CU-SEM-III-BA-English-III-Second Draft-converted

(In the present tense, statements with subjects of he, she, or it, we add an s to the verb: I go downstairs, we go downstairs, and ballplayers go downstairs, but he goes downstairs and Loren goes downstairs. For more, see the TIP Sheet \"Subject-Verb Agreement.\") Linking verbs Linking verbs are the couch potatoes of verbs, that is, not very active at all. In a sentence, a linking verb tells what the subject is rather than what it does; linking verbs express a state of being. Another set of linking verbs are those pertaining to our five senses--seeing, tasting, touching, hearing, and smelling--and how we perceive the world: the verbs appear, seem, look, feel, smell, taste, and sound, for example. When used as linking verbs, they connect the subject with a word offering more information about that subject: Loren seems anxious about the test. The well water tastes wonderful. My carpet still feels damp. You sound hoarse. The curtains smell a little smoky. As linking verbs, these \"sense\" verbs have about the same meaning as is. Loren seems anxious is roughly equivalent to Loren is anxious; the curtains smell smoky is about the same as the curtains are smoky. However, these same \"sense\" verbs can sometimes be action verbs instead. The real test whether one of these verbs is or is not a linking verb is whether it draws an equivalence with the subject, almost like a math equation: Loren = anxious; curtains = smoky. Consider the sentence I can't taste my lunch because I have a cold. Taste here does not draw an equivalence between I and lunch; rather, here it is an action verb, something the subject does. In the sentence Can you smell smoke? smell does not describe what the subject is, but what the subject does; it is an action verb. Other common linking verbs include become, remain, and grow, when they link the subject to more information (either a noun or an adjective) about that subject: You will soon become tired of the monotony. Peter has become a very responsible teenager. I remain hopeful. Daniel grew more and more confident. Again, these verbs might be action verbs in other sentences, such as in I grew carrots. 51 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Helping verbs Verbs often appear with helping verbs that fine-tune their meaning, usually expressing when something occurred. The complete verb is the main verb plus all its helping verbs. Verb tense is the name for the characteristic verbs have of expressing time. Simple present tense verbs express present or habitual action, and simple past tense verbs express actions that were completed in the past; neither simple present nor simple past tense verbs require helping verbs. However, most other verb tenses require one or more helping verbs. Moreover, some helping verbs express more than just time-possibility, obligation, or permission, for example. ...have, has, had Every verb has three basic forms: present or simple form, past form, and participle form. All participle forms require a helping verb that fine-tunes the time expression: Comets have collided with earth many times. Stan had known about the plan for some time. 3.5 ADVERB An adverb describes/modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It tells how, where, when, how often or to what extent. Many adverbs end in -LY Examples: slowly, quietly, very, always, never, too, well, tomorrow, here Example sentences: I am usually busy. Yesterday, I ate my lunch quickly. An adverb is a word/a set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. It tells when, where, and how an action is performed or indicates the quality or degree of the action. Many adverbs end in -ly but some words which end in -ly (such as friendly) are not adverbs. Many words can be both adverbs and adjectives according to their activity in the sentence. Example: Robin is always hungry for success. I love her very much. He is running fast. Alex works hard. He wrote that willingly. Adverb Clauses and Adverb Phrases are clauses and phrases that modify the verbs, adjectives or other adverbs in the sentence. 52 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Example: He ran toward the bus until he was tired. (Adverb Clause) He came carrying his box with two hands. (Adverb Phrase) Types of Adverbs: • Conjunctive Adverbs • Sentence Adverbs • Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?) • Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?) • Adverbs of Degree (How Much?) • Adverbs of Manner (How?) Conjunctive Adverbs: A conjunctive adverb connects phrases or independent clauses. It provides transitions between ideas and shows relationships. Conjunctive adverbs are also called connectors. Example: It rained last night. Nonetheless, the final match has not been cancelled. We are still confused, however, if the umpires will come. Last season there was a great drought; consequently, we could not grow crops. Sentence Adverbs: A sentence adverb starts the sentence and modifies the whole sentence. Example: Hopefully, we will win the match. Apparently, the sky is getting cloudy. Certainly, I did not think of coming here. Adverbs of Time/Frequency (When?) Adverbs of time/frequency indicate time or frequency of the action in the sentence. They answer the question ‘when/how frequently is the action performed?’ Always, never, often, eventually, now, frequently, occasionally, once, forever, seldom, before, Sunday, Monday, 10 AM, 12 PM, etc. are common adverbs of time/frequency. Example: 53 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

I went to school a little late yesterday. He always gets a good result. I will leave Monday. He smokes occasionally. Adverbs of Place/Direction (Where?) Adverbs of place/direction that indicate place/direction of the action in the sentence. They answer the question ‘where is the action performed?’ Across, over, under, in, out, though, backward, there, around, here, sideways, upstairs, in the park, in the field, in that place, etc. are some common adverbs of place/direction. Example: I went through the jungle. He plays in the field. Alex is going to school. He is staying at my home. Adverbs of Degree (How Much?) Adverbs that express the importance/degree/level of the action in the sentence are called adverbs of degree. They answer the question ‘how much is the action performed?’ Completely, nearly, entirely, less, mildly, most, thoroughly, somewhat, excessively, much, etc. are common adverbs of degree. Example: She completely forgot about her anniversary. I read the newspaper thoroughly. I am so excited about the new job. Robin hardly studies Adverbs of Manner (How?) Adverbs that express the manner/approach/process of the action in the sentence are called adverbs of manner. They answer the question ‘how is the action performed?’. Beautifully, equally, thankfully, carefully, handily, quickly, coldly, hotly, resentfully, earnestly, nicely, tirelessly, etc. are common adverbs of manner. These adverbs usually end in ly. Example: 54 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Let's divide the prizes equally. Please, handle the camera carefully. Mike is walking slowly. He is running fast. 3.6 ADJECTIVE An adjective describes, modifies or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Examples: big, happy, green, young, fun, crazy, three Example sentences: The little girl had a pink hat. 3.7 PREPOSITION A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the other words of a sentence. They explain relationships of sequence, space, and logic between the object of the sentence and the rest of the sentence. They help us understand order, time connections, and positions. Example: I am going to Canada. Alex threw a stone into the pond. The present is inside the box. They have gone out of the town. There are a few interesting linguistic facts about preposition. First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition gets added to the language. We use a fixed set of prepositions. Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural, possessive, inflection, or anything else. Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and natural uses. So, it is easy to be confused about preposition. Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions with two or more words are called phrasal prepositions. There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions: 55 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf of, on account of, in care of, in spite of, on the side of, etc. Types of Preposition Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some prepositions which are common in every type of preposition as they function in a versatile way. • Prepositions of Time • Prepositions of Place and Direction • Prepositions of Agents or Things • Phrasal Prepositions Prepositions of Time: Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence. On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most common preposition of time. Example: He started working at 10 AM. The company called meeting on 25 October. There is a holiday in December. He has been ill since Monday. Read More: Prepositions of Time Usage Prepositions of Place and Direction: Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence. On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, though, in front of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the most common prepositions of place/direction. Example: He is at home. He came from England. 56 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The police broke into the house. I live across the river. Read More: Prepositions of Places & Direction Usage Prepositions of Agents or Things: Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns and other parts of the sentence. Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of agents or things. Example: This article is about smartphones. Most of the guests have already left. I will always be here for you. He is playing with his brothers. Phrasal Prepositions: A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination of two or more words which functions as a preposition. Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of, contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal prepositions. Example: They along with their children went to Atlanta. According to the new rules, you are not right. In spite of being a good player, he was not selected. I’m going out of the city. 3.8 CONJUNCTION Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. The three different types of conjunctions indicate different relationships between the elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions link 57 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

