BCA125_INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP AND MANGEMEN(1)-converted

Type A behavior may also develop as a result of child-rearing practices in which parents and strangers alike urge children to achieve at higher and higher levels, but do not give them exactly what to achieve and which level to reach. Since children have worked hard to achieve the highest and have also achieved the same, they wonder what is meant by achieving more especially when the parents and strangers or teachers tell them that ‘they are doing fine, but next time they should try harder’. This kind of vague statements leave the children frustrated, as they are not sure what target they have to achieve. CRITICISM OF TYPE A AND TYPE B THEORY Type A and Type B personality theory: During the 1950s, Meyer Friedman and his co- workers defined what they called Type A and Type B behaviour patterns. As pointed out earlier Type A personalities had a higher risk of coronary disease. Type B people, on the other hand, were stated to be more relaxed, less competitive, and lower in risk. There was also a Type AB mixed profile which consisted of the striving type and the relaxing type of personality. However latter researches refuted Friedman’s claim that Type A personalities ran higher risk of coronary heart disease. Current research indicates that only the hostility component of Type A may have some bearing on health. Psychologists have criticized the theory on the ground that it tended to oversimplify a number of personality dimensions. Statisticians have argued that the original study by Friedman and Rosenman had serious limitations, including large and unequal sample sizes, and less than 1% of the variance in relationship explained by Type A personality. JUNG’S THEORY Jung divided the psyche into three parts namely, (i) the ego (ii) Personal Unconscious (iii) Collective Unconscious. Let us see what these are. 1. Ego, according to Carl Jung is the conscious mind 2. Personal Unconscious, includes anything which is not presently conscious, but can be. It includes both memories that are easily brought to mind and those that have been suppressed for some reason. 3. Collective Unconscious. This is also called as “psychic inheritance.” As is well known over many centuries and centuries, the human being for example has been seeing the sun rising from the East and setting in the West. Similarly, many natural phenomena recur and these get implanted into the mind of the person and almost all human beings will be having these at their unconscious realm. This actually is the reservoir of our experiences 100 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

as a species, a kind of knowledge we are all born with. This influences all of our experiences and behaviours about which we may not be consciously aware but can understand it indirectly. One of the examples for this is the near-death experience. It seems that many people, of many different cultural backgrounds, find that they have very similar recollections when they are brought back from a close encounter with death. They speak of leaving their bodies, seeing their bodies and the events surrounding them clearly, of being pulled through a long tunnel towards a bright light, of seeing deceased relatives or religious figures waiting for them, and of their disappointment at having to leave this happy scene to return to their bodies. Perhaps we are all “built” to experience death in this fashion. ARCHETYPES Archetypes are contents in the collective unconscious. Jung also called them dominants, images, mythological or primordial images. It is an innate tendency to experience things in a certain way. It acts as an “organizing principle” on the things we see or do. For example, at first, the baby just wants something to eat, without knowing what it wants. Later, with experience, the child begins to yearn for something more specific when it is hungry, a cookie, a slice. The archetype is like a black hole in space, one only knows that it is there but do not know how it draws matter and light to itself. There are many archetypes in Jung’s system that is, the mother archtype, the mana, the shadow etc. Let us deal with these in detail. The mother archetype The mother archetype is a particularly good example. We all know that everyone born in this world has a mother and all our ancestors we know had mothers. We would never have survived without a nurturing mother especially during our times as helpless infants. Thus it is assumed that we are “built” in a way that reflects the evolutionary environment. We come into this world from the mother, we depend on her to feed us for our very survival, we seek her, we recognize her, and deal with her. Thus the mother archetype refers to our innate ability to recognize a certain relationship, that of “mothering.” We project the archetype onto a particular person, usually our own mothers and when a real person is not available we personify the archetype into a mythological character. The mother archetype is symbolized by the primordial mother or “earth mother” of mythology Mana The archetypes are not really biological entities. They are more spiritual demands. They usually symbolize mana, or spiritual power. These symbols are displayed on occasions when the spirits are being called upon to increase the yield of corn, or fish, or to heal someone. The 101 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

connection between the penis and strength, between semen and seed, between fertilization and fertility are understood by most cultures. THE PERSONA The persona represents public image. The word is, obviously, related to the word person and personality, and comes from a Latin word for mask. So the persona is the mask we put on when we enter the outside world. It is just the “good impression” we all wish to present as we fill the roles society requires of us. MYERS–BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an introspective self-report questionnaire indicating differing psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. The test attempts to assign four categories: introversion or extraversion, sensing or intuition, thinking or feeling, judging or perceiving. One letter from each category is taken to produce a four-letter test result, like \"INFJ\" or \"ENFP\". Most of the research supporting the MBTI's validity has been produced by the Centre for Applications of Psychological Type, an organization run by the Myers-Briggs Foundation, and published in the Centre's own journal, the Journal of Psychological Type, raising questions of independence, bias, and conflict of interest. Independent sources have called the test \"bullshit\", \"little more than a Chinese fortune cookie\", \"pretty much meaningless\" and \"the fad that won't die\". Though the MBTI resembles some psychological theories, it is generally classified as pseudoscience, especially as pertains to its supposed predictive abilities. The indicator exhibits significant scientific (psychometric) deficiencies, notably including poor validity (i.e. not measuring what it purports to measure, not having predictive power or not having items that can be generalized), poor reliability (giving different results for the same person on different occasions), measuring categories that are not independent (some dichotomous traits have been noted to correlate with each other), and not being comprehensive (due to missing neuroticism). The four scales used in the MBTI have some correlation with four of the Big Five personality traits, which are a more commonly accepted framework. CONCEPT OF MBTI The MBTI was constructed for normal populations and emphasizes the value of naturally occurring differences. \"The underlying assumption of the MBTI is that we all have specific preferences in the way we construe our experiences, and these preferences underlie our interests, needs, values, and motivation.\" The MBTI Manual states that the indicator \"is 102 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

