditions? (a) Theory (b) Model (c) Hypothesis (d) All of the above 3. The objective of which research in business is to test hypothesis about cause and effect relationships. (a) Causal (b) Descriptive (c) Exploratory (d) Both (b) and (c) 4. Which of the following is not a type of research in business? (a) Exploratory (b) Normative (c) Causal (d) Descriptive CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

10 Research Methods and Statistics – I 5. Which of the following plays an extremely important role in psychology? (a) Research (b) Management (c) Policy (d) All the above Answers: 1. (d), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (b), 5. (a) 1.13 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 11 UNIT 2 TYPES OF RESEARCH Structure: 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Types of Research 2.3 Scaling of Measurement 2.4 Basis for Measurement Scale 2.5 Scaling Techniques 2.6 Problems in Construction of Scales 2.7 Selection of the Measurement Scale 2.8 Levels of Measurement 2.9 Attitude Scales 2.10 Attitude Measuring Scales 2.11 Summary 2.12 Key Words/Abbreviations 2.13 LearningActivity 2.14 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 2.15 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

12 Research Methods and Statistics - I 2.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the types and explore the scales and techniques  Explain the concept of scaling of measurement  Describe the stages of development of scales measurement 2.1 Introduction Behavioural problem research method is a systematic and scientific procedure of data collection, compilation, analysis, interpretation and implication pertaining to any behavioural problem. Types of research methods can be classified into several categories according to the nature and purpose of the study and other attributes. Types of research methods can be broadly divided into two – quantitative and qualitative categories. Quantitative research describes, infers and resolves problems using numbers. Emphasis is placed on the collection of numerical data, the summary of those data and the drawing of inferences from the data. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is based on words, feelings, emotions, sounds, and other non-numerical and unquantifiable elements. It has been noted that information is considered qualitative in nature if it cannot be analysed by means of mathematical techniques. This characteristic may also mean that an incident does not take place often enough to allow reliable data to be collected. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 13 2.2 Types of Research Types of Research Types of Research Types of Research Types of Research based on Purpose based on Process based on Outcome 1. Descriptive Research 1. Quantitative Research 1. Basic or Pure Research 2. Exploratory Research 2. Qualitative Research 2. Applied Research 3. Analytical Research 4. Predictive Research Types of Research Types of Research based on Action based on Logic 1. Deductive Research 2. Inductive Research Figure 2.1: Types of Research CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

14 Research Methods and Statistics - I Types of Research Based on Purpose 1. Descriptive Research Descriptive research seeks to provide an accurate description of observations of a phenomenon. It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is engaged with the describing characteristics of variables in a particular situation based on past data or experience or research. By this research, knowledge about a particular matter can be enhanced. Here, the self-thinking ideas and opinions of the researcher can be represented. Under this research, something new is added to the previous research or finds out new aspects of that problem or matter, i.e., it is not related with innovation. 2. Exploratory Research Exploratory research is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It involves a literature search or conducting focus group interviews. The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researchers need for better understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study or determine the best methods to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad in focus and rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues. Exploratory means which are not known to us before but has existence. Just if anything discover or unearth or unveil that thing, then it will be exploratory research. Exploratory research not only include the things about which man cannot think before but also include the things which are already has been described by someone but you are describing it from different angle or different view point. 3. Analytical Research Analytical study is a comparative study designed to reach causal inferences about hypothesized relationships between risk factors and outcome. Analytical studies identify and quantify associations, test hypotheses, identify causes and determine whether an association exists between variables. Analytical psychology is a theory of mind that emphasizes the importance of wholeness for each individual. Freudian psychoanalysis, analytical psychology suggests that early experiences are very important in personality development. Analytical psychology emphasizes the significance of the present, including the role that cultural shifts and archetypes or underlying, universal symbols that CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 15 play in individual psychology. By bringing together an understanding of individual experience with recognition of the role played by broader truths and experiences, analytical psychology hopes to work toward an integrated human consciousness. Analytical psychology believes that the unconscious is the most important aspect of each individual's psyche, and that making as much of the unconscious known as possible can help with healing and the attainment of wholeness. Dreams are thought to be a part of the unconscious. The personal unconscious of each individual is distinct from a collective unconscious that is shared by all human beings. 4. Predictive Research Predictive research moves beyond explanation to the prediction of precise relationships between dimensions or characteristics of a phenomenon or differences between groups. Prediction is the act of forecasting what will happen in the future. Prediction is central to medicine as preventive and therapeutic interventions are prescribed or recommended on implicit or explicit expectations about future health outcomes. The focus of the course is on the methodology of prediction research. The field of prediction research is gaining importance because of the increasing interest in personalized remedy. Personalized remedy is a model in which interventions are targeted to the individual or to risk groups rather than given to populations at large. Prerequisites for personalized medicine are that there is a test or prediction model that can divide a population into subgroups and that there are alternative interventions available to assign to each of the subgroups. What, how and why something is happening in several other situations. Here, the cause of event are important and not the extent of influence. So, we do not try to find out independent variables and their contribution level rather we try to find out the happening of one event and how it influence the other events in different situations. Types of Research Based on Process 1. Quantitative Research Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist/post-positivist paradigm. It usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

