BCA125_INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP AND MANGEMEN(1)-converted

qualities are displayed by leaders, with the combination of the needed styles of leadership, a leader is said to play an effective role. The leadership typology has been classified into various ways, based on the nature displayed by the leaders in influencing the followers. The types of leadership that has been discussed here include feudal, paternal, dictatorial, participatory, developmental, bureaucratic, manipulative, expert type and charismatic type of leadership, which are as follows (Fadia&Fadia, 2006; Sahni&Vayunandan, 2010): 1. Feudal Type: In the feudal type of leadership, the relationship that exists between a leader and follower is that of a lord and his subject. Under this type, theemployee of the organization is considered as an essential part of the organization and is given compensation by the leader for performing his/her immediate task. 2. Paternal Type: In this type of leadership, the leader’s relationship with the employee is that of a father and son. Hence, the leadership as per this typology is called as „paternal‟ and the employees of the organization are seen as family members. This type of leadership is quite popular in Japan, mainly due to their cultural environment. 3. Dictatorial Type: When a leader adopts a style, where he/she dictates terms to the employees and demands obedience of the employees in carrying out the orders, the typology is called as „dictatorial‟. That is, in this typology, the leader gives out orders and expects the subordinates to carry out the orders rigidly and the employees of the organization, has completely no role in decision making. However, dictatorship is redundant in the present time and people express their resentment by way of massive resistance, low moraleand low productivity. 4. Participatory Type: In this typology, the leader tends to adopt a flexible approach, wherein the employees of the organization are allowed to participate in decision making process and the leader rather than passing out orders, just shares his/her vision and ideas to the employees and the decisions are arrived at by having a group discussion. The leader of this kind believes in upbringing of team spirit and cordial atmosphere in the organization. 5. Developmental Type: Under this typology, the leader feels that it is his/her duty to develop people. The leader considers his/her subordinates to have vast potentialities for improvement and thus the focus of this leader is laid on promoting the subordinates to highest performances. 6. Bureaucratic Type: Under this type of leadership, a leader is bound by strict rules and 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

regulations and they expect their employees to follow the procedures in a prompt manner. Bureaucratic style of leadership may be suitable for a routine organization, where the tasks undertaken by the leader and the employees are routine in nature. Bureaucratic leaders may not be suitable for flexible and large organizations, where the nature of work is quite complex. As per this typology, rules and procedures, decide the way of functioning of employees and no initiation or participation is permitted. 7. Manipulative Type: According to this typology, the leader manipulates the employees of the organization so as to attain his own personal goals. However, this kind of leadership attitude cannot be exhibited for a long time, as people cannot be exploited on a sustainable basis. Thus, once the employees become aware of such manipulations, resentment sets-in in the organization. 8. Expert Type: Expert type of leadership is an emerging style of leadership, which evolved as a result of the growing complexities in organizations. The basis for expert leadership is the individual leader’s knowledge and ability and he/she assumes the role of a leader regardless of his/her age, sex, physical or other attributes. 9. Charismatic Type: The term „charisma‟ is primarily associated with Max Weber, who states that, “charisma is applied to a certain quality of an individual personality by virtue of which he/she is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, exceptional powers or qualities”. Charismatic leaders are regarded as of divine origin and the recognition of the followers depends upon the demonstration of constant proof, which in turn, augments follower devotion and enthusiasm. Charismatic leaders are further classified into 5 types, viz. socialized, personalized, office-holder, personal and divine charismatic, which are as follows (Dubrin, 2001): a. Socialized Charismatics: A socialized charismatic is a leader who uses power only for the benefit of others, rather than using it for private gains. The socialized charismatic formulates and pursues goals that fulfill the needs of group members and provide intellectual stimulation to them. Followers of socialized charismatics are autonomous, empowered and responsible; b. Personalized Charismatics: Personalized charismatics are leaders who use the powers to a certain extent for personal gains, to serve their own interests. Such leaders impose self-serving goals and they offer support to group members only when it facilitates their own goals. Followers of this type of leader are typically obedient, submissive and dependent; 51 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Office-holder Charismatics: For this type of leader, charismatic leadership is more about the office occupied by him/her rather than his/her personal characteristics. By being a holder of key position, the leaders attain high status; d. Personal Charismatics: A leader with this quality, often gain very high esteem through the extent to which others have faith in them as people. Irrespective of the high or low status held by this leader, the personal charismatics are able to influence the followers, through their right traits, behaviours and characteristics; e. Divine Charismatics: A historically important type of charismatic leader is that of the divine charismatic. Such leaders tend to have divine grace and they are considered as magnetic saviour, who would arise to lead people througha crisis. STYLES OF LEADERSHIP The literature on leadership styles has been growing in number and different styles of leadership are highlighted by different studies. However, it has to be understood that a single style of leadership cannot suit different situations. As and when the need arises, based on the situation and needs of the employee and organization, a leader can combine one or more styles of leadership in influencing people towards the goals of the organization. Thus, choosing the right style, in the right situation, at the right time is the key to the success of a leader. Some of the leadership styles discussed here is based on the inputs derived from the theories of leadership, as shown in table 6.1. Not all styles mentioned in the table are discussed and only the common styles of leadership that have gained wide popularity has been dealt with in this section. The Leadership studies conducted by Kurt Lewin and his associates in Iowa University, - identified three different styles of leadership, viz. autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire style of leadership, which are as follows: 1. Autocratic Style: The autocratic style of leadership is also known as authoritative style or directive style of leadership, in which the autocratic leader retains most of the authority for himself/herself. An autocratic leader gives orders to his/her subordinates and expects that subordinates should give complete obedience to the orders issued. In this type, the decisions are taken by the leader without consulting others. 2. Democratic Style: This style of leadership is also known as participative style of leadership, which can be further categorized as consensus, consultative and democratic. In this style, the subordinates are involved in decision making. A consultative leader, take the opinion of the employees, before making a decision and a consensus leader, make a decision only after consulting the group members. A 52 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