designed to implement a theory; therefore, the theory must be understood to understand the MBTI\".:1 Fundamental to the MBTI is the theory of psychological type as originally developed by Carl Jung.:xiii Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions: • The \"rational\" (judging) functions: thinking and feeling • The \"irrational\" (perceiving) functions: sensation and intuition Jung believed that for every person, each of the functions is expressed primarily in either an introverted or extraverted form. Based on Jung's original concepts, Briggs and Myers developed their own theory of psychological type, described below, on which the MBTI is based. However, although psychologist Hans Eysenck called the MBTI a moderately successful quantification of Jung's original principles as outlined in Psychological Types, he also said, \" creates 16 personality types which are said to be similar to Jung's theoretical concepts. I have always found difficulties with this identification, which omits one half of Jung's theory (he had 32 types, by asserting that for every conscious combination of traits there was an opposite unconscious one). Obviously, the latter half of his theory does not admit of questionnaire measurement, but to leave it out and pretend that the scales measure Jungian concepts is hardly fair to Jung.\" In any event, both models remain hypothetical, with no controlled scientific studies supporting either Jung's original concept of type or the Myers– Briggs variation. TYPE Jung's typological model regards psychological type as similar to left or right handedness: people are either born with, or develop, certain preferred ways of perceiving and deciding. The MBTI sorts some of these psychological differences into four opposite pairs, or \"dichotomies\", with a resulting 16 possible psychological types. None of these types is \"better\" or \"worse\"; however, Briggs and Myers theorized that people innately \"prefer\" one overall combination of type differences.[1]:9 In the same way that writing with the left hand is difficult for a right-hander, so people tend to find using their opposite psychological preferences more difficult, though they can become more proficient (and therefore behaviorally flexible) with practice and development. The 16 types are typically referred to by an abbreviation of four letters—the initial letters of each of their four type preferences (except in the case of intuition, which uses the abbreviation \"N\" to distinguish it from introversion). For instance: • ESTJ: extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T), judgment (J) 103 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• INFP: introversion (I), intuition (N), feeling (F), perception (P) These abbreviations are applied to all 16 types. SUMMARY • In this unit we studied type A and Type B personality. What are the behavioral characteristics of Type A behaviour and Type B behaviour, and its implications for physical and mental health of the individual? We also studied Jung’s theory of personality. Jung divided personality types into extroverts and introverts, and neurotics. He talked about collective conscious and archetypes. Now we understand his concepts on the dynamics of personality. • This was followed by Myers Briggs type indicators (MBTI). MBTI has been developed on the concepts of Jung. It mentions sixteen different combinations of personality types. These combinations in fact reveal a person’s tendency or preference to behave in a particular style. • The 16 personality types were created by Isabel Myers and Katharine Briggs, developers of the MBTI® assessment. Myers and Briggs created their personality typology to help people discover their own strengths and gain a better understanding of how people are different. • When you discover your own personality type, you'll understand more clearly why you do the things you do. You will gain confidence in your strengths and be better able to make decisions that suit your true nature. • Explore our in-depth descriptions of each of the 16 personality types to learn more about yourself and your loved ones. Or, if you're not sure which personality type fits you, take our free personality test based on Briggs and Myers' theories. KEYWORDS • Construct validity: is \"the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring.\" • Chakra are various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra,or the esoteric or inner traditions of Hinduism • Barnum: The Barnum effect, also called the Forer effect, or less commonly, the 104 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Barnum–Forer effect, is a common psychological phenomenon whereby individuals give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly • Confirmation bias: is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values. • Neuroticism: is one of the Big Five higher-order personality traits in the study of psychology. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Discuss the concept of type Aand type B behaviour and how they develop? ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ 2. Throw light on dynamic process of personality as mentioned by Jung. ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions 1. Describe the Personality trait? 2. Define the Jung theory 3. Differentiate between type a and type b personality 4. Describe archetypes and the persona. 5. Explain MBTI? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Every individual is well aware that smoking is related to cancer and that if one is a heavy smoker they must try to give it up in order to prevent developing cancer a. Personality C b. Personality b 105 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Personality a d. None of these 2. The............... persons keep struggling to overcome the real and imagined obstacles imposed by events, other people, and, especially, time. a. Type A b. Type B c. Type c d. None of these 3.believed that for every person, each of the functions is expressed primarily in either an introverted or extraverted form. a. Jung b. Myre c. Adam d. Smith 4.types tend to be self-driven, motivating, energetic, assertive, confident, and competitive. a. ENTJ b. ENTP c. ENTC d. EPTJ 5. This is the tendency for oppositions to come together, and so for energy to decrease, 106 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

over a person’s lifetime. a. Principle of Entropy b. Principle of Envoy c. Principle of traits d. None of these Answers 1. a 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. a REFERENCE • Gerald A. C. (2015). Management Theory and Practice. UK: Cengage Learning EMEA Higher Education. • Chandan, J.S. (1987). Management Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Vikas Publications. • Sheldrake John (1966). Management Theory. New Delhi: Published Intl Thomson Business Press. • Northouse.G. Peter (2014). Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Bolman. G. Lee (2013). Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership. USA: John Wiley & Sons • William Blakely Stephens (1973). \"Relationship between Selected Personality Characteristics of Senior Art Students and Their Area of Art Study\". Studies in Art Education. National Art Education Association. 14 (14): 56–57. JSTOR 1320192. • Earl P. Smith (1973). \"Selected Characteristics of Teachers and Their Preferences for Behaviorally Stated Objectives\". Studies in Art Education. National Art Education Association. 14 (2): 35–46. doi:10.2307/1319876. JSTOR 1319876. • Charles H. Sides (1990). \"Psychological Types and Teaching Writing\". Writing on the Edge. Regents of the University of California. 1 (2): 33. JSTOR 43158643. • Zeisset, Carolyn (2006). The Art of Dialogue: Exploring Personality Differences for 107 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

More Effective Communication. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type, Inc. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-935652-77-2. 108 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 6: ORGANIZING PEOPLE, PROJECT AND PROCESS Structure Learning objectives Introduction Concept of organizing Leading teams Leading Teams – what’s your focus? STAGE: Creating a new team STAGE: Developing a team STAGE: Performing and achieving results STAGE: Sustaining performance Managing human resources Planning and Allocating Resources Providing Direction, Vision, and Goals Developing an Environment in which Employees Choose Motivation and Contribution Offering Opportunities for Both Formal and Informal Development Setting an Example in Work Ethics, Treatment of People, and Empowerment Worthy of Being Emulated by Others Leading Organization Efforts to Listen to and Serve Customers Removing Obstacles that Impede the Employees' Progress Managing diversity Policies and procedure 109 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Documentation of Policies and Procedures Zero-Tolerance Policy Sensitivity Training Stay Abreast of Diversity Laws Summary Learning activity Unit end questions Reference LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able: • Explain Concept of organizing • State Leading terms • Discuss Managing human resources and diversity at workplace INTRODUCTIONS Any situation involving two or more persons working collectively requires organizing. The act of organizing involves integrating, balancing and coordinating the activities of people working together for seeking common goals. The organizing process, thus, establishes working relationship among employees by assigning those tasks and giving them enough rights (i.e. authority) to perform those tasks. It is because when employees accept assigned work, they become responsible for performing it, and for discharging responsibility they are given requisite authority. The person who gives authority is called ‘superior’ and the person to whom authority is given are known as ‘subordinate’. Thus, the process of organizing gives rise to a network of authority-responsibility relationships among members of the organization. This network of authority-responsibility relationships is called ‘organization structure’. These various aspects of the organizing function of management are discussed here under the following two broad heads: 110 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