16 Research Methods and Statistics - I 2. Qualitative Research Qualitative research involves looking in-depth at non-numerical data. This is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Types of Research Based on Outcome 1. Basic or Pure Research Pure or basic research is research carried out for the advancement of knowledge, without working for long-term economic or social benefits and with no positive efforts being made to apply the results to practical problems or to transfer the results to sectors responsible for its application. Some science, often referred to as ‘pure science’, is about explaining the world around us and trying to understand how the universe operates. It is about finding out what is already there without any greater purpose of research than the explanation itself. It is a direct descendent of philosophy, where philosophers and scientists try to understand the underlying principles of existence. While offering no direct benefits, pure research often has indirect benefits, which can contribute greatly to the advancement of humanity. 2. Applied Research Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. It is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness and develop innovative technologies. Types of Research Based on Action Action research is a practical approach to professional inquiry in any social situation. The examples in this component relate to education and are therefore of particular relevance to teachers or lecturers engaged in their daily contact with children or students. But professional practice need not be teaching: it may be management or administration in a school or college, or it may be in an unrelated area, such as medicine or the social services. The context for professional inquiry might change, but the principles and processes involved in action research are the same, regardless of the nature of the practice. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 17 Types of Research Based on Logic 1. Deductive Research Deductive research is a logical process in which a conclusion is based on the concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true. It can be explained by the means of hypotheses, which can be derived from the propositions of the theory. 2. Inductive Research Inductive research works the opposite way, moving from specific observations to broader generalisations and theories. This is sometimes called a “bottom-up” approach. The researcher begins with specific observations and measures, begins to then detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses to explore and finally ends up developing some general conclusions or theories. 2.3 Scaling of Measurement Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules. Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. In the field of business research, measurement or scaling implies in conversion of the characteristics or qualitative data into quantitative data. After this conversion, scaling is done. This has to be done because qualitative data or measurement are mostly subjective and differ from investigator to investigator. Unless it is converted into quantitative data, measurement would not be possible. Various kinds of statistical measurements are used for conversion of qualitative one and measuring various aspects of business and industrial activity. 2.4 Basis for Measurement Scale The scaling procedures may be broadly classified on one or more of the following basis: 1. Scaling Based on Subject Orientation: A scale may be designed to measure the attributes of the respondent through stimulus presented to him. In such a scale, the respondent’s characteristic has been measured depending on his orientation to subject stimulus. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

18 Research Methods and Statistics - I 2. Scaling Based on Response Form: The scaling procedure may be classified on the basis of response from whether categorical and comparative. Categorical scales are nothing but rating scales. Such scales are used when a respondent rates some object without direct reference to other objects. Under the comparative scales, the respondent is asked to compare several objects and he is expected to rank that one object is superior to the other. Therefore, this scale is also known as ranking scale. 3. Scaling Based on Subjectivity: There may a situation when the scale data is based on subjective personal preferences or non-preference judegments. For example, in the former case, the respondent is asked to choose which food he prefers or which method he would like to be implemented, whereas in the latter case, respondent is simply asked to judge which food is more delicious or which method will be economical. 4. Scaling Based on Properties: If the scale has design considering the mathematical properties, one may classify the scale as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. 2.5 Scaling Techniques The five main techniques by which scales can be developed are as follows: 1. Arbitrary Technique: In this case, as the name suggests, a scale is developed on ad hoc basis. This is because there is a thinking that such scales appropriately measure the concept for which they have been developed. Even though, this is the most often used method of scale construction, the scientific evidence to support such a scale is rather scanty. 2. Consensus Technique: In this technique, an expert panel is asked to select and evaluate items that should be included in scale design. This is based on their judgement regarding whether such items are important to the research area and have direct bearings on the research outcome. 3. Item Analysis Technique: In this method, which has a more scientific approach, various individual items that can be chosen for inclusion in the scale, are put together in the form of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 19 a test questionnaire, which is then administered to the group of respondents. Subsequent to the test, the various individual items are evaluated on their discrimination value. Generally, the items which score high discrimination factor are utilised for scale design. 4. Cumulative Technique: In this technique, a scale is developed depending upon the basis of conformance to a ranking order. This ranking order can be based either on ascending or descending discrimination potential. Cumulative effect of items depending on the research concept then gives rise to an appropriate scale. 5. Factor Technique: Factor scales are designed on basis of correlations of items which indicate a common factor for the relationship between items. 2.6 Problems in Construction of Scales The scales of measurement are developed for business research in line of techniques. These, however, face certain problems, important of which are as follows: 1. Determination of Sequence It is not possible to measure every phenomena particularly in the field of business. Only those phenomena may be measured which have a sequence. If there is no sequence in a particular phenomena, they cannot be measured since they remain scattered and unconnected. 2. Determination Validity Validity means the extent to which an instrument measures what it proposes to measure. For example, if an investigator wants to measure purchasing power of a person, only that instrument will be valid which may measure it correctly. In the words of Selltiz, Jahoda and others, “A measuring procedure is valid to the extent to which scores reflect true differences among individuals, groups or situations in the characteristics it seeks to measure”. There is no direct way of determining validity of measurement because it is difficult to locate the exact position of an individual on the scale of characteristic that is being measured. In the absence of this information, the validity of an instrument is judged by the compatibility of its results with other relevant evidence. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