decision is not made final, until all the members agree with the decisions. In the democratic style, the final authority of making decisions rests with the subordinates. 3. Laissez-Faire Style: The Laissez-Faire leadership is also known as free-reign leadership, where the decision making power is completely left with the subordinates. In this style, the leader’s involvement in making decision is minimized and the people are allowed to make their own decisions. The group members are given complete freedom in setting their own goals and achieving them, which give them complete autonomy. Employees under this leader, tend to become self-sufficient and guidance is not offered by leaders unless requested. Table 3.1: Leadership Theories/Studies and the corresponding Leadership Styles d. Synod Leadership Studies Leadership Styles Iowa University Study of Leadership, • Authoritarian 1 Kurt Lewin & associates • Democratic • Laissez-Faire Four Systems of Management • Exploitative 2 • Authoritative • Consultative Leadership, Resins Liker • Participative • Impoverished Managerial Grid Theory of • Country Club 3 Leadership, Robert Blake & Jane • Task • Middle of the Road Mouton • Team Leadership Continuum Theory, • Boss-Centred Leadership Robert 4 • Employee-Centred Leadership Tannenbaum& Warren Schmidt Path-Goal Theory of Leadership, • Directive 5 • Supportive • Participative Martin Evans and Robert House • Achievement-oriented Three Dimensional Model of 6 Leadership Effectiveness, • Executive • Developer WlliamReddin • Benevolent Autocratic • Bureaucratic 53 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Compromiser • Missionary • Autocrat • Deserter • A I –Authoritarian Leader-Participation model, Victor • A II –Authoritarian 7 • C I – Consultative • C II –Consultative Vroom & Phillip Yetton Situational Approach to Leadership, • G II –Participative 8 • Telling Paul Hersey In 1961, Rensis Likert, in his „Four Systems of Management Leadership‟, identified four styles of leadership, viz. exploitative authoritative, benevolent authoritative, consultative and participative, which are as follows: 1. Exploitative Authoritative: In this style, rather than engaging people in decision making, the leader gives directions to people. The leader shows low concern for the people, but places high concern for the task and adopts threats and fear-based methods to achieve the results. 2. Benevolent Authoritative: This style is also known as benevolent dictatorship, wherein, the authoritative leader, also places concern for the people. As per this style, though the leader allows the employees to participate in decision making, major decisions are taken by the leader only. In order to achieve the results, the leader uses rewards. 3. Consultative: As per this style, the leader consults with the employees in making decisions. The leader shows genuine interest on the ideas shared by the subordinates under this style of leadership, but still the central decision making authority lies only with the leader. 4. Participative: In this style, there is complete participation of the group members and the leader makes maximum utilisation of participation method. As discussed in the previous unit, the Path-Goal Theory that was put forward by Robert House identifies four styles of leadership. The four types of leadership behaviour, identified by House are as follows: 1. Directive Style: A directive leader clarifies the followers of the role expected of them, 54 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

schedules the work to be done and gives the needed direction or guidance as to how to accomplish tasks. The leader emphasises on formal activities, such as planning, organizing and controlling, this style is suitable, when the task is unclear to the employees; 2. Supportive Style: A supportive leader behaves in a friendly manner with the followers, and the main concern of the leader is placed on the needs of the followers, rather than on accomplishing the tasks. As per this style, the leader lays his/her attention on the well-being of employees and creates an emotionally supportive climate. Supportive leadership style can be used at a time, when the followers are not sure of how to proceed; 3. Participative Style: A participative leader involves the followers in the consultation process and also gets the suggestions or views of the followers, before making a decision. This style of leadership is suitable for improving the morale of well- motivated employees who perform non-repetitive tasks; 4. Achievement-Oriented Style: An achievement oriented leader set challenging goals for the followers and expects them to perform at their highest level. The achievement oriented leadership style works well with achievement-oriented team members, and also with those working on ambiguous and non-repetitive tasks. The above mentioned leadership styles under the path-goal theory is contingent upon two factors such as, characteristics of employees and environmental factors. While environmental factors include aspects such as task structure, formal authority system, work group, etc. employee characteristics include aspects like locus of control, experience, perceived ability, etc. The Three Dimensional Model put forward by William Reddin, states that situational factors make the leadership styles effective or ineffective. Reddin thus highlights eight styles of leadership, out of which four has been identified as effective styles and the remaining four as ineffective leadership styles, which are as follows (Sahni&Vayunandan, 2010): (i) Effective Styles: The four effective leadership styles include: a. Developer: Based on the situation that arises, this style is preferred by leaders where there is combination of high relationship orientation and low task orientation. Leaders as per this style are seen as having implicit trust in people as being primarily concerned with developing them as individuals; b. Executive: In this style, a leader uses high task orientation and a high relationship orientation, based on the situation. Leaders as per this style are seen as good motivators 55 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

who sets high standards, who treats everyone somewhat differently and who prefers team management; c. Bureaucrat: As per this style, a leader adopts low task orientation and low relationship orientation, and the concern of the leader is basically to follow the rules and procedures and thus maintain and control a particular situation, with the help of rules and procedures; d. Benevolent Autocrat: Based on the situation, the leader adopts a style wherein there is usage of high task orientation and low relationship orientation. A leader in this style is seen as knowing what he wants, and knowing how to get it without creating resentment. (ii) Ineffective Styles: The four ineffective styles of leadership are as follows: a. Missionary: At inappropriate situations, if a leader adopts high relationship orientation and low task orientation, a leader is said to be ineffective and is seen as being primarily interested in harmony; b. Compromiser: A leader is seen as a compromiser, when he uses high task orientation and high relationship orientation, when the situation demands focus on only one orientation. Such leaders are seen as poor decision makers, as he/she allows himself/herself to be influenced by pressures in a situation; c. Deserter: When a leader uses low relationship orientation and low task orientation, when such behaviour is inappropriate, such style of leadership is called a „deserter‟. The leader at such situation is seen as „uninvolved‟ and „passive‟. d. Autocrat: When high task orientation and low relationship orientation is used by a leader at inappropriate times, the style adopted is said to be „autocratic‟. When such style is adopted, the leader is seen as having no confidence in others, as unpleasant and as being interested only in the immediate task. The Situational Leadership theory of Hersey and Blanchard identifies four styles of leadership, which is based on the relative amount of task and relationship behaviour that a leader engages in. Task behaviour is the extent to which a leader spells out the duties and responsibilities of employees by giving direction and setting goals. Relationship behaviour is the extent to which a leader engages in multi-way communication with the employees by adopting measures such as listening, providing encouragement and coaching. Thus the four styles of leadership identified by Hersey and Blanchard include the following (Dubrin, 2001; Sahni&Vayunandan, 2010): 56 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(i) Telling Style: The telling style is seen as highly directive as the leader pays more attention to the task and less importance to the relationship. This style can be used by leaders where the followers are unable and unwilling to take responsibility and they need the direction of leaders in clarifying the goals expected of them; (ii) Selling Style: Selling style is adopted by a leader, when the followers are unable to take the lead, but are willing and confident. In such situations, the leaders exhibit high orientation towards both task and relationship. The selling style is also very directive, but in a more persuasive and guiding manner. (iii) Participating Style: In participating style, the leaders give less direction and there is more collaboration among leaders and employees. In this style, the leader just shares the ideas, as the employees are able to do, but unwilling due to lack confidence and thus, there is high relationship and low task orientation in this style. (iv) Delegating Style: In this style, the leader just delegates the tasks to the followers and is kept informed of progress, as the followers are able to do, willing and confident to take responsibility. Thus, in this style, low relationship and task orientation is shown by the leader. Thus, as discussed so far, the leaders can adopt any kind of style, based on the situation in which he/she is held up. The style adopted by a leader depends upon various factors such as, the attitude exhibited by the leader towards task and employees, the readiness shown by the employees towards the task and the leader and the situation in which the organization as such is held up. Thus based on these factors, a combination of styles can be used by leaders as the same style may lead to differing results at different times. CHOOSING THE BEST LEADERSHIP STYLE There cannot be a unique style of leadership or a „one style-fit all‟ solution, as the effectiveness of leadership depends upon the prompt use of styles, either by combining several styles or following a particular style, as per the demand of the situation. Effective leaders exhibit a degree of versatility and flexibility, which enables them to adapt their behaviour, to the changing and contradictory demands made on them (Dubrin, 2001). Though various styles exist, all such categories emanate from the basic 3 styles, viz. autocratic, participative and laissez-faire. The other styles of leadership can be clubbed into these three styles in one way or the other. In the following table, useful information has been given on the style to be chosen based on the needs of the group members and situation. 57 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