I. Organizing as a process; and II. Organizing as a structure. CONCEPT OF ORGANISING The term ‘organizing” refers to the process of identifying and grouping of activities to be performed and dividing them among the individuals and creating authority and responsibility relationship among them for the accomplishment of organizational objectives. LEADING TEAMS Leading teams needs both style and focus. Your style suggests how you engage with people, your focus, what you want to achieve. There are many ways to answer the question “What makes a good leader?” Here we explore how style and focus answers the question. Your leadership style will determine how you engage with people, providing motivation and commitment. Your leadership focus will help ensure you apply the right leadership style for the right situation to achieve the right results. Leading Teams – what’s your focus? Each stage of team development has a different focus of attention for a team leader. Here we will outline the four ways in which the focus of a leader changes as their team develops: • Results • Teamwork • Strengths • Alignment STAGE: Creating a new team FOCUS: Results – when a new team is being formed the most important aspect on which the leader needs to focus is what the team is there to achieve. Teams form quicker and develop faster when there is a clear and meaningful challenge that the individuals want to achieve. Whilst a leader of course also has to attend to other needs such as beginning to create a sense of belonging amongst the team members, their first priority should be establishing a clear and compelling reason for what the team is trying to achieve 111 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

STAGE: Developing a team FOCUS: Teamwork – A leader needs to encourage individuals to recognize the strengths in each other and how they can complement each other. Creating a sense of belonging is important and in doing so, encouraging the team to work well together. STAGE: Performing and achieving results FOCUS: Strengths – Teams begin to perform when they are clear on what they are trying to achieve, are supportive and work well together and then bring their individual strengths together for the benefit of the team. STAGE: Sustaining performance FOCUS: Alignment - to sustain performance a leader needs to focus on balancing all the other elements of results, teamwork and strengths. The leader also needs to align what the team does to important things that the organization is trying to achieve. Leading teams effectively needs focus, a clarity about where you invest your energies at different stages of team development. It also needs different styles for different stages of team development. You can read more about how leadership styles relate to team stages in our article: team leadership model. Put leading teams into action with style and focus! Leading with style and focus To find out how to bring together the right leadership style with the right focus for different stages of team development we have produced an excellent e- guide. The guide not only takes you through our team leadership model, it also helps you develop your leadership style and focus with a great set of tools. The e-guide is on our sister site www.the-happy-manager.com. You can for example assess your own leadership style preferences and diagnose your team leadership style needs. These are invaluable tools for everyone leading teams, and bring together ideas and tools that you won’t find in many other places. MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCES Managing human resources refers to the functions that a manager performs relative to the organization's employees. Managing Human Resources can also refer to the act of providing the management actions the employees of the Human Resource Department Managing human resources includes, but is not limited to: 112 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Planning and Allocating Resources No business has unlimited resources. Managers must divide salary budgets among their employees. Workloads must be divided. Managers decide who gets what training and who gets the best projects. Who gets the newest computer and who is stuck with the old one until the new budgeting cycle rolls around? In addition to physical resources, where does a manager spend her time? Who does she help? All of these things are part of the planning and allocating resources. Providing Direction, Vision, and Goals A manager should be the leader of the group. Managers not only divide the work but direct how employees should accomplish the work. They set the goals. Depending on the type and level of the group, managers may set overarching goals, allowing the employees the opportunity to set their own lower-level goals, or they may take control of the entire process. Both are appropriate, depending on the situation. Vision is a key task in managing your human resources. If your employees cannot see the big picture, they are less likely to perform to their highest level. Managers need to have a vision and share it properly with the team. Developing an Environment in which Employees Choose Motivation and Contribution Managers determine what type of environment is best for their department. Good managers ensure that gossips, bullies, and slackers are all either coached into proper performance or terminated. Bad managers allow these people to overrun the department, creating a tense and unhappy environment. A good environment will motivate employees, and they will choose to perform at a high level. Supplying or Asking for the Metrics that Tell People How Successfully They Are Performing Managers must provide feedback. Without that framework, employees don't know where they need to improve and where they are doing well. This is most successful when metrics are built around clear, measurable goals. Offering Opportunities for Both Formal and Informal Development A manager's job isn't just to get the work done but to help his or her reporting employees succeed. Managers should personally coach employees, and provide opportunities for formal developmental training, such as classes and stretch projects. You can provide coaching through formal mentoring relationships or by providing feedback on a regular basis. 113 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Setting an Example in Work Ethics, Treatment of People, and Empowerment Worthy of Being Emulated by Others A good manager shows her staff how to behave. She is ethical, treats people fairly, and gives people the independence they've earned. Managers who play favorites, steal credit or discriminate against their staff are damaging the business's most important resource - their people. Leading Organization Efforts to Listen to and Serve Customers Managers often see the customers as more important than their own staff. This is not true - good staff management leads to good relationships with the customers. Customer relationships are critical and the business profits by managers who make customer service a priority. Managers have a duty to both the customer and employees, and when she takes care of both, success is more likely. Removing Obstacles that Impede the Employees' Progress Managers help their people when they clear the path for success. Should employees need approval from senior leadership for something, the manager helps facilitate the approval. Should an employee need a training course, or specialized instructions, or assistance with a project, the manager helps facilitate that. A manager is interested in her employees' success and works hard to clear the pathway for that success. A manager who wishes to succeed focuses her efforts on ensuring the success of her employees. MANAGING DIVERSITY According to a recent demographic analysis conducted by the Pew Research Center, by 2055, the U.S. will no longer have a single racial or ethnic majority. This shift towards a more diverse population will have major impacts on the workforce and how organizations address diversity in the workplace. In the coming years, organizations that understand how to manage diversity in the workplace effectively will hold a distinct advantage when it comes to recruiting and hiring talent. This post outlines how organizations can best approach and manage diversity in the workplace with actionable tips and advice. What is Diversity in the Workplace? 114 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