20 Research Methods and Statistics - I (i) Pragmatic Validity In pragmatic validity, the usefulness of the scale in prediction is judged. The investigator is not interested in the performance of the individual but in its indication of a certain individual trait. There should be a reasonably valid and reliable criterion with which the scores on the scale may be compared. Normally, the nature of techniques will determine the relevance of criteria. The criterion with which the scores on the scale are compared should itself be valid and reliable. The reliability and validity of the criteria may be improved upon by carefully defining its various dimensions. (ii) Construct Validity Constructs are such measures of intelligence, scales of attitudes, scales of modernisation, measurement of group morale, etc. The definition of such constructs consist in part of sets of propositions about their relationship to other variables. Thus, in order to know construct validity, it should be determined whether the measurement attained by using a scale are consistent with the prediction. The predictions in connection with construct validity are of a different nature and survey different functions from those involved in determining pragmatic validity. The examination of construct validity involves validation of a scale and also of the theory underlying it. According to Campbell and Fiske, “The investigation of construct validity can be made more rigorous by increased attention to the adequacy of the measure of the construct in question, before its relationships to other variables are considered. The two kinds of evidence about a measure are needed before one is really justified in examining relationship with other variables: (a) Evidence that different measures of the construct yield similar results and (b) The scale thus constructed can be differentiated from other constructs.” Thus, construct validity cannot be tested by a single procedure. It requires evidence from a number of sources such as correlation with other scales, internal consistency of items, stability of pattern, overtime, etc. (iii) By Application upon a Known Group The criterion of validity is almost the best. In this method, the scale in question is utilised to measure a known individual or group. If the scale shows already known conclusions, it is declared valid. For example, if we know that a particular individual A is an advocate of arranged marriage CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 21 while another individual B is against them, the scale which shows their attitudes accordingly, is a valid scale. On the other hand, a scale whose conclusions contradict already known facts may be declared as invalid. 2.7 Selection of the Measurement Scale Selection or construction of a measurement scale requires decision in the following six key areas: 1. Study Objective: Researchers may have two general study objectives, viz., to measure the characteristics of the respondents and to use respondents as judges of the objects or indicants presented to them. 2. Response Form: Three types of measuring scales, viz., rating, ranking and categorisation can be used. Rating scale is used when respondents score an object or indicant without making a direct comparison with another object or attitude. Ranking scales enable to make comparison among two or more indicants or objects. Categorisation enables to put the subjects involved in groups or categories. 3. Degree of Preference: Measurement scales may involve preference measurement or non-preference evaluation. In case of preference measurement, respondents are asked to choose the object preferred. In case of non-preference evaluation, the respondents are asked to make judgements without any personal preference towards objects or solutions. 4. Data Properties: The data properties should also be viewed in case of decisions regarding measurement scales. The data can be classified as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. The statistical application depends on the assumptions underlying each data type. 5. Number of Dimensions: Measurement scales can be uni-dimensional or multidimensional. In case of uni-dimensional scale, only one attribute of the respondent is measured. Multidimensional scaling recognises objects as consisting of multiple dimensions. 6. Scale Construction: Five construction approaches are available, viz., arbitrary, consensus, item analysis, cumulative and factoring. The researcher should take into consideration both, i.e., the type of measurement and the scale’s construction when selecting an appropriate scale. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