LEADERSHIP THEORIES A leader is someone who influences others to attain the goals of a group or organization. As a small business owner, you are the leader of your organization and would probably like to know what makes some leaders successful while others have less success. This is where theories of leadership in organizational behavior come in. The truth is that there is no magic formula. There is no fixed set of characteristics that make one a better leader in all circumstances. However, that doesn’t mean you can’t be a successful leader. When you have an understanding of leadership theories and concepts, then you should be able to pick the approach that works for you, depending on your unique circumstances. Below are the most well-known organizational leadership models. The Trait Theory of Leadership According to trait theory, there are specific traits that are shared by all successful leaders. In fact, when the earliest forms of this theory were declared, leadership was considered to be an innate quality; a trait in and of itself, that some people are born with. However, over time, the theory was refined to show that many of these leadership traits can be acquired by those who have not had the good fortune of being born with them. Traits that are common to leaders include empathy, integrity, likeability, critical thinking, decision making, assertiveness, and many others. All of these are traits that prove important when helping others and can be developed. No Guarantee A disclaimer must be made here. Having any of these traits, in any given combination, does not guarantee that the owner of the traits is going to succeed as a leader. It should be understood that a trait isn’t an internal quality; a trait is an external manifestation of our internal mental processes. It is the beliefs and perspectives we hold within ourselves that make for our ability to be effective and successful leaders. Certain traits will, therefore, manifest themselves as a result of these internal processes. To work on the trait rather than the internal process that generates it is to put the cart before the horse. The Behavioral Theory of Leadership According to behavioral theory, a leader is as a leader does, so the focus is on the common behaviors of leaders. In that case, there are many types of behaviors exhibited by leaders all 58 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

around the world and throughout history. There are leaders whose word is law, and there are those that prefer to allow the people to have a hand in the decision-making process. Which are better? Again, it all depends, and there is no magic formula even here. According to the framework developed by Kurt Lewin in the 1930s, there are 3 types of leadership under behavioral leadership theory: Autocratic Leadership: These are the leaders who do not consult their subordinates when making decisions in the workplace. Once the decisions have been made the subordinates are expected to cooperate with them with no objections. This type of leadership certainly has an environment where it is highly effective. When decisions have to be made fast, and the leader has extensive knowledge and experience, needing little input, then they can use autocratic leadership to their advantage. Autocratic leadership also works in situations where goals and outcomes are quite clear, and the agreement of the team with the leader’s decisions is not necessary for the outcome to be successful. Democratic Leadership: A democratic leader seeks the input of their subordinates before making a decision. The exact degree of input that the leader wants from their team will vary with the leader. Democratic leadership works in situations where the agreement of the team is necessary for a successful outcome. It also works when the team is cohesive and well-aligned with its goals. There should also be a time for deliberations before decisions are made. This kind of leadership can be difficult in situations where the team is so diverse as to have too many different ideas and perspectives. Laissez-Faire Leadership: This type of leader does not involve themselves in the dealings of their subordinates. They give their subordinates the leeway to make their own decisions and direct their own work. To be sure, this type of leadership can work in certain situations, such as where a team is composed of highly skilled and experienced individuals who are competent, motivated, and capable of taking initiative, therefore not requiring any kind of supervision. It doesn’t work very well outside of this very particular environment. In fact, most of the time, laissez-faire leadership is the result of a lazy and distracted leader, and it fails more often than not. The behavior of a leader will directly affect a team's performance. According to studies that have been conducted over the years, each of these leadership styles is appropriate in different 59 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

situations. A good leader is one who can use the right style in the right circumstances. The Functional Theory of Leadership According to this theory, the leader has one main responsibility: to assess the needs of their followers and then meet those needs. They are also tasked with other functions that relate to this one main responsibility: • To monitor the environment within which their subordinates work. • To organize activities for their followers so that everyone always has something to do. • Totrain their subordinates and increase their knowledge and skill sets. • To motivate and inspire their followers. • To participate in the activities of the group. This is important as it forces them to have skin in the game and builds trust in them among their followers. The Transformational Theory of Leadership According to this theory, the leader is tasked with seeing the bigger picture in every situation and motivating their followers to attain greater goals and execute the group’s vision. This type of leadership demands that the leader be clearly visible to followers and that they are accessible at all times. They should constantly look for new ideas and ways to realize the goals of the group. The Transactional Theory of Leadership According to this theory, a leader is defined by an ability to reward those who perform well and to punish those who do not. A leader should have a specific goal for followers to work toward. A leader should also have the ability to train followers to give them the ability to work towards that goal. From there they should evaluate their followers’ performance and determine whether it is satisfactory. They should also have the authority to reward those followers who meet their objectives and punish those who do not. The Environmental Theory of Leadership According to this theory, it is the work of a leader to create the right kind of environment, where their followers will flourish. By using psychological principles, they should be able to build the right kind of environment for the motivation of their followers and then make that environment self-sustaining. 60 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