elements of equal value. Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to establish a specific relationship between elements of equal value. Subordinating conjunctions indicate that one element is of lesser value (subordinate) to another element. 1. Use a coordinating conjunction to connect elements (words, phrases, or clauses) of equal grammatical value. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet (Note: These are often remembered with the acronym FANBOYS.) Coordinating conjunctions link equal elements. Swimming and reading are my two favorite summer activities. (Swimming and reading are both subjects in the sentence.) Please place the papers on top of the desk or in the drawer. (On top of the desk and in the drawer are both prepositional phrases.) She wanted to drive the car, but she had never received her license. (She wanted to drive the car and she had never received her license are both independent clauses.) 2. Use correlative conjunctions in pairs to connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical value. Correct use of these conjunctions is critical in achieving parallelism in sentence structure (see TIP Sheet on \"Achieving Parallelism\"). Correlative conjunctions always come in pairs: as...as both...and not only...but also either...or neither...nor whether...or Make sure that the grammatical structure following the second half of the pair is the same as that following the first half. You must decide either to fly or to drive. (The elements to fly and to drive are both infinitives.) Contrary to my plans, I spent much of my vacation both correcting papers and contacting students. (The elements correcting papers and contacting students are both participial phrases.) 58 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

I hope not only that you will attend the play, but also that you will stay for the cast party afterwards. (The elements that you will attend the play and that you will stay for the cast party afterwards are both subordinate clauses.) 3. Use a subordinating conjunction to connect a subordinate (dependent) clause to an independent clause. Common subordinating conjunctions include the following: after even though than whenever although if that were as in order that though whereas as if rather than unless wherever because since until whether before so that when while (Note: Some of the words listed can serve as different parts of speech, depending on how they are used.) A subordinating conjunction indicates that the dependent clause is not complete without an attached independent clause. If you finish your homework, you will be prepared for the test. (If you finish your homework by itself, is an incomplete thought.) I lose myself in the music whenever I practice the piano. (Whenever I practice the piano by itself is an incomplete thought.) 4. Conjunctive adverbs (sometimes called adverbial conjunctions) are used to indicate a relationship between sentences and independent clauses. Common conjunctive adverbs include the following: however therefore moreover nevertheless When a conjunctive adverb appears at the beginning or in the middle of an independent clause, it is usually set off by commas. When a conjunctive adverb introduces a second clause within a sentence, a semicolon precedes it and a comma follows it. Carrot cake is very tasty. Moreover, the carrots make it a \"healthy\" choice for dessert. I realize you were busy. It is unfortunate, however, that you missed that phone call. The hurricane has lessened in intensity; nevertheless, we are evacuating in an hour. Examples: and, or, but, because, so, yet, unless, since, if. Example sentences: I was hot and exhausted but I still finished the marathon. 59 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3.9 INTERJECTION An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a strong feeling or emotion. It is a short exclamation. Examples: Ouch! Wow! Great! Help! Oh! Hey! Hi! Example sentences: Wow! I passed my English test. Great! – Ouch! That hurt. Interjections are unique and have some interesting features: Interjections don’t have a grammatical function in the sentence construction. They usually cannot be modified or inflected. They do not have to have a relation to the other parts of the sentence. They are highly context-sensitive. In spoken language, interjections are the words we instantly use to show our reaction to something which influences our emotion. They are the initial reaction and sometimes do not even make sense. However, for formal speech or writing, using interjections is not appropriate. Interjections mainly have four roles: Rule 1: Interjections express a sudden mood, emotions, and feeling with emphasis. There are also many taboo words that are usually used in everyday conversation but not in formal aspects. These words fall into the category of interjections. Example: Wow! That’s an amazing scene. Aw, I did not want him to come. What? You never told me that! Rule 2: Some interjections interrupt a conversation or a thought or hold someone’s attention for a moment. These are just sounding, not words because these sounds do not make any sense. Example: Your, um, shirt has a stain on the back. I want to, uh, ask you out on a date. Rule 3: Some interjections express only yes or no. 60 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Example: Yes! I will most definitely do it. Nah, we are not going. Rule 4: Some interjections are used to get someone’s attention. Example: Yo, Alex! Get in the car! Hey! Will you give me that ball? Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone? 3.10 CORRECTION OF SENTENCES Sentence: Definition & Types (5/5, 359 votes) Sentence: Definition & Types A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full-stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark. The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough idea by giving a statement/order, or asking a question, or exclaiming. Example: He is a good boy (statement), Is he a good boy? (question), What a nice weather! (exclaiming). Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the subject of a sentence can be hidden, but the verb must be visible and present in the sentence. Verb is called the heart of a sentence. Example Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible) “[A sentence is] a group of words, usually containing a verb, that expresses a thought in the form of a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when written.” - (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press.) More Examples of Sentences 61 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In other words, a complete English sentence must have three characteristics: First, in written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (i.e., a full stop) [.], a note of interrogation (i.e., a question mark) [?], or a note of exclamation (i.e., an exclamation mark) [!]. Second, it must express a complete thought, not fragmented. Third, it must contain at least one subject (hidden/visible) and one verb comprising an independent clause. (An independent clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.) Types of Sentences Structurally, sentences are of four types: Simple sentence Compound sentence Complex sentence, and Compound-complex sentence. Simple sentence A simple sentence must have a single clause (a single verb) which is independent, and it cannot take another clause. Example: I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb) Compound sentence A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no dependent clauses. Some specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used to join together these clauses. Example: I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two independent clauses – two verbs) Complex sentence A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be an independent clause and the other/others must be (a) dependent clause(es). There are also some particular connectors for the clauses of a complex sentence to be connected. 62 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Example: I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is followed by a connector and an independent clause. The other way around is also possible.) Compound-complex sentence A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a mixture of the features of compound and complex sentences in one sentence. So, it must contain at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example: I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a doctor. (Here, one dependent clause is followed by a complex connector and two independent clauses with a compound conjunction between them.) Functionally, sentences are of mainly four types: Declarative sentence Imperative sentence Interrogative sentence, and Exclamatory sentence Declarative sentence: An assertive sentence (declarative sentence) simply expresses an opinion/feeling, or makes a statement, or describes things. In other words, it declares something. This type of sentence ends with a period (i.e., a full-stop). Examples: I want to be a good cricketer. (a statement) I am very happy today. (a feeling) More Examples of Declarative Sentence Imperative sentence: We use an imperative sentence to make a request or to give a command. Imperative sentences usually end with a period (i.e., a full stop), but under certain circumstances, it can end with a note of exclamation (i.e., exclamation mark). Examples: 63 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Please sit down. I need you to sit down now! More Examples of Imperative Sentence Interrogative sentence: An interrogative sentence asks a question. Interrogative sentences must end with a note of interrogation (i.e., question mark) Examples: When are you going to submit your assignment? Do you know him? More Examples of Interrogative Sentence Exclamatory sentence. An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can be of happiness, wonder, sorrow, anger, etc. Examples: What a day it was! I cannot believe he would do that! We all have learned the basic grammar rules in our school days. Now, let’s discuss some important rules and errors so as to tackle questions based on sentence correction. 1. Subject-verb agreement As the name says itself, the verb used in the sentence should be in accordance with the subject. Both should be either plural or singular at the same time. E.g., The girl was reading. (Singular) The girls were reading. (Plural) Let’s recall some of the essential rules of subject-verb agreement. In case of collective nouns (like police, army, herd, etc.), the verb used is singular. Similarly, for subjects connected by ‘and’/ ‘or’, plural verbs are used. If the sentence begins with each/anyone/everyone, a singular verb is used. 64 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