For an organization looking to cultivate a more diverse and inclusive workplace, it is important to understand what constitutes workplace diversity. Workplace diversity refers to the variety of differences between individuals in an organization. Diversity not only includes how individuals identify themselves but also how others perceive them. Diversity within a workplace encompasses race, gender, ethnic groups, age, religion, sexual orientation, citizenship status, military service and mental and physical conditions, as well as other distinct differences between people. What are the Benefits of Diversity in the Workplace? There are many benefits to having a diverse workplace. For starters, organizations that commit to recruiting a diverse workforce have a larger pool of applicants to choose from, which can lead to finding more qualified candidates and reducing the time it takes to fill vacant positions. Businesses that do not recruit from diverse talent pools run the risk of missing out on qualified candidates and may have a more difficult time filling key roles, which increases recruitment costs. According to a survey conducted by Glassdoor, 67 percent of job seekers said a diverse workforce is important when considering job offers and 57 percent of employees think their companies should be more diverse. These numbers are telling. Not only can organizations fill positions with qualified candidates more quickly by recruiting from different talent pools, but a diverse workforce also benefits their employer brand which is crucial when it comes to getting the right talent. Having a diverse workforce with multi-lingual employees and employees from varying ethnic backgrounds can also be helpful for organizations who want to expand or improve operations in international, national, regional and local markets. MORE BENEFITS TO HAVING DIVERSITY IN THE WORKPLACE: • Employees from diverse backgrounds imbue organizations with creative new ideas and perspectives informed by their cultural experiences • A diverse workplace will help organizations better understand target demographics and what moves them • A diverse workplace can better align an organization’s culture with the demographic make-up of America • Increased customer satisfaction by improving how employees interact with a more diverse clientele and public 115 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

How to Manage Diversity in the Workplace Managing diversity in the workplace presents a set of unique challenges for HR professionals. These challenges can be mitigated if an organization makes a concerted effort to encourage a more heterogeneous environment through promoting a culture of tolerance, open communication and creating conflict management strategies to address issues that may arise. For leadership to effectively manage diversity in the workplace, they need to understand their backgrounds and how their behavior and beliefs can affect their decision-making within a diverse environment. Tips for managing workplace diversity: PRIORITIZE COMMUNICATION To manage a diverse workplace, organizations need to ensure that they effectively communicate with employees. Policies, procedures, safety rules and other important information should be designed to overcome language and cultural barriers by translating materials and using pictures and symbols whenever applicable. TREAT EACH EMPLOYEE AS AN INDIVIDUAL Avoid making assumptions about employees from different backgrounds. Instead, look at each employee as an individual and judge successes and failures on the individual’s merit rather than attributing actions to their background. ENCOURAGE EMPLOYEES TO WORK IN DIVERSE GROUPS Diverse work teams let employees get to know and value one another on an individual basis and can help break down preconceived notions and cultural misunderstandings. BASE STANDARDS ON OBJECTIVE CRITERIA Set one standard of rules for all groups of employees regardless of background. Ensure that all employment actions, including discipline, follow this standardized criteria to make sure each employee is treated the same. BE OPEN-MINDED Recognize, and encourage employees to recognize, that one’s own experience, background, and culture are not the only with value to the organization. Look for ways to incorporate a diverse range of perspectives and talents into efforts to achieve organizational goals. 116 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

HIRING To build a diverse workplace, it is crucial to recruit and hire talent from a variety of backgrounds. This requires leadership and others who make hiring decisions to overcome bias in interviewing and assessing talent. If organizations can break through bias and hire the most qualified people, those with the right education, credentials, experience and skill sets, a diverse workplace should be the natural result. Tips for hiring a diverse workforce: • Incorporate a diverse interview panel to ensure candidates are chosen solely based on suitability for the position. • Managers should be trained on what can and cannot be asked in an interview. For example, questions about an applicant’s personal life, such as which church they attend, their romantic life and political beliefs, are off-limits. • Get creative when recruiting. For example, if an organization would like to hire more women in the engineering department, they could reach out to professional groups that cater to women in engineering and ask to advertise open positions in their newsletter or member communications. POLICIES AND PRACTICES Organizations that embrace diversity also need to ensure that there are policies and practices in place to protect employees’ rights and stay compliant with government regulations. It is essential for an organization to think about the impact that company policies and practices have on a diverse group of employees. Companies should create a way for employees to give feedback with surveys and suggestion boxes to gain a better understanding of how employees feel about diversity policies. Any feedback received, both positive and negative, is valuable. Companies need to be ready to adapt and change policies that may be interpreted as obstructions or not helpful for employees. In addition to the written policies, it is also essential to ensure that the non-official “rules” of an organization are thoroughly explained to all employees to communicate company values and culture to all workers effectively. Documentation of Policies and Procedures Properly documenting diversity policies is an effective means of communicating an organization’s stances on diversity. Once concrete plans are ready to be implemented, 117 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

documents that outline each policy should be included in the employee handbook. Diversity policies should be reviewed with every new hire, and when updates to policies are made, they should be shared with current employees as well. Employee handbooks should cover diversity in the following sections: • Code of conduct should outline the company’s policy toward diversity • Non-discrimination policy lets employees know about diversity • Compensation and benefits policy • Employment conditions and termination Zero-Tolerance Policy Having a diverse workplace means that off-colour jokes about ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation or religion need to be met with zero-tolerance enforcement. Slurs, name-calling and bullying employees for any reason has no place in today’s workplace. Policies should be put in place to handle misconduct and communicate to employees that this type of behaviour will not be tolerated. Organizations will also need to make sure employees feel safe reporting any instances of inappropriate behaviour by co-workers by establishing a formal complaint policy, so employees know how to report misconduct to the proper authority within an organization. Sensitivity Training Employees need to be aware of how to coexist with a diverse range of people, as well as be cognizant of cultural sensitivity, to achieve harmony within a diverse workplace. Sensitivity training can help an organization manage diversity in the workplace by helping employees become more self-aware, which plays a vital role in helping employees understand their own cultural biases and prejudices. Benefits of sensitivities training: • Helps employees examine and adjust their perspectives about people from different backgrounds • Employees can learn to better appreciate the views of others • Shows employees what actions are offensive and why they are perceived as such • Teaches employees how to calmly communicate that a co-worker has offended them 118 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