According to this theory, _a good leader will give the group the right kind of culture*e* that motivates followers to meet their objectives out of care for the benefit of the group, rather than from coercion. Environmental leaders do not lead, as much as they create the right kind of environment, in which workers work toward group goals, out of their own will. Situational Contingency Theories Situational contingency theories maintain that the situation is the ultimate factor in the leadership style adopted by a leader. With that in mind, there is no single ultimate leadership style. Autocratic leadership works in times of intense crisis, whereas democratic leadership works in times of relaxation. Situations dictate the most appropriate type of leadership style for other leadership styles, as well. SUMMARY • This unit thus introduced you to the leadership style, which is regarded as the pattern of behaviour that characterizes a leader. The concept of leadership style is influenced by many factors such as the personality of the leader and employee, nature of task performed and the nature of environment. Based on such influences, a leader tends to adopt different styles and the style adopted by leaders also depended on the qualities and characteristics of a leader, wherein you were introduced to qualities of leadership as stated by various scholars. Further, leadership typologies ranging from dictatorship to charismatic leadership were discussed. • The leadership styles as portrayed by different scholars such as Kurt Lewin, Likert, Hersey and Blanchard, Robert House, etc. was discussed, which gave insights on the various styles such as autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, exploitative, supportive, achievement-oriented, teller, seller, etc. Apart from these styles of leadership, gender differences that exist in leadership styles were also explored. When women leaders had the tendency of taking up relationship-oriented leadership styles, men were keen on taking up command and control oriented styles. Finally, best way of choosing a leadership style was also dealt with, which revealed that a blend of leadership style based on the situation would offer comparative advantage, rather than resorting to the same style of leadership for different situations. Thus, the essential aspect that has been highlighted is that, to be effective, a leader must be able to adapt herself/himself to the changing circumstances. • Leadership in business is the capacity of a company's management to set and achieve challenging goals, take fast and decisive action when needed, outperform the competition, and inspire others to perform at the highest level they can. 61 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• It can be difficult to place a value on leadership or other qualitative aspects of a company, versus quantitative metrics that are commonly tracked and much easier to compare between companies. Leadership can also speak to a more holistic approach, as in the tone a company's management sets or the culture of the company that management establishes. • Individuals with strong leadership skills in the business world often rise to executive positions such as CEO (chief executive officer), COO (chief operating officer), CFO (chief financial officer), president, and chairman. KEYWORDS • Trait leadership: is defined as integrated patterns of personal characteristics that reflect a range of individual differences and foster consistent leader effectiveness across a variety of group and organizational situations. • Anarchism: is a political philosophy and movement that rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy • An organization, or organization, is an entity: such as a company, an institution, or an association – comprising one or more people an having particular purpose • In social science and politics, power is the capacity of an individual to influence the actions, beliefs, or conduct (behaviour) of others. • Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for logic, understanding, self- awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Suggest ways and means to build leadership qualities among the elected representatives of Rural Local Bodies ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ 2. How women leadership is different form men leadership? ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ 62 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions 1. Define leadership. 2. Explain the concept of leadership? 3. Explain the leadership style? 4. How many types of leadership style are there? 5. How autocratic style is different from democratic leadership style 6. Illustrate the characteristics of leaderships and leadership qualities? 7. Define trait theory of leadership 8. Explain the difference of transformational theory of leadership and transactional theory? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. This approach analyses the leaders from the perspective of skill, knowledge, capacity and capabilities needed for leadership a. Skill approach b. Trait approach c. Vessel approach d. None of these 2. The .................... essentially visualizes the leaders from the angle of what they do and how they do? It essentially brings an assumption leaders are not alike and they are distinct in their styles. a. Style approach b. Skills approach c. Trait Approach 63 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

d. Situational approach 3. It is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal a. Leadership b. Motivational c. Situational d. Strategic 4. According to……… , a leader is as a leader does, so the focus is on the common behaviors of leaders a. behavioral theory b. trait theory c. transactional theory d. transformational theory 5. According to this theory, the leader is tasked with seeing the bigger picture in every situation and motivating their followers to attain greater goals and execute the group’s vision. a. Transformational theory b. Transactional theory c. Trait theory d. Behavioral theory Answers 1. a 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. a REFERENCE 64 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Gerald A. C.(2015). Management Theory and Practice. UK: Cengage Learning EMEA Higher Education. • Chandan, J.S.(1987). Management Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Vikas Publications. • Sheldrake John (1966). Management Theory. New Delhi: Published Intl Thomson Business Press. • Northouse.G.Peter(2014). Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Bolman. G. Lee (2013). Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership. USA: John Wiley & Sons • D'Souza, A. (1987). Leadership: A Trilogy on Leadership and Effective Management - Vol I: Being a Leader. Bombay: Better Yourself Books. • Dubrin, A. J. (2001). Leadership: Research Findings, Practice and Skills. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. • Fadia, B., &Fadia, K. (2006). Public Administration: Administrative Theories and Concepts. Agra: Sahitya Bhawan Publications. • Hoyt, C. L. (2007). Women and Leadership. In P. G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice (pp. 265-293). New Delhi: Sage Publications. 65 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 4: GROUP DYNAMICS AND TEAMS 66 Structure Learning objectives Introductions Group dynamics Meaning of group dynamics Concept of group dynamics Characteristics of group dynamics Process/ stages of group development Forming: Storming: Norming: Performing: Adjourning: Types of groups Command Groups: Task Groups: Functional Groups: Factors affecting group behavior Group Member Resources: Group Structure: Group Processes: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Turning groups in to team building 67 Eight C’s for team building Leadership in complex groups and organization Community leader Understand the change Managing change in your organization Strategies for change Propose Incentives Redefine Cultural Values Exercise Authority Shift the Burden of Change 4.15 5. Recruit Champions of Change Summary Keywords Learning activity Unit end questions Reference LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able: • Explain about the group interaction process • Define about the meaning of group dynamics • Elucidate the concept of group dynamics • Express the importance of group dynamics process; CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Find out the group dynamics vis-à-vis different processes and patterns. INTRODUCTION Group dynamics is the scientific approach to the understanding of the dynamics of group. It implies an interactive psychological relationship in which members of a group develop a common perception based on feelings and emotions. Group dynamics refer to the changes that take place within the group. It also refers to forces operating within the groups. Group dynamics is related to the field theory of Lewin which assumes man’s behaviour to be a function of the field existing at the time of the occurrence of behaviour. We can further say that it is the study of group processes, their objective analysis and measurement and the effect of group membership on individual members. Our behaviour is not static. It means that the change of behaviour is through interaction in the group. According to Segal, group dynamics is a process by which one considers other individuals and a problem in a group at the same time. It not only tends to increase understanding of the problem, but also creates a solution which the individual practices in bringing about emotional balance. We can also say that group dynamics is influenced by sympathy, suggestion and imitation. Sympathy enables the members of a group to perceive the psychological state of the other members. Suggestion plays a big role in influencing group behaviour. The suggestions put forward by leader of a group are implemented by the members of the group. GROUP DYNAMIC: DEFINITION A group includes only persons who share some norms and values about something. We can say that group contains people with interrelated social roles. An aggregate of people may form themselves into a group as a result of interaction. Thus, we can say that groups are the products of interaction. Group interaction is a two way process whereby each individual or group stimulates the other and also in varying degrees that modify the behaviour of the participants. The behaviour and personality characteristics of individual members of a group affect the behaviour of others and make a significant impact over the functioning of a group as a whole. In this context we can consider two types of groups, viz., formal and informal groups. Formal groups are formed on the basis of specific norms, values etc. School is an example of formal group. On the other hand, play group, peer group and social clubs are examples of formal groups. In informal groups, rules are usually flexible. An individual may belong to many groups. The behaviour of an individual is different from the group behaviour. In the group a person has to act according to the norms of the group and generally, a few individuals may 68 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