For the sentences that contain ‘either/or’ and ‘neither/nor’ pairs, the verb used will be singular if both the subjects are singular. In case one or both the subjects are plural, the plural verb is used. Often, there arises confusion between the usage of ‘I’ and ‘me’. Let’s see the following examples: Mary and I joined the sports club. (Here, ‘Mary’ and ‘I’ are the subjects of the sentence.) John took Mary and me to the sports club. (Here, ‘Mary’ and ‘me’ are the objects of the sentence.) Similarly, in case of comparison, ‘I’ is used with the other subject. E.g., He is shorter than I am. Another important thing to identify here is the correct usage of pronouns as per the subject and object. In some cases, long sentences are given without the required verb. That calls for an answer option with the required missing verb. 2. Repetition Sometimes, there is redundancy in the sentence. In other words, the same thing is written twice in a single statement. Most of the times, you can spot such errors easily. Example: I returned back from Goa. (Incorrect) I came back from Goa. (Correct) 3. Error in modifiers As you can guess from the name itself, modifiers modify the subject. So, where do you think should the modifiers be placed? Yes, they need to be placed next to the subject it modifies. Example: Sitting in the garden, a scorpion stung her. (Here, you can’t figure out who is sitting in the garden- the scorpion or the girl. This is an incorrect way.) The correct way would be: Sitting in the garden, she was stung by a scorpion. 4. Parallelism What exactly can be parallelism in sentence? Well, it relates to the structure of the sentence. Putting it other ways, the different phrases/words performing the same function should be used in the same format. Example: Sonia likes to dance, sing and cook. (Correct) 65 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sonia likes dancing, singing and cooking. (Correct) Sonia likes to dance, sing and cooking. (Incorrect) 5. Error in diction A diction error refers to the error in choice of words/phrases. At other times, even some idioms occur in sentences in an incorrect way. Common pair of words and phrases where you may face diction error are: affect v/s effect (E.g., the effect of the decision, affect the outcome) adapt v/s adopt argue against v/s argue with later v/s latter lay v/s lie few v/s less (E.g., less water left.,. few students in class) 6. Wrong comparisons Sometimes, the comparisons are made between dissimilar things or in an incorrect way. Example: John is wiser than all men. (Incorrect way) John is wiser than all other men. (Correct way- John needs to be excluded from the rest of the same category.) In the above example, comparative degree is used. But in case of superlative degree, the person/thing compared is included in the rest of the class. E.g., John is the strongest of all men. Overall, you need to make sure that the different parts of speech (adjective, adverb, nouns, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, verbs, etc.) are used appropriately and at the right place in the sentence. So now, you are aware of the errors that may occur in questions based on sentence correction. The next step should be to devise a strategy to answer these questions in an accurate and timely manner. Keep the following things in mind while tackling a sentence correction question: Identify the concept The very reason above-stated rules were discussed! Generally, in such questions, one or two rules are rules are used inappropriately. So, the first task is to identify the particular kind of error/s. 66 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Keep an eye on the time indicators (before, after, during, etc.). This can help you spot the verb tense errors easily. In some cases, the whole sentence needs to be rewritten. Once you have figured out the kind of error/s, try to make the correction without looking at the options. Similar answer choices Sometimes, the given answer options are very close to each other and display very less difference. So, you need to extra careful in the examination of such choices. Read the full statement before selecting your answer. Also, if there are 2-3 similar answer options, that doesn’t mean one of them must be the right choice. The actual answer may be the completely dissimilar one. Treat all options equally While going through the answer options, you may feel the initial particular option is correct and neglect the remaining. It is advised to go through all the options before deciding your answer choice. Pay attention to the non-underlined part It is common to ignore the non-underlined part of sentence. But this part may contain vital hints about the kind of error as well as the required answer. Choose the shorter answer In case you are stuck with two options, choose the shorter one. Often the long sentences are added in the options to confuse the candidates. This also helps when you are unsure of the concept being tested. It is always wise to start examining the shorter options first, before moving on to the longer ones. Substitute the selected answer Before you mark your selected answer, it is a good idea to read the sentence along with the answer option. In fact, it would be great if you read it a second time after the correct insertion. Also, sometimes, error is caused in an exceptional rule and not the usual standard rules. So, make sure the sentence makes sense. If it still seems too complex, listen to the sentence. In other words, say the sentence in your head and choose the option that sounds best to your ears. Elimination technique Multiple errors in a sentence and similar answer choices – complicate matters! Here, elimination strategy comes to your rescue. This technique proves effective in any kind of question. There would be some options that change the meaning of the sentence while some 67 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

make it grammatically incorrect. In such cases, elimination technique will help you arrive at the right answer. Do not eliminate options with idioms or pronoun ambiguity in the first go. These pose problem only when the meaning of the sentence is altered. The options with ‘ing’ form are mostly incorrect and can be rejected outright. In some cases, the word pair (just as…so, not only. But also, etc.) is used incorrectly or half of it is missing. Finally, do not get stuck with a particular answer choice if it appears confusing to you. Go through the rest and eliminate the obvious ones first. 3.11 SUMMARY • One of the most scoring as well as tricky part of Verbal Ability section is- Sentence Correction. What do you think can be the purpose of this topic? Well, it checks your grammar skills. • In other words, you need to identify whether the sentence is grammatically correct or a part of it needs to be replaced. So, what do you need to know for that? A few fundamental rules of grammar and correct usage of words! • In such questions, you may find a part of or the whole sentence in bold or underline and you are expected to find the correct phrase to replace it. • Basically, you need to figure out the grammatical error in that particular part of a sentence. • Most of the times, you will find that one of the options repeats the same phrase while the rest rewrite it in different ways. So, it’s for you to decide whether the given phrase is correct or not. 3.12 KEYWORDS • NOUN: A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. • PRONOUN: A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. • VERB: A verb expresses action or being. • ADJECTIVE: An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. • ADVERB: An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. • PREPOSITION: A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word in the sentence. 68 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• CONJUNCTION: A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses. • INTERJECTION: An interjection is a word used to express emotion. 3.13 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Study in details the various parts of speech. __________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 3.14 UNIT END QUESTIONS A -Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Give examples of different types of verbs? 2. Define conjunctions. 3. Give examples of conjunctions. 4. What are the rules of sentence correction? 5. Give examples of pronouns. Long Questions 1. Define noun. 2. What are the types of noun? 3. What are the different parts of speech? 4. Define preposition. 5. Describe interjections? B. Multiple choice Questions 1. I bought a beautiful dress at the mall. a. preposition b. adjective c. noun d. Pronoun 2. What did she ask you to do? a. conjunction b. preposition c. pronoun d. verb 69 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. I left my shoes under the kitchen table. a. adjective b. preposition c. pronoun d. Noun 4. If we finish our work quickly, we can go to the movies. a. adverb b. Conjunction c. Verb d. Preposition 5. On Saturdays I work from nine to five. a. verb b. preposition c. adverb d. a Answer 1-b),2- c),3-b),4-a),5-a) 3.15 REFERENCES Reference’s book • Wren and martin • Ambika S. Gupta, Selected College Poems, Ed., Orient Black swan, Hyderabad • Dr Usha Bande, Krishan Gopal, The Pointed Vision - An anthology of Short stories, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. • Murphy, R., English Grammar in Use -Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Learners of English, Cambridge University Press (2013), UK. • Hewing, Martin, Advanced Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press, 3rd Edition (2013), UK. Web Sources: • https://www.smart-words.org/list-of-synonyms/ • https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/basic-grammar 70 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/ • https://journals.openedition.org/lexis/478 71 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 4: VOCABULARY Structure 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 One word substitution 4.3 Synonyms and antonyms- contextual usage 4.4 Summary 4.5 Keywords 4.6 Learning Activity 4.7 Unit End Questions 4.8 References 4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: ● Use words contextually ● Understand one word substitution ● Understand synonyms and antonyms. ● Able to generate synonyms and antonyms for target words. ● Explain and practice the exercises of one word substitution ● Enrich the vocabulary ● Answer the examination-oriented questions. 4.1 INTRODUCTION A vocabulary, also known as a word stock or word-stock, is a set of familiar words within a person's language. A vocabulary, usually developed with age, serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge. Vocabulary is all about words — the words in a language or a special set of words you are trying to learn. It was first used in the 1500s to mean a list of words with explanations, the noun vocabulary came to refer to the “range of language of a person or group” about two hundred years later. An example of vocabulary is all the words that a toddler understands. An example of vocabulary is: The language used by doctors. A dancer's vocabulary of movement. 4.2 VOCABULARY AND ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION Vocabulary refers to the words we must understand to communicate effectively. Educators 72 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