22 Research Methods and Statistics - I 2.8 Levels of Measurement Based on the characteristics of the mapping rules, i.e., classification, order, distance and origin, four classifications of measurement scales could be arrived at, used commonly by researchers. These four levels of measurement scales are: 1. Nominal Scale Nominal scales are categorical scales used to identify, label or categorise objects or persons or events. Nominal scales are the lowest form of measurement. A nominal scale allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups. For example, the respondents can be grouped as male and female. The two groups can be assigned numbers for the purpose of coding and further analysis as 1 and 2. These numbers are simple and convenient labels and have no intrinsic values. It only assigns subjects into either of the two mutually exclusive categories. In other words, nominal scale allows the researcher to collect information on a variable that naturally or by design can be grouped into two or more categories that are mutually exclusive and are collectively exhaustive. Nominal scales are weak but they are still useful to classify the data. It is valuable in exploratory work where the objective is to uncover relationships rather that to secure precise measurements. Nominal data type is also widely used in survey and ex-post-facto research when data is classified by major subgroups of the population. 2. Ordinal Scale Ordinal scale is a ranking scale that indicates ordered relationship among the objects or events. It involves assigning numbers to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. It measures whether an object or event has the same characteristic than some other object or event. It is an improvement over nominal scale in that it indicates an order. However, this scale does not indicate on how much more or less of the characteristic various objects or events possess. The term how much refers to ranks that it does not indicate if the second rank is a close second or a poor second to the first rank. Data generated using ordinal scale appears as ranks where the object which has ranked first has more of the characteristic as compared to those objects ranked second or third. Hence, the important feature of ordinal scale over nominal scale is that it indicates relative position, not the magnitude of the difference between the objects. In research, ordinal scales CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 23 are used to measure relative attitudes, opinions, perceptions, etc. Most data collected by the process of interrogating people have ordinal properties. 3. Interval Scale Interval scale is otherwise called as rating scale. It involves the use of numbers to rate objects or events. In interval scales, numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. Interval scale is an advancement over the ordinal scale in that it has all the properties of an ordinal scale plus it allows the researcher to compare the differences between objects. It also possesses the property of equality of difference between each levels of measurement. The feature of this scale is that the difference between any two scale values is identical to the difference between any other two adjacent values of an interval scale. Examples of interval scales are the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales. Interval scales also place restriction on the assignment of values to the scale points. The zero that could be assignment is a arbitrary zero rather than a natural zero. Arbitration involves freedom to place the zero value on any point. There is a constant or equal interval between scale values. In research, most of the research on attitudes, opinions and perceptions are done using scales treated as interval scales. All statistical techniques that are employed on nominal and ordinal scales could also be employed on data generated using interval scales. 4. Ratio Scale Ratio scales differ from interval scales in that it has a natural/absolute zero. It possesses all the properties of the normal, ordinal and interval scales. Data generated using ratio scales may be identified, classified into categories, ranked and compared with other properties. It could also be expressed in terms of relativity in that one can be expressed in terms of a division of the other. Hence, it may be called as relative scales. Ratio scales have number of applications in research. They include sales, market share, costs and number of customers. In all these cases, natural zero exists. All statistical techniques can be applied on ratio data. Ratio data has the power of the nominal, ordinal and interval scale in addition it also has the provision for absolute zero or origin. It covers the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, i.e., it has an absolute zero point. The ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on scale but also the proportion in the differences. Multiplication or division would preserve the ratios. It is the most powerful of the four scales because it has a unique zero origin. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

24 Research Methods and Statistics - I 2.9 Attitude Scales Attitude scales evolve out of a series of short but carefully formulated statements of propositions dealing with selected aspects of issues, institutions or groups or people under investigation. An individual reacts verbally with approval or disapproval, to the items on the scale. These reactions quantify his position on issues under question. 2.10 Attitude Measuring Scales Given below are various scales for measuring attitudes: 1. Opinion Scales Opinion scales are based on opinions as the basis of attitudes. A person’s attitude towards some specific person, subject matter or object can be known by analysis of his opinions concerning them. On this premise, psychologists have evolved scales for defining the opinions of individuals relating to various objects, problems and persons. These scales differ in respect of the method of their construction and kind. But the aim of every scale is to locate and determine the position of an individual upon a measure extending from one extreme of acceptance to the other extreme of refusal. The opinion scales reveal the reactions of the individual towards some particular things, and from these reactions his attitude can be deduced. It is advised that, the scale should be so formulated as to reveal to the maximum possible level the attitudes of the individual. This requires a selection of statements which can give expression to the concurrence or otherwise of the attitude of the person relating to a person, matter or object. In addition to these, other relevant opinion scales are: the Bogardus Scales, Rank Order Scale and Paired Comparison Scale. (a) Thurstone Scale Between 1919 and 1931, these scales were constructed by Thurstone and his colleagues for the measurement of opinions and beliefs of groups concerning varied questions such as war, church, negroes, capital punishment, birth control, etc., using consensus scale-construction approach. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 25 Constitution of the Scale Thurstone Scale constitutes of the items mentioned below: (i) Collection of numerous sample opinions related to the question or subject presented. (ii) Determination of the value of the scale for these opinions by some definite determinant. This evaluation leads to the elimination of controversial statements, leaving only those statements concerning which all specialists are unanimous. Opinions extend between a negative and a positive limit. (iii) Determination of the median point for every statement according to the opinion of the specialist judges. (iv) Finally, it is necessary to see whether the questions contained in the scale are in a definite order or not. The order of statement should be such that they proceed from maximum to minimum acceptance. For this, in the beginning of the scale, these questions are arranged concerning which all specialists agree while in the end of questions concerning which all specialists disagree are arranged. Precautions in the Construction of the Scale The following precautions are observed: (i) It should be ensured that every statement of the scale should be distinctly worded. (ii) It must be seen that the number of determining specialists are large enough to indicate clearly the position which would be given to the opinion expressed by the subject. (iii) Only those statements about which the judges are unanimous should be given place in the scale. If a particular statement is placed in the same class by each of the specialists, it should be definitely chosen. But, if the statement is placed in a different class by each of the specialists, it is rejected being controversial. In other words, opinion having unanimity, must be included in the scale. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