guide the behaviour of the group. In this context, we can say that group interaction is a two-way process whereby each individual or group stimulates the behaviour of the participants. We can further say that the behaviour and personality characteristics of individual members of a group affect the behaviour of others and ultimately it makes a significant impact over the functioning of a group as a whole. As for example, we can say that the school is a social institution set up by the society to serve its ends. School is primarily a social institution. Group activities should be encouraged to provide opportunities to the students to participate in the affairs of the group. One of the important functions of the school is social interaction. Not only are the teachers and pupils continually interacting in the class-room system, but the pupils are also interacting among themselves through special pre-determined code or signs or looks, and there are many common stereotypes and values that they share with each other. Like any other social system, the class-room group shows a variety of interactions continuously. Formal structure is not only factor in group functioning. Within this formal structure, there is informal relationship. Communication within the group may flow more through informal channels than through formal ones. The informal sub- groups are typically more homogenous than the classroom group. Not only this, peer group pressures exert a powerful impact in many cases. MEANING, CONCEPT AND IMPORTANCE OF GROUP DYNAMICS In 1944, Kurt Lewin, set up the Research Centre for Group Dynamics to meet the need of a scientific approach to the understanding of the dynamics of group. 24 Group Dynamics Group dynamics can be defined as a field of enquiry dedicated to the advancing knowledge about the nature of groups, the laws of their development and their interrelations with individuals, other groups and larger institutions. Actually, it implies that the interactive psychological relationship in which members of a group develop a common perception based on feelings and emotions. It is not easy to define the important area of group dynamics. We can say that it represents a field of enquiry, a series of inter-related problems, a set of techniques and interaction process. Group dynamics consists of two words – (i) group and (ii) dynamics. A group is a unit of two or more individuals who share a set of beliefs and values. The members of the group share a common purpose, task or goals. The relations among the members are interdependent. Not only this, there is a feeling of belongingness or we feeling among the members of the group. The members of the group generally prescribe a set of norms of behaviour for themselves. The members want to attain the goal effectively. The structure is hierarchical where the 69 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

functions and powers are distributed. On the other hand, the word dynamics means force. Group dynamics refers to forces operating within the groups. Group dynamics is related to field theory of Lewin, which assumes man’s behaviour to be a function of the field existing at the time of the occurrence of behaviour. We can also say that the group dynamics is the study of group processes, their objective analysis and measurement and the effect of group membership on individual members. When a group of people is formed with a common goal, a kind of social force is created. Our behaviour is not static. Thus, group dynamics means the change of behaviour through interaction in the group. CONCEPT OF GROUP DYNAMICS The social psychologists seek to explain group behaviour on the basis of social interaction and cultural transmission through social interaction. The interactive psychological relationship is termed as “group dynamics”. The important two variables we can say in this context are “group cohesiveness” and “group locomotion”. Cohesiveness plays a vital role in determining the influence of the group on the members. On the other hand, locomotion indicates the movement towards the desired goal. Personality of the individual and character of the social situation both takes an important role for group dynamics. All the psychological effects take place within the individual members who compose the group. According to Cartwright and Zander (1968), the basic assumptions are: • the groups are inevitable (even the hermits / Sanyasis and the Hippies), • that groups mobilize powerful forces that produce effects of utmost importance to individuals, • that groups can produce constructive as well as destructive consequences and • that it is the correct understanding of group dynamics based on empirical studies that helps in enhancing the constructive aspects of group life and group achievements It can also be said that group cohesiveness indicates the degree to which the members stick together so that there is unity in the group. Actually the basis of attraction to the group may lie in the interaction itself because of the mutual satisfaction of needs. The group may be teen- age group or a political group or Group Dynamics a religious group. Three important things one can consider for group cohesiveness, i.e., task direction, personal attraction and group prestige. The strength of the cohesiveness may vary on the basis of the situation. Thus, when we study the group as a whole we are aware of studying changes which occur in the behaviour of the individuals and how these changes are transmitted to all the individuals to the total field, so that the behaviour of the group is altered. On the other hand, when the 70 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

group itself shows a readiness to change by active participation then actual social change becomes possible. The change will occur when the group actually takes the decision to change. Thus the concept of group dynamics is helpful in understanding social changes which involve not only the introduction of an innovation, but also in overcoming of resistance. Group dynamics is also influenced by sympathy, suggestion and imitation. Sympathy enables the members of a group to perceive the psychological state of the other members. Actually the members begin to feel as others feel. On the other hand, suggestion plays a big role in influencing the group behaviour. The suggestions put forward by the leader of the group are readily accepted. The behaviour of the leader of the group is initiated by the members of the group. Besides this, some specific group techniques which could be utilized for improvement of the group process, viz., buzz sessions, role playing, brain storming and recreational experiences. In buzz sessions, in which five or six members participate and is organized for purposes of stimulating discussion. In role playing, problems are handling in such a manner so that it comes for the benefit of the group. Brain storming in which group is organized for stimulating discussion. Recreational experiences where opportunities are provided to the group members to participate in group discussion. CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP DYNAMICS • or more persons (if it is one person, it is not a group) • Formal social structure (the rules of the game are defined) • Common fate (they will swim together) • Common goals (the destiny is the same and emotionally connected) • Face-to-face interaction (they will talk with each other) • Interdependence (each one is complimentary to the other) • Self-definition as group members (what one is who belongs to the group) • Recognition by others (yes, you belong to the group). PROCESS/STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT/EVOLUTION Group Development is a dynamic process. How do groups evolve? There is a process of five stages through which groups pass through. The process includes the five stages: forming, 71 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