often consider four types of vocabulary: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Reading vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we read. Writing vocabulary consists of the words we use in writing. Since comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading, the importance of vocabulary development cannot be overestimated. A robust vocabulary improves all areas of communication — listening, speaking, reading and writing. Definition vo·cab·u·lary | \\ vō-ˈka-byə-ˌler-ē , və- \\ plural vocabularies Definition of vocabulary 1: a list or collection of words or of words and phrases usually alphabetically arranged and explained or defined: LEXICON 2 a: a sum or stock of words employed by a language, group, individual, or work or in a field of knowledge a child with a large vocabulary the vocabulary of physicians a writer known for employing a rich vocabulary b: a list or collection of terms or codes available for use (as in an indexing system) … the oldest Sumerian cuneiform writing could not render normal prose but was a mere telegraphic shorthand, whose vocabulary was restricted to names, numerals, units of measure, words for objects counted, and a few adjectives. — Jared Diamon 3: a supply of expressive techniques or devices (as of an art form) an impressive musical vocabulary Synonyms for vocabulary: argot, can’t, dialect, jargon, jive, language, lingo, patois, patter, shop, shoptalk, slang, terminology One word Substitution One word substitution is the use of one word in place of a wordy phrase in order to make the sentence structure clearer. The meaning, with the replacement of the phrase remains identical while the sentence becomes shorter. One word Substitution is one of the integral parts of vocabulary. It simply means that a sentence has to be replaced with a single word. This area requires a good vocabulary to solve the questions well. For example: A hater of womankind – Misogynist One easy method of doing one word substitution is by using the root method. Roots are 73 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

nothing but the words from which the main word has been derived. In our other series of vocabulary, we have consolidated the lists of root words that will ease your preparation. For example: Look at the root word - CRACY. CRACY = RULE / GOVERNMENT A government by the people - Democracy A government by a king or queen - Monarchy A government by the officials - Bureaucracy A government by the rich - Plutocracy A government by few - Oligarchy A government by the nobles - Aristocracy Let's learn more examples: imt OMNI = ALL One who is all powerful - Omnipotent One who is present everywhere - Omnipresent One who knows everything - Omniscient CIDE= KILLING Killing of a human being - Homicide Killing/ Murder of a king - Regicide Killing of an Infant/ newborn baby - Infanticide Killing of a race or community - Genocide Killing of One's sister - Sorocide Killing of self or self-murder - Suicide Killing of either or both parents - Parricide Killing of one's brother - Fratricide Killing of one's father - Patricide Killing of one's mother - Matricide Killing of one's husband - Mariticide Killing of one's wife - Uxoricide Ible= Able to be 74 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Inaudible - a sound that cannot be heard Inaccessible - that cannot be easily approached Incorrigible - incapable of being corrected Irreparable - incapable of being repaired Illegible - incapable of being read Inevitable - incapable of being avoided Impracticable - incapable of being practiced Invincible - one, too strong to be overcome Indelible - that cannot be erased Indefatigable - one, who does not tire easily Infallible - one, who is free from all mistakes and failures Learning through word roots will make it easy for you to grasp more and enhance your vocabulary. The above given list of word roots will surely help you in this regard. It's always advisable to learn one word substitution with the help of word roots to ease your vocabulary building and expand your word base exponentially. One Word Substitution One word substitution is a process in which people use one word to replace a wordy phrase, to make the sentence structure clearer. This also makes work more succinct, instead of convoluted. For example, if you have a sentence that states 'He drives me in a vehicle around town.' instead you can use 'He chauffeurs me around town.' The meaning is identical, yet the sentence is shorter. This adds a complexity to writing, while still making sure the writing is concise. How to Find One Word Substitutions If you are not used to having to substitute your phrases, it can be challenging to figure out where to search for these replacements. A thesaurus can be a simple way to find these substitution words, especially when you do not have web access. There are actually websites available for one-word substitutions, such as onewordsubstitution.com. There are also other ways to find these words. Examples of One Word Substitution Regular Words The following problems will have the wordy phrase with its one-word substitution next to it. There are some cases where there could be more than one word that could be used as a substitution, and these are shown as well. There are many other phrases, but these are several that are used frequently. To fall apart over time - Disintegrate A copy of something that is identical - Facsimile 75 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Old age that results in odd and unique behaviors - Senility A smart and educated individual - Intellectual Someone who is driven by passion to do crazy things - Zealot Things to be done throughout the day - Schedule To leave somewhere that is treacherous - Escape A person who pushes an idea or belief system they do not believe - Hypocrite Someone who sees everything negatively - Cynic Something that is not understandable - Incomprehensible A person who is talented in many different facets of life - Versatile A movie or play held during the daytime - Matinee Timeframe between kids hitting puberty and being an adult - Adolescence A person that is unknown - Anonymous Someone that you work with - Colleague 4.3 SYNONYMS, ANTONYMS- CONTEXTUAL USAGE Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. Synonyms are words with the same or similar meaning. Homonyms are words that are spelled and pronounced the same, but have different meanings. A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in the same language. For example, the words begin, start, commence, and initiate are all synonyms of one another; they are synonymous. The standard test for synonymy is substitution: one form can be replaced by another in a sentence without changing its meaning. Words are considered synonymous in only one particular sense: for example, long and extended in the context long time or extended time are synonymous, but long cannot be used in the phrase extended family. Synonyms with exactly the same meaning share a seme or denotational sememe, whereas those with inexactly similar meanings share a broader denotational or connotational sememe and thus overlap within a semantic field. The former is sometimes called cognitive synonyms and the latter, near-synonyms, plesionyms or poecilonyms Uses of synonyms Synonyms often express a nuance of meaning or are used in different registers of speech or writing. Different technical fields may appropriate synonyms for specific technical meanings. Some writers avoid repeating the same word in close proximity, and prefer to use synonyms: this is called elegant variation. Many modern style guides criticize this. 76 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Examples Synonyms can be any part of speech, as long as both words belong to the same part of speech. Examples: noun: drink and beverage verb: buy and purchase adjective: big and large adverb: quickly and speedily preposition: on and upon Synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words: pupil as the aperture in the iris of the eye is not synonymous with student. Similarly, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died. A thesaurus or synonym dictionary lists similar or related words; these are often, but not always, synonyms. The word poecilonym is a rare synonym of the word synonym. It is not entered in most major dictionaries and is a curiosity or piece of trivia for being an autological word because of its meta quality as a synonym of synonym. Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings. For example: hot ↔ cold, large ↔ small, thick ↔ thin, synonym ↔ antonym Hypernyms and hyponyms are words that refer to, respectively, a general category and a specific instance of that category. For example, vehicle is a hypernym of car, and car is a hyponym of vehicle. Homophones are words that have the same pronunciation, but different meanings. For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents (because they are pronounced the same). Homographs are words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations. For example, one can record a song or keep a record of documents. Homonyms are words that have the same pronunciation and spelling, but have different meanings. For example, rose (a type of flower) and rose (past tense of rise) are homonyms. An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. For example, \"bad\" is an antonym of \"good\". Antonyms are words that have contrasting, or opposite, meanings. Like so much of the English language, “antonym” is rooted in the Greek language. The Greek word anti means opposite, while onym means name. Opposite name – that makes sense! 77 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Since the English language is so complex, people may disagree about which words truly have opposite meanings. With the examples of antonyms listed below, we try to clear that up and offer some tactics for choosing the most appropriate word every time. Types of Antonyms You may be interested to know that there are three different kinds of antonyms. Let’s take a look at each one: Complementary: Complementary antonyms have no middle ground. Examples include: boy — girl, off — on, night — day, entrance — exit, exterior — interior, true — false, dead — alive, push — pull, pass — fail Relational: These are similar to complementary antonyms, except that both must exist for them to be antonyms of each other. Check out these examples: above — below, doctor — patient, husband — wife, servant — master, borrow — lend, give — receive, predator — prey, buy — sell, instructor — pupil Graded: These antonyms deal with levels of comparison and they can be two words on a scale. Many are relative terms, which can be interpreted differently by different people. Examples include: young — elderly, hard — easy, happy — wistful, wise — foolish, fat — slim, warm — cool, early — late, fast — slow, dark — pale Add a Prefix to Create an Antonym Sometimes, you don’t need to search for another word entirely. It’s possible to create an antonym simply by adding a prefix to the word. Some examples of antonyms created by adding the prefix dis- are: Agree → disagree Appear → disappear Belief → disbelief Honest → dishonest Adding the prefix in- can make the following opposites: Tolerant → intolerant Decent → indecent Discreet → indiscreet Excusable → inexcusable 78 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Using the prefix mis- create antonyms like: Behave → misbehave Interpret → misinterpret Lead → mislead Trust → mistrust Examples of antonyms made by adding the prefix un- are: Likely → unlikely Able → unable Fortunate → unfortunate Forgiving → unforgiving By adding the prefix non- you can make these antonyms: Entity → nonentity Conformist → nonconformist Payment → nonpayment Sense → nonsense 4.4 SUMMARY • A synonym is basically the opposite of an antonym. It is a word that means the same, or almost the same, as another word. • They help us avoid repetition in our speech and writing and expand our vocabulary. • Synonyms and antonyms are used every day by teachers, students, writers, editors, poets, and songwriters to add variety to writing. 4.5 KEYWORDS • Homophones: words that have the same pronunciation, but different meanings. • Homographs: words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations. • Homonyms: words that have the same pronunciation and spelling, but have different meanings. 79 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4.6 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Write a paragraph that explains, in your own words, why one word substitution is a valuable thing to learn in writing. Include at least two examples of one word substitution in your response in order to illustrate your point. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ _____________ 2. Write a short story on any topic. If you like, you can use the single word substitution lists given in this lesson for inspiration. In your first draft, write without thinking about substitution. Then, go back through your work and see where single word substitution might improve your writing. Edit your work to reflect what you have learned in this lesson. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ___________________ 4.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What do you mean by one word substitution? 2. Define vocabulary? 3. What do you mean by antonym? 4. What is a synonym? 5. What do you mean by homonyms? Long Questions 1. Give examples of Antonym. 2. Give examples of synonym. 3. What are homophones? 4. What are homographs? B. Multiple Choice Questions 80 1. Choose the correct synonym of the given word: Rectify CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