and how to resolve the conflict properly • Explains to employees how to apologize to a co-worker if they have indeed offended them unknowingly • All employees should be included in sensitivity training; adding specific training for managers makes it even more impactful. Some companies also offer sensitivity training online. Stay Abreast of Diversity Laws Managing diversity in the workplace means that businesses need to keep abreast of changing employer-related laws and trends, especially diversity-related changes. Organizations should regularly review internal policies, especially those around harassment and equal opportunity, and make sure they reflect the most current laws and regulations. If an organization has an international or multi-state presence, it is necessary to track regional changes to laws and regulations as they vary from country to county and state to state. Diversity law resources: • Society of Human Resources Management • Bloomberg BNA (Bureau of National Affairs) SUMMARY • Organizing or organizing is the establishment of effective authority relationships among selected work, persons and work places in order for the group to work together efficiently. Or the process of dividing work into sections and departments. • Leading teams needs both style and focus. Your style suggests how you engage with people, your focus, what you want to achieve. • Managing human resources refers to the functions that a manager performs relative to the organization's employees. • Once a plan has been created, a manager can begin to organize. Organizing involves assigning tasks, grouping tasks into departments, delegating authority, and allocating resources across the organization. During the organizing process, managers coordinate employees, resources, policies, and procedures to facilitate the goals identified in the plan. Organizing is highly complex and often involves a systematic review of human resources, finances, and priorities. 119 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Before a plan can be implemented, managers must organize the assets of the business to execute the plan efficiently and effectively. Understanding specialization and the division of work is key to this effort, since many of the “assets” are employees. Recall what Henri Fayol wrote about the division of work. • Where workers are specialists, managers can group those employees intodepartments so their work is appropriately directed and coordinated. In short, work should be divided, and the right people should be given the right jobs to reduce redundancy and inefficiency. KEYWORDS • Hierarchy: A command hierarchy is a group of people who carry out orders based on others' authority within the group. • Labour: The division of labour is the separation of tasks in any economic system or organization so that participants may specialize (specialization). • Departmentalization: refers to the process of grouping activities into departments. Division of labour creates specialists who need coordination • Leading: he definition of leading is a person or thing in the first, major or primary position or role. • Motivation: is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Discuss and write about the HR managing policies. ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ 2. Discuss how your mangers lead your team? ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ UNIT END QUESTIONS 120 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

A. Descriptive Questions 1. Explain the word leading? 2. Define organizing 3. Define human resource. How managing human resource helps in organizing the firm? 4. Explain the concept of organizing. 5. Explain the policies and procedures? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. The process of organizing gives rise to a network of authority-responsibility relationships among ............... of the organization. a. Members b. Groups c. Managers d. Team 2. Organising is designed on the basis of................ and it aims at achieving them smoothly. a. Objectives b. Policies c. Rules d. Terms 3. After determining and enumerating activities, these are to be divided and sub-divided into small components known as jobs and tasks. a. Division of activities. 121 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

b. Grouping of activates c. Identification of activities d. None of these 4. The rights are granted through the process of………….. . a. Delegation b. Allegations c. Agreement d. Consent 5. It is because when employees accept assigned work, they become responsible for performing it, and for discharging responsibility they are given requisite…….. a. Authority b. Cent aliased c. Decentralized d. None of these. Answers 1. a 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. a REFERENCE • Gerald A. C. (2015). Management Theory and Practice. UK: Cengage Learning EMEA Higher Education. • Chandan, J.S. (1987). Management Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Vikas Publications. • Sheldrake John (1966). Management Theory. New Delhi: Published Intl Thomson 122 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Business Press. • Northouse.G. Peter (2014). Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Bolman. G. Lee (2013). Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership. USA: John Wiley & Sons • Coase, Ronald (1937). \"The Nature of the Firm\" Economica, 4(16), pp. 386–405. Handy, Charles (1990). Inside Organizations: 21 Ideas for Managers. London: BBC Books. ISBN 978-0-563-20830-3. Handy, • Charles (2005). Understanding Organizations (4th ed.). London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978- 0-14-015603-4. Hewlett, Roderic. (2006). The Cognitive leader. Rowman& Littlefield Pub Inc. 123 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 7: CONTROL 124 Structure Learning objectives Introductions What is Control? The Prerequisites and Characteristics of Effective Control Systems The Control Process Control as a Feedback System Constant Controls Periodic Controls Occasional Controls Methods of Control Centralization or Delegation Formal or Informal Direct or Indirect Policies and Design Choices in Control Strategies of Control Summary Keywords Learning activity Unit end questions Reference CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able: • Discuss the nature and purpose of control • Explain examine the prerequisites and characteristics of control • Describe the control process • Identify and discuss the methods and managerial strategies of control INTRODUCTION One of the most essential qualities required in a manager is that he should command the respect of his team. This allows him to direct and control their actions. In fact controlling is one of his more important functions. Let us learn the importance and meaning of controlling function. Controlling is one of the important functions of a manager. In order to seek planned results from the subordinates, a manager needs to exercise effective control over the activities of the subordinates. In other words, the meaning of controlling function can be defined as ensuring that activities in an organization are performed as per the plans. Controlling also ensures that an organization’s resources are being used effectively & efficiently for the achievement of predetermined goals. MEANING OF CONTROL Control is the process of assuring the efficient accomplishment of enterprise objectives. In the turbulent environment faced by management, control is necessary to anticipate problems, measure performance against standards, take corrective actions for deviations from plans and if necessary, modify plans. The term control may have some negative connotations for some. But, in the management process, it is a facilitating function aiding the organization to accomplish the set objectives. To draw an analogy, it is like a thermostat in an air- conditioning system. The primary responsibility for exercising control rests with every manager charged with the execution of plans. As Henry Fayol said, \"In an undertaking, control consists in verifying whether everything occurs in conformity with the plans adopted, the instructions issued and principles established. Its object is to point out weaknesses and errors in order to rectify them and prevent recurrence. It operates on everything, things, people, and actions\". It is wrong to 125 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

assume that only top management has the responsibility for control and that there is l ittle need for control at lower levels of management. While the scope for control may vary to some extent depending upon the position of an employee in the hierarchy, all those who have responsibility for the execution of plans need to exercise control too. THE PREREQUISITES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE CONTROL SYSTEMS The major prerequisites of control are two: a plan and a structure. a. Plan: controls must be based on plan. The more clear and complete the plans are the more effective controls can be; plans become the standards by which the actions are measured. b. Structure: There is need for a structure to know where the responsibility rests for deviations and corrective action, if any needed. As in the case of plans, the clearer and complete the organization structure is, the more effective control can be. Controls, to be effective, should share the following basic characteristics. Appropriate: Controls should correspond to an organization’s plans. Controls designed for a general manager are inappropriate for a supervisor. Similarly, control systems suitable for a line department may be inappropriate for a staff department. Strategic: Control should serve a strategic purpose and provide spotlight on positive and negative exceptions at critical points. Acceptable: Controls will not work unless people want them to. They should be acceptable to those to whom they apply. Reliable and objective: Controls should be accurate and unbiased. If they are unreliable and subjective, people will resent them. Cost-effective: The benefit from control should be greater than the costs. Control devices should yield tangible benefits. THE CONTROL PROCESS The control process involves three steps: (a) establishing standards, (b) measuring performance against these standards, and (c) reinforcing success/correcting deviations. a) Establishing Standards: Standards mean criteria of performance. Standards may be of many kinds and include verifiable goals set in qualitative or quantitative terms. An 126 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