storming, forming, performing, and adjourning. Forming: The first stage in the life of a group is concerned with forming a group. This stage is characterized by members seeking either a work assignment (in a formal group) or other benefit, like status, affiliation, power, etc. (in an informal group). Members at this stage either engage in busy type of activity or show apathy. Storming: The next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads and triads. Members seek out familiar or similar individuals and begin a deeper sharing of self. Continued attention to the subgroup creates a differentiation in the group and tensions across the dyads / triads may appear. Pairing is a common phenomenon. There will be conflict about controlling the group. Norming: The third stage of group development is marked by a more serious concern about task performance. The dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out other members in the group. Efforts are made to establish various norms for task performance. Members begin to take greater responsibility for their own group and relationship while the authority figure becomes relaxed. Once this stage is complete, a clear picture will emerge about hierarchy of leadership. The norming stage is over with the solidification of the group structure and a sense of group identity and camaraderie. Performing: This is a stage of a fully functional group where members see themselves as a group and get involved in the task. Each person makes a contribution and the authority figure is also seen as a part of the group. Group norms are followed and collective pressure is exerted to ensure the Process of Group effectiveness of the group. The group may redefine its goals Development in the light of information from the outside environment and show an autonomous will to pursue those goals. The long-term viability of the group is established and nurtured. Adjourning: In the case of temporary groups, like project team, task force, or any other such group, which have a limited task at hand, also have a fifth stage, This is known as adjourning. 72 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The group decides to disband. Some members may feel happy over the performance, and some may be unhappy over the stoppage of meeting with group members. Adjourning may also be referred to as mourning, i.e. mourning the adjournment of the group. The readers must note that the four stages of group development mentioned above for permanent groups are merely suggestive. In reality, several stages may go on simultaneously. TYPES OF GROUPS One way to classify the groups is by way of formality – formal and informal. While formal groups are established by an organization to achieve its goals, informal groups merge spontaneously. Formal groups may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups. Command Groups: Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is a market research firm CEO and the research associates under him. Task Groups: Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a production process, or designing the syllabus under semester system. Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing committees. Ad hoc committees are temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process are normally disbanded after the group completes the assigned task. Functional Groups: A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals and objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing department, a customer service department, or an accounting department. FACTORS AFFECTING GROUP BEHAVIOUR 73 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The success or failure of a group depends upon so many factors. Group member resources, structure (group size, group roles, group norms, and group cohesiveness), group processes (the communication, group decision making processes, power dynamics, conflicting interactions, etc.) and group tasks (complexity and interdependence). Group Member Resources: The members’ knowledge, abilities, skills; and personality characteristics (sociability, self- reliance, and independence) are the resources the group members bring in with them. The success depends upon these resources as useful to the task. Group Structure: Group Size: Group size can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people. Small groups of two to ten are thought to be more effective because each member has ample opportunity to take part and engage actively in the group. Large groups may waste time by deciding on processes and trying to decide who should participate next. Evidence supports the notion that as the size of the group increases, satisfaction increases up to a certain point. Increasing the size of a group beyond 10-12 members’ results in decreased satisfaction. It is increasingly difficult for members of large groups to identify with one another and experience cohesion. Group Roles: In formal groups, roles are always predetermined and assigned to members. Each role shall have specific responsibilities and duties. There are, however, emergent roles that develop naturally to meet the needs of the groups. These emergent roles will often substitute the assigned roles as individuals begin to express themselves and become more assertive. Group roles can then be classified into work roles, maintenance roles, and blocking roles. Work roles are task-oriented activities that involve accomplishing the group’s goals. They involve a variety of specific roles such as initiator, informer, clarifier, summarizer, and reality tester. Maintenance roles are social-emotional activities that help members maintain their involvement in the group and raise their personal commitment to the group. The maintenance roles are harmonizer, gatekeeper, consensus tester, encourager, andcompromiser. 74 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Blocking roles are activities that disrupt the group. Blockers will stubbornly resist the group’s ideas, disagree with group members for personal reasons, and will have hidden agendas. They may take the form of dominating discussions, verbally attacking other group members, and distracting the group with trivial information or unnecessary humour. Often times the blocking behaviour may not be intended as negative. Sometimes a member may share a joke in order to break the tension, or may question a decision in order to force group members to rethink the issue. The blocking roles are aggressor, blocker, dominator, comedian, and avoidance behaviour. Role conflicts arise when there is ambiguity (confusion about delegation and no specific job descriptions) between the sent role and the received role which leads to frustration and dissatisfaction, ultimately leading to turnover; inconsistency between the perceived role and role behaviour (conflict between work roles and family roles); and conflicting demands from different sources while performing the task. Group Norms: Norms define the acceptable standard or boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, shared by group members. They are typically created in order to facilitate group survival, make behaviour more predictable, avoid embarrassing situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will create its own norms that might determine from the work performance to dress to making comments in a meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to conform to the group’s standards and at times not to perform at higher levels. The norms often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group. The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for the behaviour to be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding that the group supports the norms. It should be noted, however, that members might violate group norms from time to time. If the majority of members do not adhere to the norms, then they will eventually change and will no longer serve as a standard for evaluating behaviour. Group members who do not conform to the norms will be punished by being excluded, ignored, or asked to leave the group. Group Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members or unity, feelings of attraction for each other and desire to remain part of the group. Many factors influence the amount of group 75 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