a. To build 81 b. Correct c. Destroy d. To command 2. Choose the correct synonym of the given word: Parasite a. A loss of motion b. Exterminator c. Disease d. One that clings 3. Choose the correct synonym of the given word: Placate a. To make sure b. To annoy c. To pacify d. To flatten out 4. Choose the correct synonym of the given word: Paramount a. Very important b. Wide and extensive c. Above others in rank of authority d. Famous 5. Choose the correct synonym of the given word: Forestall a. Avoid b. Frighten CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Prevent 82 d. Disappoint 6. Choose the correct antonym of the given word Transmit a. Televise b. Withhold c. Reply d. Show 7. Choose the correct antonym of the given word False a. Defective b. True c. Incorrect d. Inaccurate 8. Choose the correct antonym of the given word Jocose a. Diseased b. Playful c. Dull d. Humorous 9. Choose the correct antonym of the given word Feral a. Tame b. Unyielding c. Natural d. Grim CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

10. Choose the correct antonym of the given word Dilettante a. Professional b. Tidy c. Rapid d. Stupid Answers 1-b, 2-c, 3-a, 4-b, 5-d, 6-b, 7- b, 8-c, 9-a, 10-d 4.8 REFERENCES Reference’s book ● ^ Stanojević, Maja (2009), \"Cognitive synonymy: a general overview\" (PDF), Facta Universitatis, Linguistics and Literature Series, 7 (2): 193–200. ● ^ DiMarco, Chrysanne, and Graeme Hirst. \"Usage notes as the basis for a representation of near-synonymy for lexical choice.\" Proceedings of 9th annual conference of the University of Waterloo Centre for the New Oxford English Dictionary and Text Research. 1993. ● ^ Grambs, David. The Endangered English Dictionary: Bodacious Words Your Dictionary Forgot. WW Norton & Company, 1997. ● \"World Architecture Images- The White House\". www.essential- architecture.com. Retrieved 2019-12-09. ● Hirst, Graeme. \"Ontology and the lexicon.\" Handbook on ontologies. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2009. 269-292. Web Sources: • https://www.smart-words.org/list-of-synonyms/ • https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/basic-grammar • https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/ • https://journals.openedition.org/lexis/478 83 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT – 5: LITERARY TEXT- POETRY: SELECTED COLLEGE POEMS Structure 5.0 Learning Objective 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Tintern Abbey 5.3 Kubla Khan 5.4 My last Dutchess 5.5 Punishment in Kindergarten 5.6 Summary 5.7 Keywords 5.8 Learning Activity 5.9 Unit End Questions 5.10 References 5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to: • Explain and summarize the poem: Tintern Abbey • State and summarize the poem: Kubla Khan, • Outline and summarize the poem: My last Dutchess, • Discuss and summarize the poem: Punishment in Kindergarten • Answer the examination related questions 5.1 INTRODUCTION • The poems Tintern Abbey by William Wordsworth speaks about the childhood memories with nature’s beauty. • Kubla Khan, • My last Dutchess and • Punishment in Kindergarten was 5.2 TINTERN ABBEY BY WILLIAM WORDSWORTH William Wordsworth was one of the founders of English Romanticism and one its most central figures and important intellects. Wordsworth is best known for Lyrical Ballads, co- written with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and The Prelude, a Romantic epic poem chronicling the “growth of a poet's mind.” Place of death: Rydal Mount & Gardens 84 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Date of birth: April 7, 1770 Place of birth: Cockermouth The Poem Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey, On Revisiting the Banks of the Wye during a Tour. July 13, 1798 Five years have past; five summers, with the length Of five long winters! and again I hear These waters, rolling from their mountain-springs With a soft inland murmur.—Once again Do I behold these steep and lofty cliffs, That on a wild secluded scene impress Thoughts of more deep seclusion; and connect The landscape with the quiet of the sky. The day is come when I again repose Here, under this dark sycamore, and view These plots of cottage-ground, these orchard-tufts, Which at this season, with their unripe fruits, Are clad in one green hue, and lose themselves 'Mid groves and copses. Once again I see These hedge-rows, hardly hedge-rows, little lines Of sportive wood run wild: these pastoral farms, Green to the very door; and wreaths of smoke Sent up, in silence, from among the trees! With some uncertain notice, as might seem Of vagrant dwellers in the houseless woods, Or of some Hermit's cave, where by his fire The Hermit sits alone. These beauteous forms, 85 Through a long absence, have not been to me As is a landscape to a blind man's eye: But oft, in lonely rooms, and 'mid the din Of towns and cities, I have owed to them, In hours of weariness, sensations sweet, Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart; And passing even into my purer mind With tranquil restoration:—feelings too Of unremembered pleasure: such, perhaps, As have no slight or trivial influence On that best portion of a good man's life, His little, nameless, unremembered, acts Of kindness and of love. Nor less, I trust, To them I may have owed another gift, Of aspect more sublime; that blessed mood, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In which the burthen of the mystery, 86 In which the heavy and the weary weight Of all this unintelligible world, Is lightened:—that serene and blessed mood, In which the affections gently lead us on,— Until, the breath of this corporeal frame And even the motion of our human blood Almost suspended, we are laid asleep In body, and become a living soul: While with an eye made quiet by the power Of harmony, and the deep power of joy, We see into the life of things. If this Be but a vain belief, yet, oh! how oft— In darkness and amid the many shapes Of joyless daylight; when the fretful stir Unprofitable, and the fever of the world, Have hung upon the beatings of my heart— How oft, in spirit, have I turned to thee, O sylvan Wye! thou wanderer thro' the woods, How often has my spirit turned to thee! And now, with gleams of half-extinguished thought, With many recognitions dim and faint, And somewhat of a sad perplexity, The picture of the mind revives again: While here I stand, not only with the sense Of present pleasure, but with pleasing thoughts That in this moment there is life and food For future years. And so I dare to hope, Though changed, no doubt, from what I was when first I came among these hills; when like a roe I bounded o'er the mountains, by the sides Of the deep rivers, and the lonely streams, Wherever nature led: more like a man Flying from something that he dreads, than one Who sought the thing he loved. For nature then (The coarser pleasures of my boyish days And their glad animal movements all gone by) To me was all in all.—I cannot paint What then I was. The sounding cataract Haunted me like a passion: the tall rock, The mountain, and the deep and gloomy wood, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Their colours and their forms, were then to me 87 An appetite; a feeling and a love, That had no need of a remoter charm, By thought supplied, nor any interest Unborrowed from the eye.