organization can establish standards in such areas as • Profitability Productivity Market Share • Worker Performance Innovation • Social Responsibility • Standards can be based on past performance, managerial judgment or scientific analysis. Standards are used to measure performance and judge success or failure. b) Measuring of Performance: Essentially, it is a comparison between \"what is\" and \"what should be\" the performance. Ideally, measurement should be done on a forward- looking basis to predict probable deviations from standards rather than merely be used as a post mortem exercise. To the extent prediction becomes possible, control becomes effective because appropriate actions can be taken well in advance of their actual occurrence. c) Reinforcing Success/Correcting Deviations: When plans and organization structures are clear, it is easy to reinforce success and avoid failures. When deviations are noticed or apprehended based on warning signs, the reasons can be analyzed and appropriate corrective actions taken promptly. CONTROL AS A FEEDBACK SYSTEM (CYCLE OF CONTROL) Management control is usually viewed as a feedback system. This is seen more clearly by looking at the process involved in control system, as shown in Fig. I. Control is more than a matter of establishing standards, measuring performance and correcting for deviations. To initiate corrective action, there should be a programme (or a plan of action) which needs to be implemented and monitored as to whether such implementation will give the desired performance. 127 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Figure 7.1 Feedback system In the simple feedback system there is a time lag in the control process. The old notion is to look at planning as looking forward and control as looking backward. But good management requires future-directed control where it is possible to get feedback somewhat ahead of actual happening than after the event. As Harold Koontz observed, \"Since the past cannot be changed, effective control should be aimed at preventing present and future deviations from plans\". Computers make it possible now to get feedback on a real-time basis, i.e., as of now or on a here-and-now basis. Where there are time lags in a system, corrective steps should be taken on a proactive basis predicting or anticipating efforts. As such, effective control systems should seek to overcome the deficiency of common or simple feedback systems to be modified as `feed forward systems'. Feed forward systems monitor inputs into a process to ascertain whether the inputs are as planned; if they are not, the inputs, or perhaps the process, are changed in order to ensure the desired action. As shown in Fig. II a feed forward control system is really one of feedback. The only difference is that the information feedback is at the input side of the system so that corrections can be made before the system output is affected. 128 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Figure 7.2 CYCLE OF CONTROL METHODS OF CONTROL Arthur Bedeian discusses nine methods of control and classifies them into three categories based on their frequency, of use: Constantly used controls: Self-control, group control and policies, procedures and rules. Periodically used controls: Management Information Systems, External Audits and Budgets. Occasionally used controls: Special reports, personal observation and project control. The nine methods of control mentioned above (see Fig. III) are briefly discussed hereunder. Constant Controls Self-control: Managers need to exercise more self-control to minimize the need for other control methods and making control in the organization acceptable and effective. Self-control means giving a fair day's work for a fair day's pay, reporting to work on time, discharging duties and responsibility properly and respecting the rights of others in the organization. Self- control is more in tune with Theory Y discussed later in the unit on Leadership Styles and Influence Process in Block 5. Respect for self-control in an organization can be a motivating factor. A sense of appreciation for self-control can be promoted among employees through training in behavior modification. Group Control: Work groups are a source of control. Group-defined norms exert greater influence in organizations than the norms that managements may choose to set unilaterally and thrust on groups. Group norms and group control can aid or hinder formal authority. Organizations would do well to develop and use group control processes to reinforce formal authority. While in some organizations group control processes helped increase output and improve quality, in others they resulted in restricting output. For group norms to contribute to 129 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

organizational goals there should be a climate of trust and openness, a culture of cooperation than confrontation. Quality circle, quality of work life programmes and work redesign experiments being taken up in some organizations are examples that point to organizational thrust toward reinforcing group control processes for achieving organizational goals through integration of members' interests with those of the organization. Figure 7.3 Constant Controls Policies/Procedures/Rules: These are essentially bureaucratic control mechanisms referred to in the discussion on control strategies. They reflect past managerial experience and include a variety of aspects concerning how to make certain decisions, deal with resources, etc. If the policies, procedures and rules are properly formulated, clearly communicated and implemented consistently throughout the organization, they can be effective in controlling individual and work group behaviour. Periodic Controls Management Information Systems: A Management Information System is a mechanism designed to collect, combine, compare, analyses and disseminate data in the form of information. As such, management information systems link the various decision-making centres within an enterprise and serve a useful function in providing feedback for control purposes. External Audits: The annual financial audit by an outside accounting firm is one form of external audit, mainly of the finances of an organization. In the case of public sector units, such an audit is performed by Comptroller and Auditor General also. Forward looking 130 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