cohesiveness – agreement on group goals, frequency of interaction, personal attractiveness, inter- group competition, favourable evaluation, etc. The more difficult it is to obtain group membership the more cohesive the group will be. Groups also tend to become cohesive when they are in intense competition with other groups or face a serious external threat to survival. Smaller groups and those who spend considerable time together also tend to be more cohesive. Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects, including worker satisfaction, low turnover and absenteeism, and higher productivity. However, highly cohesive groups may be detrimental to organizational performance if their goals are misaligned with organizational goals. Highly cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to groupthink. Groupthink occurs when members of a group exert pressure on each other to come to a consensus in decision making. Groupthink results in careless judgments, unrealistic appraisals of alternative courses of action, and a lack of reality testing. Evidence suggests that groups typically outperform individuals when the tasks involved require a variety of skills, experience, and decision making. Groups are often more flexible and can quickly assemble, achieve goals, and disband or move on to another set of objectives. Many organizations have found that groups have many motivational aspects as well. Group members are more likely to participate in decision-making and problem-solving activities leading to empowerment and increased productivity. Groups complete most of the work in an organization; thus, the effectiveness of the organization is limited by the effectiveness of its groups. Norms violation and role ambiguity Role ambiguity role conflict lease to achieving group goals rather than organisation goals Groupthink and conformity problem Illusion that they can do no wrong, illusion that group is in agreement, seeks consensus and ignore/suppress alternative ideas Social Loafing Members reduce their performance levels 76 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Figure 4.2 Group Cohesiveness: Group Processes: Decision-making by a group is superior, because group generates more information and knowledge, generates diverse alternatives, increases acceptance of a solution, and increases legitimacy. But it is also true, that decision making is like ‘munde munde matir bhinna (Different views from one head to another-it’s a Sanskrit word) Decisions take longer time, minority is dominated, pressure is applied to conform to group decisions, and none is responsible for the decisions. Group processes also include communication, conflict management, and leadership that we shall discuss in details in the chapters to follow hereafter. TURNING GROUPS INTO EFFECTIVE TEAMS All teams are groups but not all groups are teams. Teams often are difficult to form because it takes time for members to learn how to work together. People in every workplace talk about building the team, working as a team, and my team, but few understand how to create the experience of team work or how to develop an effective team. Belonging to a team, in the broadest sense, is a result of feeling part of something larger than oneself. It has a lot to do with your understanding of the mission or objectives of your organization. In a team-oriented environment, one contributes to the overall success of the organization. One works with fellow members of the organization to produce these results. Even though you have a specific job function and you belong to a specific department, you are unified with other organization members to accomplish the overall objectives. The bigger picture drives your actions; your function exists to serve the bigger picture. It is on record that teams are better than groups, because they are more flexible and responsive to dynamic environment. A work group has no opportunity to involve in collective works. It is the work team whose members ‘work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills’. BASIS GROUP TEAM Meaning A group is made when A team is that group of independent individuals, interdependent individuals, having something in who join hands for the 77 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

common, come together. realization of a specific goal. Accountability Individual Individual and mutual Decision-Making Group members Team leader Authority Individual Growth Proper training but limited Skill development and application application Focus On Individual goals Team goals Dependency Independent members Interdependent members Specific Roles No Yes Assigned to Individuals Interpersonal Not necessary Compulsory Understanding Leadership Unstructured Structured Level of Trust Low High Level of Low High Commitment Conflict Weak Strong Management Synergy Neutral or negative Positive Figure 4.3 TURNING GROUPS INTO EFFECTIVE TEAMS Team-building helps to increase intra-group and inter-group effectiveness to bring members together, make them share their perception of each other and understand each other’s point of view. 78 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Thus, resolve problems and work together in a cooperative and collaborative mode. Teams can be of four types – problem-solving teams (only making suggestion), self-managed, teams (operate without a manager), cross-functional teams (a group of experts from different specialities), and virtual team (members collaborate online). In terms of size, teams may be institutional (comprising of hundreds of members) and operational (a small, cooperative group, in regular contact and contributes responsibly to achieve task at hand). EIGHT C’s FOR TEAM BUILDING To show business results and profitability, ways are explored by the executives to improve their productivity. Successful team building, that creates effective, focused work teams, requires attention to each of the following: 1. Clear Expectations: The managers must clearly tell the team members of the expected performance and the team members must understand the reason for its creation. For it the organization must support the team with resources of people, time and money. 2. Commitment: Team members must participate in the team, feel that the team mission is important, and show commitment to accomplishing the team mission and expected outcomes. Commitment will come if team members perceive their service as valuable to the organization and to their own careers. 3. Competence: Team members must have the knowledge, skill and capabilities, the resources, strategies and support needed to accomplish its mission to address the issues for which the team was formed. 4. Control: The team must have not only enough freedom and empowerment to feel the ownership necessary to accomplish its charter, but also the accountability. There has to be a defined review process. 79 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Figure 4.4 Control 5. Collaboration: The team should understand group processes and work effectively and cooperatively with other members of the team. For it they have to understand the roles and responsibilities of team members, team leaders, and team recorders. 6. Communication: To make team members clear about the priority of their tasks, and receive regular feedback, team members must clearly and honestly with each other. Diverse opinions be welcome and conflicts be taken up positively. 7. Creativity: The team should value creative thinking, unique solutions, and new ideas; and reward members who take reasonable risks to make improvements. If necessary, it should provide the training, education, access to books and films, and field trips to stimulate new thinking. The creative development of new products, new technologies, new services, or new organizational structures is possible because teams may have variety of skills needed for successful innovation. 80 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Team members can uncover each other’s flaws and balance each other’s strengths and weaknesses. Managers should empower the team and make it accountable for the innovation process. 8. Coordination: Teams should understand the concept of internal customer to whom they provide a product or a service. Team efforts need to be coordinated by a central leadership team that assists the groups to obtain what they need for success. The cross- functional and multi-department teams must work together effectively. The organization should develop a customer-focused and process-focused orientation and move away from traditional departmental thinking. Spend time and attention on each of these eight tips to ensure your work teams contribute most effectively to your business success. Your team members would love you, your business will see new heights, and empowered people will “own” and be responsible to their work processes LEADERSHIP IN COMPLEX GROUP AND ORGANIZATION Complex organizations depend on an extended group of leaders who have the responsibility of articulating and carrying out the missions of the organization. Leadership groups within complex organizations should be expected to be a factor that influences the performance of the organization, for better or worse. Here I am thinking of medium-sized organizations -- 500- 2500 employees -- with some degree of functional specialization -- for example, a manufacturing company with divisions of manufacturing, marketing and sales, product design, finance and accounting, human resources, and government relations or a university with divisions of academic affairs, student recruitment, business and finance, student affairs, and external relations. The complexity of an organization stems from the fact that a number of different kinds of activities are being carried out simultaneously by different groups of people, and there is no authoritative single \"master bureaucrat\" who sets tasks and oversees results for all agents of the organization. Inevitably there is some degree of decentralization of activity, with decision- makers at a variety of levels who are empowered to set the agendas of their units in such a way as to best achieve the overall goals of the organization. And higher-level leaders have a responsibility for attempting to achieve a suitable degree of collaboration and communication among lower-level leaders to make it likely that the activities of the units will contribute to a coherent and effective effort to achieve the organization's goals. And complex organizations that fail to achieve a sufficient degree of coordination of effort internally wind 81 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