—That time is past, And all its aching joys are now no more, And all its dizzy raptures. Not for this Faint I, nor mourn nor murmur; other gifts Have followed; for such loss, I would believe, Abundant recompense. For I have learned To look on nature, not as in the hour Of thoughtless youth; but hearing oftentimes The still sad music of humanity, Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power To chasten and subdue.—And I have felt A presence that disturbs me with the joy Of elevated thoughts; a sense sublime Of something far more deeply interfused, Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, And the round ocean and the living air, And the blue sky, and in the mind of man: A motion and a spirit, that impels All thinking things, all objects of all thought, And rolls through all things. Therefore am I still A lover of the meadows and the woods And mountains; and of all that we behold From this green earth; of all the mighty world Of eye, and ear,—both what they half create, And what perceive; well pleased to recognise In nature and the language of the sense The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse, The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul Of all my moral being. Nor perchance, If I were not thus taught, should I the more Suffer my genial spirits to decay: For thou art with me here upon the banks Of this fair river; thou my dearest Friend, My dear, dear Friend; and in thy voice I catch The language of my former heart, and read My former pleasures in the shooting lights Of thy wild eyes. Oh! yet a little while May I behold in thee what I was once, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

My dear, dear Sister! and this prayer I make, Knowing that Nature never did betray The heart that loved her; 'tis her privilege, Through all the years of this our life, to lead From joy to joy: for she can so inform The mind that is within us, so impress With quietness and beauty, and so feed With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men, Nor greetings where no kindness is, nor all The dreary intercourse of daily life, Shall e'er prevail against us, or disturb Our cheerful faith, that all which we behold Is full of blessings. Therefore let the moon Shine on thee in thy solitary walk; And let the misty mountain-winds be free To blow against thee: and, in after years, When these wild ecstasies shall be matured Into a sober pleasure; when thy mind Shall be a mansion for all lovely forms, Thy memory be as a dwelling-place For all sweet sounds and harmonies; oh! then, If solitude, or fear, or pain, or grief, Should be thy portion, with what healing thoughts Of tender joy wilt thou remember me, And these my exhortations! Nor, perchance— If I should be where I no more can hear Thy voice, nor catch from thy wild eyes these gleams Of past existence—wilt thou then forget That on the banks of this delightful stream We stood together; and that I, so long A worshipper of Nature, hither came Unwearied in that service: rather say With warmer love—oh! with far deeper zeal Of holier love. Nor wilt thou then forget, That after many wanderings, many years Of absence, these steep woods and lofty cliffs, And this green pastoral landscape, were to me More dear, both for themselves and for thy sake! Summary The full title of this poem is “Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey, on Revisiting the Banks of the Wye during a Tour. July 13, 1798.” It opens with the speaker’s declaration that five years have passed since he last visited this location, encountered its 88 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

tranquil, rustic scenery, and heard the murmuring waters of the river. He recites the objects he sees again, and describes their effect upon him: the “steep and lofty cliffs” impress upon him “thoughts of more deep seclusion”; he leans against the dark sycamore tree and looks at the cottage-grounds and the orchard trees, whose fruit is still unripe. He sees the “wreaths of smoke” rising up from cottage chimneys between the trees, and imagines that they might rise from “vagrant dwellers in the houseless woods,” or from the cave of a hermit in the deep forest. The speaker then describes how his memory of these “beauteous forms” has worked upon him in his absence from them: when he was alone, or in crowded towns and cities, they provided him with “sensations sweet, / Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart.” The memory of the woods and cottages offered “tranquil restoration” to his mind, and even affected him when he was not aware of the memory, influencing his deeds of kindness and love. He further credits the memory of the scene with offering him access to that mental and spiritual state in which the burden of the world is lightened, in which he becomes a “living soul” with a view into “the life of things.” The speaker then says that his belief that the memory of the woods has affected him so strongly may be “vain”—but if it is, he has still turned to the memory often in times of “fretful stir.” Even in the present moment, the memory of his past experiences in these surroundings floats over his present view of them, and he feels bittersweet joy in reviving them. He thinks happily, too, that his present experience will provide many happy memories for future years. The speaker acknowledges that he is different now from how he was in those long-ago times, when, as a boy, he “bounded o’er the mountains” and through the streams. In those days, he says, nature made up his whole world: waterfalls, mountains, and woods gave shape to his passions, his appetites, and his love. That time is now past, he says, but he does not mourn it, for though he cannot resume his old relationship with nature, he has been amply compensated by a new set of more mature gifts; for instance, he can now “look on nature, not as in the hour / Of thoughtless youth; but hearing oftentimes / The still, sad music of humanity.” And he can now sense the presence of something far more subtle, powerful, and fundamental in the light of the setting suns, the ocean, the air itself, and even in the mind of man; this energy seems to him “a motion and a spirit that impels / All thinking thoughts.... / And rolls through all things.” For that reason, he says, he still loves nature, still loves mountains and pastures and woods, for they anchor his purest thoughts and guard the heart and soul of his “moral being.” The speaker says that even if he did not feel this way or understand these things, he would still be in good spirits on this day, for he is in the company of his “dear, dear (d) Sister,” who is also his “dear, dear Friend,” and in whose voice and manner he observes his former self, and beholds “what I was once.” He offers a prayer to nature that he might continue to do so for a little while, knowing, as he says, that “Nature never did betray / The heart that loved her,” but leads rather “from joy to joy.” Nature’s power over the mind that seeks her out is such that it renders that mind impervious to “evil tongues,” “rash judgments,” and “the sneers of selfish men,” instilling instead a “cheerful faith” that the world is full of 89 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