26 Research Methods and Statistics - I Application The Thurstone method has wide application in measuring attitudes. It is, therefore, used for developing differential scale which can measure attitudes towards intangible things such as war, religion, etc. Scales developed using this technique are considered as the most appropriate and reliable method if used to measure a single attitude. Limitations (i) It is a costly method and requires large effort to develop them. (ii) The method is not completely objective; it involves ultimately subjective decision process. (iii) It provides less information about the respondent’s attitude in comparison to differential scales. (b) Likert Scale Likert, another sociologist, constructed a scale in 1932 which differed from Thurstone’s scale. This scale aimed at locating the attitudes of various human groups relating to imperialism, internationalism and Negroes. This scale is also called Summated Scales. Constitution of the Likert Scale The following items are included in the Likert Scale: (i) To construct many statements related to the object or problem the attitudes towards which are to be studied. (ii) To show these statements to the subject and to get them classified into the following groups: Strongly Approve, Approve, Undecided, Disapprove and Strongly Disapprove. (iii) To award points to the above classification in the following manner: 5 4 3 2 1. (iv) To find the correlation between the total score of the subject and the scores of the statements individually. (v) To exclude those statements which bear a negligible correlation to the score. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 27 Advantages The Likert scale has the following advantages: (i) It is easy and simple to construct. (ii) It is more reliable and provides more information. (iii) It can easily be used in respondent-centred and stimulus-centred studies. (iv) It takes less time in construction. Limitations The limitations of Likert Scale are as follows: (i) It does not give the intensity comparison of responses. (ii) This is an ordinal scale and not an interval scale. (iii) It is noticed often that the total score of a respondent has little clear meaning since a given score can be scored by a variety of answer patterns. (c) Guttman Scale or Cumulative Scale Guttman constructed a scale to measure and study the level of morale in American soldiers in 1941. This scale is comprised of the following main elements: (i) To determine whether any statement can be shown upon the scale or not. (ii) To prepare scalogram to test the consistency of any statement. (iii) To vary the questions concerning the same problem in such a manner as to determine that the opinion of the subject is consistent. Advantages The advantages of Guttman scale are as follows: (i) It measures only a single dimension of attitude being measured. (ii) Researcher’s subjective judgement is not allowed to creep in the development of the scale since the scale is determined by the replies of respondents. (iii) Small number of items are required to make the scale. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

28 Research Methods and Statistics - I Limitations The Guttman Scale has the following limitations: (i) The procedure is tedious and complex. (ii) It is not very much reliable. (iii) It is not a very objective scale. (iv) It is difficult to compare to other scaling methods. 2. Factor Scales Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or on the basis of intercorrelation of items which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationship between items. According to C.W. Emory, “Factor scales are particularly useful in uncovering latent attitude dimensions and approach scaling through the concept of multiple dimension attribute space.” 3. Multidimensional Scales Multidimensional scaling can be characterised as a set of procedures for portraying perceptual or affective dimensions of substantive interest. It provides useful methodology for portraying subjective judgements of diverse kinds. It is used when all the variables in a study are to be analysed simultaneously and all such variables happen to be independent. Through this technique, one can represent geometrically the locations and interrelationships among a set of points. Advantages The significance of multidimensional scaling lies in the fact that it enables the researcher to study the perceptual structure of a set of stimuli and the cognitive processes underlying the development of this structure. Psychologists, for example, employ multidimensional scaling techniques in an effort to scale psychological stimuli and to determine appropriate labels for the dimensions along which these stimuli vary. Limitation It is complicated in terms of computation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 29 4. Rating Scales Besides the opinion scales, another method is that of rating scales. The striking feature of the rating scales lies in the fact that here the attitudes are evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the subjects, but on the basis of the opinions and judgement of the experimenter himself. Thus, in rating scales, discretion of the experimenter comes into the picture when measuring attitudes. Through the following means, the experimenter collects the data in the rating scales: (i) Non-verbal Behaviour (ii) Verbal Behaviour (ii) Secondary Expressive Cues (iv) Clinical Type Interview (v) Personal Documents (vi) Projection Techniques (vii) Immediate Experience The sources noted above provide the experimenter enough data concerning the attitude. Compared to speechless behaviour, the easy method of understanding attitude is that of conversation. In addition to conversation, various facial expressions and fluctuations in the volume of sound are also good indicators of attitude. According to Kietch and Cruchfield, “it is a common place belief that what a man says may be less revealing than how he says it.” Thus, the manner of expressing a response may become more informative than the verbal expression itself. On the other hand, in a clinical interview, the subject can be devised to respond to questions, from which he would normally hesitate, but he does so now under the belief that the answers are necessary for his treatment. Diary, essays, letters, poetry, story and other kinds of individual writings manifest the attitude of the individual. Among them, diary is of the greatest importance since it is the most personal. An autobiography also reveals the attitudes of the author. Projective techniques have also proved very useful in revealing attitudes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