progressive private companies have in the past sought to have a social audit, not for evaluating financial performance, but to find out whether and how well they have been discharging their social obligations. An example is the case of Social Audit conducted in Tata Steel in the late 1970s. Budgets: Budgets plans that deal with the future allocation and utilization of various resources to different enterprise activities over a given period of tittle Budgets help establish plans and also serve as the basis for measuring or evaluating the standards of performance. Budgetary control is a good example of bureaucratic control strategy (discussed separately in this unit). Occasional Controls Special Reports: These have a special role. Special reports can be commissioned by an organization when its normal control systems point to the need for detailed investigation or study of a particular operational aspect. When major policy decisions of strategic importance are taken, special reports may be commissioned. These include situations where the organizations find the need for overcoming the existing difficulties, modernization, expansion, diversification, merger, acquisition etc. Special reports vary in content and style depending upon the purpose. They could be prepared internally by managers in the organization or by consultants or outside institutions. Special reports are a valuable method for controlling in turbulent environments, warranting changes in products and markets, technology and production processes, organizational structure, etc. Personal Observation: Managers can know what is happening in an organization by relying on information provided by others as also by finding out for them. Firsthand knowledge has to be critical to be effective. The importance of personal observation is best illustrated by Arthur Bedeian through his reference to the ill-fated ITT effort to build a giant wood/cellulose plant in Canada. The resulting $320 million loss could probably have been averted if someone had just gone to Canada and looked at the trees, which grew to no more than an uneconomical 3 inches in diameter. Project Controls: Various methods have been developed for controlling specific enterprise projects. The best example is the network analysis using the PERT tool. PERT is an acronym for Programme Evaluation and Review Technique. It is a diagram showing the inter- relationships between the events and activities that comprise a project. It is a detailed, easy- to- communicate means for determining current status of a project, stimulate alternative plans and schedules and controlling activities. POLICIES AND DESIGN CHOICES IN CONTROL 131 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Organizations have three options in exercising control: • centralization or delegation • formal or informal • direct or indirect Preferences for one or a mix of all options are matters of judgment. Judgment in turn could be based on theory, practice or premonition. Each option has relevance in a particular situation. Here we shall briefly consider the three options mentioned above. Centralization or Delegation The concepts of centralization, decentralization and delegation were discussed in the previous unit, `Delegation and Interdepartmental Coordination’. Centralization is an approach where control is exercised by the chief executive or the top management group (comprising a few individuals). Others in the lower rungs of hierarchy cannot act on their own or use their discretion. Thus, functional autonomy will be lacking at operating levels. Delegation, on the contrary, manifests transfer of decision-making authority downward and outward within the formal structure. For example, in a multiplant situation, plant managers may take decisions without having to seek prior consent of head office on financial matters involving a sum of not more than Rs.2 lakhs in each transaction. This is an instance of delegation of financial powers. If a transaction involves an expenditure of Rs 2.5 lakhs, the plant manager will have to refer to the head office which exercises control over the decision. Sometimes, decision-making power is transferred downwards in a hierarchy prescribing limits on the scope and t type of decisions. For example, a branch manager is allowed to spend up to Rs 5000 per month on consumables, without referring upwards for approval, so long as it falls within the monthly budget. Here although the decision-making power is transferred, overall control is incorporated into the arrangement. Where delegation occurs in an organization-wide context, it becomes decentralization. Centralized Control: • makes it easier to coordinate the activities of various subunits/departments in an organization. • seeks to achieve balance among various functions because the top management can be expected to have a broad organization-wide perspective. 132 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• proves more useful because control will be in the hands of senior, experienced top executives. • is necessary to meet extraordinary situations. • is economical since duplication in activities and resource use can be avoided. Delegation and decentralization too have positive features: • they relieve the top management from overload. • motivate individuals to give better performance due to opportunities for individual freedom, discretion and control. • contribute to the personal and professional development of managers. • people at operating levels are more knowledgeable about the dynamics in decision-making situations and can be expected to take appropriate actions to suit local conditions. This is particularly true in the case of large and widely dispersed units. • affords prompt actions and provides flexibility. As seen above, both are beneficial, but each one is appropriate for specific conditions and situations. The option is to be exercised at two levels: • in respect of different types of decisions which vary in importance. • the contingencies and capabilities of managers in the total context of the organization. Strategic decision-making and control can be centralized. Routine operational matters can be delegated and decentralized. Large organizations with widely dispersed units find a greater need for delegation. Formal or Informal Formalization refers to establishing written policies, procedures, rules etc. which prescribe the do's and don’ts. As organizations grow, formalization grows. Formalization renders activities more predictable in a desired direction and facilitates coordination and control. In large organizations where it is no longer possible to retain high degree of centralized control, formalization helps to retain consistency and continuity by restraining the negative effects of delegation and decentralization. Formalization is appropriate for large organizations operating in conditions of stability. But, in today's fast changing environments, complete formalization may not be desirable and practicable. Excessive formalization vitiates the climate for initiative and employee freedom in performance, results in employee resistance 133 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

and may even become counterproductive. Formalization can be effective insofar as policies, procedures and rules are flexible enough and reviewed periodically to make them appropriate to current changing situation. Direct or Indirect There are two ways of controlling. One way is to supervise subordinates' activities closely, trace deviations to the persons responsible and get them to correct their practices. This is called indirect control The other way is to develop high quality managers who will properly understand and apply managerial principles, functions, techniques and philosophy, make few mistakes and initiate corrective actions, wherever necessary, themselves. This is called direct control. The higher the quality of managers and their subordinates, the less will be the need for indirect controls. Exercising close supervision through indirect controls adds to overhead costs and reduces employee motivation. Modern management practices call for a greater degree of ‘self- control’ (which in effect means direct control) by those who perform work. With the revolution in information technology using computers, control can be exercised through real- time information, i.e., gathering information on what is happening as events are occurring. This made it easy for organizations to combine direct controls with indirect controls. But here indirect control is exercised not through close personal supervision, but through modern technology and hence several of the negative features of close personal supervision of superiors such as infringement on freedom of operation and subjectivity in evaluation are avoided. Direct control hastens corrective actions, lightens the burden caused by indirect control and subordinates feel less concerned about superior's subjectivity in rating their performance because in indirect control one would feel a close relationship between performance and measurement. STRATEGIES OF CONTROL Each strategy will utilize one or more of the features listed Personal centralized control • centralized decision-making • direct supervision • personal leadership: founded upon ownership or charisma, or technical expertise 134 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• reward and punishment reinforce conformity to personal authority Bureaucratic control • breaking down of tasks into easily definable elements • formally specified methods, procedures and rules applied to the conduct of tasks • budgetary and standard cost-variance accounting controls • technology designed to limit variation in conduct of tasks with respect to pace, sequence and possibly physical methods • routine decision-taking delegated within prescribed limits • reward and punishment systems reinforce conformity to procedures and rules Output control • jobs and units designed to be responsible for complete outputs • specification of output standards and targets • use of `responsibility accounting' systems • delegation of decisions on operational matters: semi-autonomy • reward and punishment linked to attainment of output targets Cultural control • development of strong identification with management goals • semi-autonomous working: few formal controls • strong emphasis on selection, training and development of personnel • rewards oriented towards security of tenure and career progression control Bureaucratic control: Strategy is the most common feature in large organizations in both private and public sectors, besides Government. The main thrust of bureaucratic control strategy is to ensure predictability through the specification of how people in the organization shall behave and carry out their work. Formalization in the sense of written definitions of jobs and procedures is the most characteristic feature of the bureaucratic control strategy. Division of work in modern industrial organizations lends itself to simplification and standardization. 135 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The focus in highly bureaucratic organizations is to seek compliance and `keeping your nose clean'. Rules, then, become more important than goals. Compliance results in job security and other benefits and non-compliance leads to sanctions and punishments. The accounting control systems are perhaps the best examples of bureaucratic control strategy. One advantage of bureaucratic control strategy is that the delegation becomes easy in such systems. Managers can easily delegate without losing control over what is going on so long as such delegation occurs within formalized limits to discretion. Output control: Strategy is appropriate in case of activities where it is easy to identify tasks which are complete in themselves and their outcomes measureable in definite terms. Common criteria of achievement, applied to individuals or groups, product lines and whole units respectively, are quantity of items processed, value added, profitability, etc. Once outputs or criteria for overall achievement have been identified, it is possible for management to specify output standards and targets. Reward and punishment systems can he linked with actual performance vis-a-vis standards and targets. Measurement is the most important activity in the job of a manager. It is also one of the weakest areas. Output control strategy becomes relatively difficult to apply in office jobs and where the relationship between effort and outcome is not easy to establish. In production jobs, on the other hand, output control is easy and effective. Once output standards are agreed upon mutually by the management and work group or individual work, it is easy to grant semi-autonomy to the worker or work group and hold the worker or work group responsible for the output. Thus output control strategy too, like bureaucratic control strategy, facilitates delegation and at the same time is free of the negative features of bureaucratic control. One major problem with output control strategy, however, is the possible resistance from work groups for improving the methods of working, norms of output, etc. Thus, it can even stand in the way of introducing technological changes and introduction of improvements based on work study and work simplification. The other major and practical problem is related to establishing suitable and agreeable measures of output. Cultural control: Strategy refers to an approach of maintaining control by ensuring that members of an organization accept as legitimate, and willingly comply with, the managerial requirements. This requires strong professional identification and high degree of loyalty to the organization. To the extent that employees and subordinates in any organization accept management's right to give executive instructions, one may say that a degree of cultural control already exists. This is reinforced further through conscious efforts to develop this pragmatic effort into a more enthusiastic support for management's purposes and organizational goals. As John Child says, \"Cultural control combined with personal autonomy to follow strongly internalized norms of competence and conduct has long been the 136 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