blessings. The speaker then encourages the moon to shine upon his sister, and the wind to blow against her, and he says to her that in later years, when she is sad or fearful, the memory of this experience will help to heal her. And if he himself is dead, she can remember the love with which he worshipped nature. In that case, too, she will remember what the woods meant to the speaker, the way in which, after so many years of absence, they became dearer to him—both for themselves and for the fact that she is in them. “Tintern Abbey” is composed in blank verse, which is a name used to describe unrhymed lines in iambic pentameter. Its style is therefore very fluid and natural; it reads as easily as if it were a prose piece. But of course, the poetic structure is tightly constructed; Wordsworth’s slight variations on the stresses of iambic rhythms is remarkable. Lines such as “Here, under this dark sycamore, and view” do not quite conform to the stress-patterns of the meter, but fit into it loosely, helping Wordsworth approximate the sounds of natural speech without grossly breaking his meter. Occasionally, divided lines are used to indicate a kind of paragraph break, when the poet changes subjects or shifts the focus of his discourse. Commentary The subject of “Tintern Abbey” is memory—specifically, childhood memories of communion with natural beauty. Both generally and specifically, this subject is hugely important in Wordsworth’s work, reappearing in poems as late as the “Intimations of Immortality” ode. “Tintern Abbey” is the young Wordsworth’s first great statement of his principle (great) theme: that the memory of pure communion with nature in childhood works upon the mind even in adulthood, when access to that pure communion has been lost, and that the maturity of mind present in adulthood offers compensation for the loss of that communion—specifically, the ability to “look on nature” and hear “human music”; that is, to see nature with an eye toward its relationship to human life. In his youth, the poet says, he was thoughtless in his unity with the woods and the river; now, five years since his last viewing of the scene, he is no longer thoughtless, but acutely aware of everything the scene has to offer him. Additionally, the presence of his sister gives him a view of himself as he imagines himself to have been as a youth. Happily, he knows that this current experience will provide both of them with future memories, just as his past experience has provided him with the memories that flicker across his present sight as he travels in the woods. “Tintern Abbey” is a monologue, imaginatively spoken by a single speaker to himself, referencing the specific objects of its imaginary scene, and occasionally addressing others— once the spirit of nature, occasionally the speaker’s sister. The language of the poem is striking for its simplicity and forthrightness; the young poet is in no way concerned with ostentation. He is instead concerned with speaking from the heart in a plainspoken manner. The poem’s imagery is largely confined to the natural world in which he moves, though there are some castings-out for metaphors ranging from the nautical (the memory is “the anchor” of the poet’s “purest thought”) to the architectural (the mind is a “mansion” of memory). 90 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The poem also has a subtle strain of religious sentiment; though the actual form of the Abbey does not appear in the poem, the idea of the abbey—of a place consecrated to the spirit—suffuses the scene, as though the forest and the fields were themselves the speaker’s abbey. This idea is reinforced by the speaker’s description of the power he feels in the setting sun and in the mind of man, which consciously links the ideas of God, nature, and the human mind—as they will be linked in Wordsworth’s poetry for the rest of his life, from “It is a beauteous evening, calm and free” to the great summation of the Immortality Ode. 5.3 KUBLA KHAN: BY SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE About SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE: Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic, philosopher and theologian who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He also shared volumes and collaborated with Charles Lamb, Robert Southey, and Charles Lloyd. He wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan, as well as the major prose work Biographia Literaria. His critical work, especially on William Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. Coleridge coined many familiar words and phrases, including \"suspension of disbelief\". He had a major influence on Ralph Waldo Emerson and American transcendentalism. Literary movement: Romanticism Children: Hartley Coleridge; Berkeley Coleridge... Notable works: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, ... Occupation: Poet, critic, philosopher Kubla Khan · Early life · The Rime of the Ancient Mariner · Sara Coleridge Kubla Khan Or, a vision in a dream. A Fragment. In Xanadu did Kubla Khan A stately pleasure-dome decree: Where Alph, the sacred river, ran Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless sea. 91 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

So twice five miles of fertile ground 92 With walls and towers were girdled round; And there were gardens bright with sinuous rills, Where blossomed many an incense-bearing tree; And here were forests ancient as the hills, Enfolding sunny spots of greenery. But oh! that deep romantic chasm which slanted Down the green hill athwart a cedarn cover! A savage place! as holy and enchanted As e’er beneath a waning moon was haunted By woman wailing for her demon-lover! And from this chasm, with ceaseless turmoil seething, As if this earth in fast thick pants were breathing, A mighty fountain momently was forced: Amid whose swift half-intermitted burst Huge fragments vaulted like rebounding hail, Or chaffy grain beneath the thresher’s flail: And mid these dancing rocks at once and ever It flung up momently the sacred river. Five miles meandering with a mazy motion Through wood and dale, the sacred river ran, Then reached the caverns measureless to man, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

And sank in tumult to a lifeless ocean; 93 And ’mid this tumult Kubla heard from far Ancestral voices prophesying war! The shadow of the dome of pleasure Floated midway on the waves; Where was heard the mingled measure From the fountain and the caves. It was a miracle of rare device, A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice! A damsel with a dulcimer In a vision once I saw: It was an Abyssinian maid And on her dulcimer she played, Singing of Mount Abora. Could I revive within me? Her symphony and song, To such a deep delight ’would win me, That with music loud and long, I would build that dome in air, That sunny dome! those caves of ice! And all who heard should see them there, And all should cry, Beware! Beware! CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

His flashing eyes, his floating hair! 94 Weave a circle round him thrice, And close your eyes with holy dread For he on honey-dew hath fed, And drunk the milk of Paradise. 5.4 MY LAST DUTCHESS BY ROBERT BROWNING My Last Duchess That’s my last Duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf’s hands Worked busily a day, and there she stands. Will’t please you sit and look at her? I spoke “Fra Pandolf” by design, for never read Strangers like you that pictured countenance, The depth and passion of its earnest glance, But to myself they turned (since none puts by The curtain I have drawn for you, but I) And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst, How such a glance came there; so, not the first Are you to turn and ask thus? Sir, ’twas not Her husband’s presence only, called that spot Of joy into the Duchess’ cheek; perhaps Fra Pandolf chanced to say, “Her mantle laps CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Over my lady’s wrist too much,” or “Paint 95 Must never hope to reproduce the faint Half-flush that dies along her throat.” Such stuff Was courtesy, she thought, and cause enough For calling up that spot of joy. She had A heart—how shall I say?— too soon made glad, Too easily impressed; she liked whate’er She looked on, and her looks went everywhere. Sir, ’twas all one! My favour at her breast, The dropping of the daylight in the West, The bough of cherries some officious fool Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule She rode with round the terrace—all and each Would draw from her alike the approving speech, Or blush, at least. She thanked men—good! but thanked Somehow—I know not how—as if she ranked My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name With anybody’s gift. Who’d stoop to blame This sort of trifling? Even had your skill In speech—which I have not—to make your will Quite clear to such a one, and say, “Just this Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss, Or there exceed the mark”—and if she let CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Herself be lessened so, nor plainly set Her wits to yours, forsooth, and made excuse— E’en then would be some stooping; and I choose Never to stoop. Oh, sir, she smiled, no doubt, Whene’er I passed her; but who passed without Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands; Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands As if alive. Will’t please you rise? We’ll meet The company below, then. I repeat, The Count your master’s known munificence Is ample warrant that no just pretense Of mine for dowry will be disallowed; Though his fair daughter’s self, as I avowed At starting, is my object. Nay, we’ll go Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, though, Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity, Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me! “Kubla Khan” Summary In a place called Xanadu, the Mongolian leader Kubla Khan ordered his servants to construct an impressive domed building for pleasure and recreation on the banks of the holy river Alph, which ran through a series of caves so vast that no one could measure them, and then down into an underground ocean. So, they created a space with 10 miles of fertile earth surrounded by walls and towers. And in it there were gardens with sunny little streams and fragrant trees, as well as very old forests with sunny clearings in the middle. But, oh, how beautiful was that deep, impressive gorge that cut through the green hill, between the cedar trees! It was such a wild place! A place so sacred and bewitching that you might expect it to be haunted by a woman crying out for her satanic lover beneath the 96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