30 Research Methods and Statistics - I Types of Rating Scales In general, Rating scales are put under two classes: (a) Relative and (b) Absolute. (a) Relative Scale: The experimenter in this scale gives to individual’s attitude, a placing in the scale extending from the highest to the lowest quantity. In studying the individual in the circumstances of the human group, the position of the individual relative to the positions of others, is considered. Thus, in this scale, the individual is allotted a relative position on a similar scale, which is his placing in comparison with other individuals. (b) Absolute Scale: This scale provides absolute value to an individual in the population. Here, a particular part of population is examined and then the opinions of an individual are analysed. The investigator then places the opinions of individual on the scale, showing the percentage of the population concurring with his opinions as well as the percentage differing from him. This also gives the absolute position of his opinions. 2.11 Summary Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the behaviour of a subject without influencing it in any way. A study that investigates the connection between two or more variables is considered relational research. The variables that are compared are generally already present in the group or population. For example, a study that looked at the proportion of males and females that would purchase either a classical CD or a jazz CD would be studying the relationship between gender and music preference. Quantitative Research is the type of research mainly deal in numbers, number of tools are used to gather information from audience such as surveys, different type of media, stores audit, etc. It is commonly used and getting popularity day by day because of variety of tools are available in the market. This approach is less expensive and takes less time as compared to Qualitative research, that the reason more companies opting this method as marketing research method. This method is more than dealing in numbers, requires more expertise to perform this type of marketing research. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 31 Types of qualitative research include focus groups and observational studies. Focus groups gather a small number of respondents together to discuss topics yielded by the research questions. A moderator leads the discussion and helps keep discussion lively and focused around the research questions. 2.12 Key Words/Abbreviations  Pure Research: Pure research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world.  Applied Research: Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science.  Causal Research: Causal Research explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically  Descriptive Research: Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the behaviour of a subject.  Analytical Research: Analytical research is a style of qualitative inquiry which draws from the disciplines of philosophy.  Quantitative Research: Quantitative Research is the type of research mainly deal in numbers, number of tools are used to gather information from audience.  Conceptual Research: Conceptual research is involves investigation of thoughts and ideas and developing new ideas.  Empirical Research: Empirical research is based on firm verifiable data collected by either observation of facts.  Scaling of Measurement: Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules.  Attitude Scales: Attitude scales evolve out of a series of short but carefully formulated statements of propositions. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

32 Research Methods and Statistics - I 2.13 Learning Activity 1. You are required to identify the types of research and prepare a report on best practices of research for management. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. You are suggested to prepare a report on “Scaling of Measurement”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 3. You are requested to find out the best Scaling Techniques and their implications for managerial decisions. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2.14 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Explain various types of Research. 2. Discuss in details about Scaling of Measurement. 3. Discuss the stages of Development of Scales Measurement. 4. Explain various Scaling Techniques. 5. Discuss the problems in Construction of Scales. 6. Explain various levels of Measurement. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Types of Research 33 Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is not the type of research based on Purpose? (a) Applied Research (b) Exploratory Research (c) Analytical Research (d) Descriptive Research 2. Which of the following involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn? (a) Exploratory Research (b) Quantitative Research (c) Analytical Research (d) Applied Research 3. Which of the following involves looking in-depth at non-numerical data? (a) Quantitative Research (b) Exploratory Research (c) Qualitative Research (d) Analytical Research 4. Which of the following is the basis for scale measurement? (a) Scaling based on Subject Orientation (b) Scaling based on Response Form (c) Scaling based on Subjectivity (d) All the above 5. Which of the following is the technique of scaling? (a) Arbitrary Technique (b) Consensus Technique (c) Factor Technique (d) All the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