mark of the professional\". Professionals resent administrative controls. They accept controls comparable with the mode of self-control within agreed cultural parameters worked out through discussion and negotiation. Experiments in `autonomous work groups’, ‘quality circles' and `quality of work life programmes' are examples in this direction. Cultural control fosters closer identification with organization and induces high degree of motivation towards result oriented behaviour. SUMMARY • We have observed that control is the process of assuring the efficient accomplishment of enterprise objectives. It is the primary responsibility of every one who has responsibility for execution of plans. Controls should be based on plans and there is need for a structure to know where the responsibility lies. Controls should be appropriate, strategic, acceptable, objective and cost- effective. • The control process involves three steps: establishing standards, measuring performance and reinforcing success or correct deviations. Controls can be constant, periodic or occasional. As a matter of policy organizations may prefer control to be centralized or dispersed and delegated, formal or informal and direct or indirect. Large organizations need delegation, certain amount of formalization and direct control systems. The control strategies can be classified as personal and centralized, bureaucratic, output oriented or cultural. The appropriateness of strategies varies from organization to organization. • Controlling is one of the most basic functions of management, like planning, organizing, staffing, etc. Controlling is an important function, and without controlling management can’t ensure the desired results. • Controlling can be defined as a function of making sure that actions of the employees of an organization are directed towards the attainment of a common goal and the work is being performed as planned by the management. • Controlling means giving instructions to employees and making sure that the instructions are being followed as desired by the management. • Controlling means the management of the organization is responsible for deciding predetermined standards and making sure that performance of the employees match with the standards set by the management and in case if the performance of employees does not match with standards then taking required corrective measures. 137 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• The management of the organization makes sure that the resources of the organization are being used properly and are being used for the growth of the organization and are not being wasted in any way. By controlling management, make sure the effective and efficient use of resources of the organization. KEYWORDS • Budgetary Control: Measuring performance against plans and expected results expressed in numerical terms. • Controlling: The managerial function of measuring and correcting performance of activities of subordinates in order to assure that enterprise objectives and plans are being accomplished. • Control Process: In managing, the basic process involves establishing standards, measuring performance against standards and correcting for deviations. • Direct Control: The concept that the most direct of all controls is to assure high- quality managers on the premise that qualified managers make fewer mistakes requiring other (or indirect; controls, perceive and anticipate problems, and initiate appropriate actions to avoid or correct for deviations. • Feedback: An informational input in a system transmitting messages of system operation to indicate whether the system is operating as planned. Information on operations is relayed to the responsible persons for evaluation. • Feed forward Control: A control system that attempts to identify future deviations from plans, early enough to take action before the deviations occur. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Examine the control methods and strategies used inyour organization. ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ 2. Design a control system for controlling the performance of your own subordinates, keeping in view the characteristics of effective controls. ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ 138 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions 1. Discuss whether you need any control when everything is going as planned. 2. Do you subscribe to the view that only top management is responsible for exercising control function in the organization? 3. Explain how you could use the three step control process to control your academic performance. 4. Examine the control methods and strategies used in your organization. 5. Design a control system for controlling the performance of your own subordinates, keeping in view the characteristics of effective controls. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Measuring performance against plans and expected results expressed in numerical terms. a. Budgetary Control b. Direct control c. Indirect control d. Feed forward control 2. A control system that attempts to identify future deviations from plans, early enough to take action before the deviations occur. a. Feed forward Control b. Budget control c. Direct control d. Indirect control 139 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. An informational input in a system transmitting messages of system operation to indicate whether the system is operating as planned. Information on operations is relayed to the responsible persons for evaluation. a. Feedback b. Communications c. Flow d. None of these 4. The concept that the most direct of all controls is to assure high-quality managers on the premise that qualified managers make fewer mistakes requiring other (or indirect; controls, perceive and anticipate problems, and initiate appropriate actions to avoid or correct for deviations. a. Direct control b. Indirect c. Centralized d. De-centralized 5. In managing, the basic process involves establishing standards, measuring performance against standards and correcting for deviations. a. Control process b. Feedback process c. Communication process d. None of these Answers 1. a 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. a REFERENCE 140 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Gerald A. C. (2015). Management Theory and Practice. UK: Cengage Learning EMEA Higher Education. • Chandan, J.S. (1987). Management Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Vikas Publications. • Sheldrake John (1966). Management Theory. New Delhi: Published Intl Thomson Business Press. • Northouse.G. Peter (2014). Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Bolman. G. Lee (2013). Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership. USA: John Wiley & Sons • Bedeian, A.G. 1986. Management, Dryden. Press: New York. Child, John, 1984. Organization, Harper & Row: London. • Fayol, Henry, 1949. General and Industrial Management, Pitman: New York. Koontz Harold et al. 1981. Management, McGraw-Hill: Auckland. • Ouchi, W.G. 1977. The Relationship between Organizational Structure and Organizational Control, Administrative Science Quarterly, March. 141 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)