crescent moon. And out of this gorge, with its endlessly churning river, a geyser would sometimes erupt, as though the ground itself were breathing hard. This geyser would send shards of rock flying into the air like hail, or like grain scattered as it is being harvested. And as it flung up these rocks, the geyser would also briefly send the water of the holy river bursting up into the air. The holy river ran for five miles in a lazy, winding course through woods and fields, before it reached the incredibly deep caves and sank in a flurry into the much stiller ocean. And in the rushing waters of the caves, Kubla Khan heard the voices of his ancestors, predicting that war would come. The shadow of Kubla Khan's pleasure palace was reflected by the waves, and you could hear the sound of the geyser mingling with that of the water rushing through the caves. This was truly a miraculous place: Khan's pleasure palace was both sunny and had icy caves. In a vision, I once saw an Ethiopian woman play a stringed instrument and sing about a mountain in Ethiopia. If I could recreate within myself the sound of her instrument and her song, it would bring me so much joy that I would build Kubla Khan’s pleasure palace in the sky above me: that sun-filled dome, those caves full of ice! And everyone who heard the song would look up and see what I had built, and they would cry out: “Be careful! Look at his wild eyes and crazy hair! Make a circle around him three times and refuse to look at him: he has eaten the food of the gods and drunk the milk of Heaven!” 5.5 PUNISHMENT IN KINDERGARTEN BY KAMALA DAS About Kamala Das About Kamala Das, Malayalam pen name Madhavikutty, Muslim name Kamala Surayya, (born March 31, 1934, Thrissur, Malabar Coast [now in Kerala], British India—died May 31, 2009, Pune, India), Indian author who wrote openly and frankly about female sexual desire and the experience of being an Indian woman. Das was part of a generation of Indian writers whose work centred on personal rather than colonial experiences, and her short stories, poetry, memoirs, and essays brought her respect and notoriety in equal measures. Das wrote both in English (mostly poetry) and, under the pen name Madhavikutty, in the Malayalam language of southern India. Today the world is a little more my own. 97 No need to remember the pain A blue-frocked woman caused, throwing Words at me like pots and pans, to drain That honey-coloured day of peace, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

“Why don’t you join the others, what A peculiar child you are!\" On the lawn, in clusters, sat my schoolmates sipping Sugarcane, they turned and laughed; Children are funny things, they laugh In mirth at other’s tears, I buried My face in the sun-warmed hedge And smelt the flowers and the pain. The words are muffled now, the laughing Faces only a blur. The years have Sped along, stopping briefly At beloved halts and moving Sadly on. My mind has found An adult peace. No need to remember That picnic day when I lay hidden By a hedge, watching the steel-white sun Standing lonely in the sky. Summary In the poem Punishment in Kindergarten, Kamala Das memorizes a childhood experience that was quite painful for her. She was scolded by her teacher for being alone and her schoolmates also laughed at her that made her weep. The poem has been divided into three parts. In the first part, the poet discusses how her teacher scolded her. In the second part, she memorizes her schoolmates laughing her making her weep and in the final part she says that being an adult there is no need for her to memorize this experience. Now I will discuss each stanza in detail. 98 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Learn and improve your English Published by English Summary Stanza 1: Encounter With her Teacher The poet begins with the line “Today the world is a little more my own” that makes it clear that she is going to talk about a past event that was not pleasant for her. Next, she begins by narrating the day in her childhood (in Kindergarten) when she went to a picnic along with other students. The poet uses ample of symbols like a blue-frocked woman for her teacher, throwing words at me like pots and pans, to make us feel the intensity of teacher’s words, the honey- coloured for the day which was ruined by the harsh words of her teacher. While other students were merrymaking and playing together, Kamala Das was sitting alone that was not liked by her blue-frocked teacher and she scolded her by calling her a peculiar child. The in the first part the poet narrates the day which was quite pleasant and ultimately ruined by her teacher. Stanza 2: Laughing of Students In the second part, the poet says when the teacher scolded her, other students who were sipping sugarcane started laughing at her. The children, according to Kamala are funny creatures. They laugh at others’ pains and they did the same when she was scolded without realizing how much she was hurt. Being hurt, she hid her face in the sun-warmed hedge and smelt the flowers and the pain. The poet associates’ flowers with pain. I think she has tried to compare her childhood with the flower which is quite delicate. Hence, she probably wants to convey that this event shook her innocent childhood. Stanza 3: Adulthood and Peace In the final stanza, the poet says that now that she is grown up, the memory of that event has faded away because there is nothing in her childhood to cherish and desire for. She has now found adult peace i.e., Ironically be saying again and again “No need to remember” her helplessness in forgetting it is quite visible. The memory has not faded away but quite clear in her mind (as she remembers very well everything of that day). In her poem My Grandmother’s House she desires to memorize everything while in this poem the situation is quite the opposite. The same helpless can be found in her poem My Mother at Sixty-Six. Refer to this doc to read further or learn about the Features of Kamala Das Poetry. 99 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5.6 SUMMARY • In Tintern Abbey, the speaker then describes how his memory of these “beauteous forms” has worked upon him in his absence from them: when he was alone, or in crowded towns and cities, they provided him with “sensations sweet, / Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart.” The memory of the woods and cottages offered “tranquil restoration” to his mind, and even affected him when he was not aware of the memory, influencing his deeds of kindness and love. He further credits the memory of the scene with offering him access to that mental and spiritual state in which the burden of the world is lightened, in which he becomes a “living soul” with a view into “the life of things.” • Kublai Khan was the grandson of Genghis Khan and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in 13th-century China. He was the first Mongol to rule over China when he conquered the Song Dynasty of southern China in 1279. • In the poem, he's talking about his first wife Lucrezia de' Medici, who died under suspicious circumstances shortly after marrying the Duke. In the poem the Duke is speaking to an emissary who is negotiating the Duke's next marriage to the daughter of another powerful family. 5.7 KEYWORDS • Piety: righteousness by virtue of being religiously devout 100 • Adroit: quick or skilful or adept in action or thought • Consummate: having or revealing supreme mastery or skill • Melancholy: a constitutional tendency to be gloomy and depressed • fragment: a piece broken off or cut off of something else • stately: impressive in appearance • decree: a legally binding command or decision • sacred: made or declared or believed to be holy • disallow: command against • munificence: liberality in bestowing gifts • officious: intrusive in a meddling or offensive manner • dowry: money brought by a woman to her husband at marriage • mantle: a sleeveless garment like a cloak but shorter • trifling not worth considering • avow: declare or affirm solemnly and formally as true CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)