34 Research Methods and Statistics - I Answers: 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (d), 5. (d) 2.15 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Design 35 UNIT 3 RESEARCH DESIGN Structure: 3.0 Learning Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Research Design 3.3 Meaning and Definitions of Research Design 3.4 Features of Research Design 3.5 Characteristics of a Good Research Design 3.6 Nature of Research Design 3.7 Concepts of Research Design 3.8 Process of Research Design Preparation 3.9 Types of Research Design 3.10 Summary 3.11 Key Words/Abbreviations 3.12 LearningActivity 3.13 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 3.14 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

36 Research Methods and Statistics - I 3.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the basics of research design  Describe types of research designs 3.1 Introduction Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need to be assessed this can be done with research design. The sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design. There are three main sections of research design: data collection, measurement, and analysis. The type of research problem an organisation is facing will determine the research design and not vice versa. Variables, designated tools to gather information, how will the tools be used to collect and analyse data and other factors are decided in research design on the basis of a research technique is decided. An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust on the collected and analysed research information. 3.2 Research Design A research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analysing the data. Research design is a blueprint of action. It involves a series of rational decision making choices regarding the purpose of the study, its scope, its location, the type of investigation, the extent to which it is controlled and manipulated by the researcher, the time aspects, the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is a plan and structure to obtain answers to the research questions. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Broadly, it is composed of different elements like the purpose of the study, the unit of analysis, time dimension, mode of observation, sampling design, observation tools, data processing and data analysis. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Design 37 3.3 Meaning and Definitions of Research Design Meaning of Research Design The research design is a plan of action indicating the specific steps that are necessary to provide answers to those questions, test the hypotheses and thereby achieve the research purpose that helps choose among the decision alternatives to solve the management problem or capitalise on the market opportunity. Definitions of Research Design According to David J. Luck and Ronald S. Rubin, “A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted/or the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research objective, it will ensure that the client’s needs will be served.” According to Kerlinger, “Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.” According to Green and Tull, “A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the overall operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which source by what procedures.” 3.4 Features of Research Design 1. Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the responses. The research design should permit the measuring instrument which is fairly objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by more than one independent observer. 2. Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For example, if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, then he is expected to give the same response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same item, then the consistency will be lost. So, the researcher should CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

38 Research Methods and Statistics - I frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability. 3. Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is expected to measure. For example, an intelligence test conducted for measuring the IQ should measure only the intelligence and nothing else and the questionnaire shall be framed accordingly. 4. Generalisability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilised for drawing certain generalisations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus, a research design helps an investigator to generalise his findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis, etc. while preparing the research design. 3.5 Characteristics of a Good Research Design A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible, suitable, efficient, economical and so on. Generally, a research design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design. Following are certain characteristic elements of a good research design: 1. Simplicity: It should be simple and understandable. 2. Economical: It must be economical. The technique selected must be cost-effective and less time-consuming. 3. Reliability: It should give the smallest experimental error. This should have the minimum bias and have the reliability of data collected and analysed. 4. Workability: It must be workable. It should be pragmatic and practicable. 5. Flexibility: It must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many different aspects of a phenomenon. 6. Accuracy: It must lead to accurate results. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Design 39 3.6 Nature of Research Design A research design is a plan for comprehensive data collection to answer research questions and/or test research hypotheses. It consists of detailed prescriptions for solving problems from either a scientific or humanistic perspective. This is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlation, semi-experimental, experimental and review, meta-analytic) and sub- type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research question, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design and if applicable, data collection methods and a statistical analysis plan. Research design is the framework that has been created to seek answers to research questions. Explanatory research focuses on why questions. For example, it is one thing to describe the crime rate in a country, to examine trends over time or to compare the rates in different countries. It is quite a different thing to develop explanations about why the crime rate is as high as it is why some types of crime are increasing or why the rate is higher in some countries than in others. The way in which researchers develop research designs is fundamentally affected by whether the research question is descriptive or explanatory. It affects what information is collected. Exploratory research is conducted when the researcher does not know how and why certain phenomenon occurs. Here, the hypothetical solutions or actions are explored and evaluated by the decision maker, example evaluation of quality of service of a bank/hotel/airline. Here, the quality cannot be accessed directly as tangible features are not available. Descriptive research is undertaken when the researcher desires to know the characteristics of certain groups such as age, gender, occupation, income or education. The objective of descriptive research is to answer the “who, what, when, where and how” of the subject under study/investigation. 3.7 Concepts of Research Design Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below: 1. Dependent and Independent Variables A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in a strict sense. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

40 Research Methods and Statistics - I However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms, they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. Examples: A health psychologist wants to learn more about how stress influences memory. In this example, the dependent variable might be test scores on a memory test and the independent variable might exposure to a stressful task. In a psychology experiment, researchers want to discover if listening to classical music helps students earn better grades on a math exam. In this example, the scores on the math exams are the dependent variable and the classical music is the independent variable. Researchers want to know whether first-born children learn to speak at a younger age than second-born children. In this example, the dependent variable is the age at which the child learns to speak and the independent variable is whether the child is first- or second-born. 2. Extraneous Variables The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between employee’s performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the employee’s performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of independent variable/s is clearly evident. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Design 41 3. Control One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimise the effect of extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimises the effects of extraneous variables. The term ‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the restraints used in experimental conditions. 4. Confounded Relationship The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects. 5. Research Hypothesis When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not classified as research hypotheses. 6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-experimental design. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as ‘experimental hypothesis testing research’, whereas the research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non-experimental hypothesis testing research’. For example, assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family responsibilities influences the employee absenteeism by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two variables. Such an example is known as a non- experimental hypothesis testing research, because the independent variable – family responsibilities is not manipulated here. 7. Experimental and Control Groups When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis testing research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

42 Research Methods and Statistics - I condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’. In the aforementioned example, Group A can be called as control group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only the experimental group or both the experimental and control groups together. 8. Treatments Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the employees with people support and take responsibility at home and those with no helping hand. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment the comparative effect of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments. 9. Experiment Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorised into two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. 10. Experimental Units Experimental Units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great caution. 3.8 Process of Research Design Preparation Stated in simple terms, a research design is a plan of action, a plan for collecting and analysing data in an economic, efficient and relevant manner. Whatever be the nature of design, the following steps are generally followed: Step 1: Selection and Definition of a Problem The problem selected for study should be defined clearly in operational terms so that researcher knows positively what facts he is looking for and that is relevant to the study. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research Design 43 .Step 2: Sources of Data Once the problem is selected, it is the duty of the researcher to state clearly the various sources of information such as library, personal documents, field work, a particular residential group, etc. Step 3: Nature of Study The research design should be expressed in relation to the nature of study to be undertaken. The choice of the statistical, experimental or comparative type of study should be made at this stage so that the following steps in planning may have relevance to the proposed problem. Step 4: Object of Study Whether the design aims at theoretical understanding or presupposes a welfare notion must be explicit at this point. Stating the object of the study helps not only in clarity of the design but also in a sincere response from the respondents. Step 5: Socio-cultural Context The research design must be set in the socio-cultural context. For example, in a study of the fertility rate of people among backward class, the context of the so-called backward class of people and the conceptual reference must be made clear. Unless the meaning of the term is clearly defined, there tends to be a large variation in the study because the term backward could have religious, economic and political connotations. Step 6: Temporal Context The geographical limit of the design should also be referred to at this stage as research related to the hypothesis is applicable to particular social group only. Step 7: Dimension It is physically impossible to analyse the data collected from a large universe. Hence, the selection of an adequate and representative sample is a by-word in any research. Step 8: Basis of Selection The mechanics of drawing a random, stratified and purposive, double cluster or quota sample when followed carefully will produce a scientifically valid sample in an unbiased manner. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

44 Research Methods and Statistics - I Step 9: Technique of Data Collection Relevant to the study design a suitable technique has to be adopted for the collection of required data. The relative merit of observation, interview and questionnaire, when studied together will help in the choice of suitable technique. Once the collection of data is complete, analysis, coding and presentation of the report naturally follow. 3.9 Types of Research Design The different types of Research Design are: 1. Exploratory Research Design Exploratory research is conducted when the researcher does not know how and why certain phenomenon occurs. Here, the hypothetical solutions or actions are explored and evaluated by the decision-maker, e.g., evaluation of quality of service of a bank/hotel/airline. Here, the quality cannot be accessed directly as tangible features are not available. Exploratory research could also be used in conjunction with other research. Since it is used as a first step in the research process, defining the problem, other designs will be used later as steps to solve the problem. For instance, it could be used in situations when a firm finds the going gets tough in terms of sales volume, the researcher may use exploratory research to develop probable explanations. Analysis of data generated using exploratory research is essentially abstraction and generalisation. The exploratory research design is best characterised by its flexibility and versatility. This is so, because of the absence of the non-imperativeness of a structure in its design. Exploratory Research is used to: (i) Define the problem more precisely. (ii) Identify relevant courses of action, i.e., find the most likely alternatives, which are then turned into hypotheses. (iii) Isolate key variables and relationships for further examinations. (iv) Gain insights for developing an approach to a problem. (v) Establish priorities for further research. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)