up being pretty unsuccessful; their product is often one that reflects the specific needs of each of the units, but fails to satisfy the overall goals of the organization. (This is the point of the joke that a camel is a horse designed by committee.) Here are some of the central tasks of an organization's leaders. Leaders help set the strategic direction for the organization; they implement actions and processes at unit-levels within the organization; they collaborate with each other in efforts to achieve higher effectiveness within and across units; they seek out opportunities for new activities or initiatives that will further one or more priorities for the organization. And, as anyone knows who has worked within a variety of organizations -- both organizations and leadership groups function at a very wide range of effectiveness, from the dysfunctional to the superb. Why are leaders important to the effectiveness of the organization? Because they serve to articulate the goals of the organization and the sub-units; they work with others to articulate strategies and activities for achieving these goals; they motivate staff within their units to carry out strategies; and they have the organizational resources needed to arrive at collaborative efforts across units. Persons who are good at these various activities will make the organization more effective; and persons who are less good at them will pull the organization down. The leader who tends to demoralize his/her staff is unlikely to be able to stimulate high-quality work within the unit; persons who defend their turf rather than looking for opportunities for cross-unit collaboration will interfere with the organization's ability to achieve coherence of effort and synergies of collaboration. So what are some of the features of good leadership skills and a good leadership team? Here is the list I would offer as an observer of several organizations. Good leaders are cognitively and emotionally ready for collaboration; they are ready to see the gains that can come from honest and sustained efforts at solving problems that cut across the scope of several units. Second, good leaders are attuned to the shared mission and values that the organization has adopted. They don't excessively favor the particular interests of their unit over the larger priorities of the organization; instead, they attempt to align the activities of the unit with the priorities of the organization. Third, good leaders are committed to effective management of their own areas. They attempt to bring best practices into all the activities for which they are responsible. Fourth, they have the ability to motivate the members of their teams, building trust among team members and a degree of unity about the goals to which the unit is oriented. Fifth, they possess a willingness to innovate. They are problem-solvers who are actively seeking out new solutions to the problems their units face and the problems faced by the organization more generally. Finally, they have a fundamental willingness to think broadly about the organization's needs and priorities beyond their own specific areas of responsibility. The defects that a leader or team can demonstrate are also fairly obvious. Lack of 82 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

communication is a common fault within organizations, leading to circumstances in which other leaders and team members are in the dark about current plans and strategies. When Larry Bird stole the inbounds pass from Isiah Thomas in Game Six of the NBA Eastern finals in 1987, it was crucial that Dennis Johnson was already streaking to the basket. Second, bad leaders engage in gamesmanship and bureaucratic rivalries, aiming to achieve their ends in opposition to their peers. This obviously undermines trust, and it makes collaboration all but impossible. Third, bad leaders are largely driven by narrow unit-based interests, or even their own personal interests, rather than the organizations priorities and goals. And finally, bad leaders may display poor skills in motivating and managing the staff of the unit. COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP Community has been defined as “a process of interrelated actions through which residents express their common interest in the local society” (Wilkinson, 1991, p. 2); from this perspective, the structure of what constitutes a community has been considered somewhat of a paradox relative to organizations (Pigg, 1999). Specifically, organizations and communities, as defined, are both constructed through psychological bonds (e.g. Katz & Kahn, 1977); however, community typically entails a physical space, or bond, as well (Pigg, 1999). One of the challenges for leaders within communities has been that some do not have any sort of formal authority associated with positional power (O’Brien &Hassinger, 1992). Rather, “they must rely on networks and influence, with relationships developed through extensive interactions with community residents usually representing many different points of view or interests” (Pigg, 1999, p. 196). Accordingly, community leadership has similar characteristics with opinion leadership proposed by Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet (1948). Whereby leaders influence their networks and contacts, although they may not have any formal leadership role. However, a differentiator between opinion and community leaders has been that the challenges for community leaders have been confounded by what constitutes a community, which “cuts across social fields that comprise it, integrating them by creating and maintaining the linkages among the special interest organizations and associations” (Pigg, 1999, p. 198). Nevertheless, despite the challenges that have been associated with defining the domain, the underlying function of community leaders has been consistent with more organizationally based models of leadership; specifically, that leadership has been required to mobilize the resources necessary to achieve a common goal or set of goals (Pigg, 1999). However, the means and methods that have been associated with effective community leadership remain a significant limitation within the existing literature (O’Brien &Hassinger, 1992). Initiation and spread of interest. Unlike organizational leadership that has tended to rely on 83 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

positional power, and subsequently attributed leadership to those positions (e.g. Robbins & Judge, 2014), leadership from a community perspective has tended to be more emergent (Wilkinson, 1991). Specifically, leadership opportunities have generally been initiated when an issue has been identified; leaders have tended to emerge through the initiation and spread of interest around an issue (Pigg, 1999; Wilkinson, 1991). Effective community leaders have been characterized as change agents (Schein, 1995); individuals with the ability to mobilize others (Javidan&Dstmalchian, 1993), create conditions (McGrath, 1964), and take the initiative (Winter, 1978). A recurrent theme within the literature has been that such leaders have clarity about their purpose (Larson &LaFasto, 1989). Additionally, community leaders tend to share other characteristic similarities. Specifically, effective leaders tend to have a sense of service (e.g. Craig & Gustafson, 1998; Van Wart, 2003) and accountability (Van Dierendonck & Nuijten, 2011). Leaders have also been found to be highly participative (House & Mitchell, 1974), and have been shown to take on a symbolic role for the group (e.g. Birnbaum, 1988). Furthermore, an implicit attribution of leadership (Lord & Maher, 1991) has been found to be more readily made to individuals that behave ethically (Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2008) and morally (Sendjaya, Sarros, &Santora, 2008) with an evident set of values (e.g. George, 2003). Within a community structure the issue, and creation of awareness, have been found to be paramount (Pigg, 1999). Leaders must have a purpose (Pigg, 1999). For example, community leaders have been found to innovate and challenge existing processes (e.g. Kouzes & Posner, 2002). Through the process of identifying a purpose, effective leaders have been found to make decisions (e.g. Luthans& Lockwood, 1984) and define their goals (e.g. Bass, 1981; House, 1977; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). After a leader has established their purpose and goal, a subsequent step associated with spreading interest has been communication. An ability to disseminate information within a community has been identified as a critical set of activities (e.g. Israel, Schulz, Parker, & Becker, 1998; Metcalfe, 1984). Effective leaders have been shown to employ numerous, and appropriate, communication strategies (e.g. Jacobs, 1983). For example, leaders have been shown to use their ability to network and interface with other members of the community as a means to create awareness (Senge, 1995). An intended outcome associated with the communication process has been to motivate others within the community (e.g. Kouzes & Posner, 2002). An informed, interested, and motivated community has been found to be critical in a leader’s ability to fulfill their purpose (Pigg, 1999). UNDERSTANDING THE CHANGE AND STRATEGIES FOR 84 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CHANGE Change management is a term that is bandied about freely. Sometimes it's a scapegoat for less than stellar results: \"That initiative failed because we didn't focus enough on change management.\" And it's often used as a catch-all for project activities that might otherwise get overlooked: \"When we implement that new process, let's not forget about the change management.\" It's a noun: \"Change management is key to the project.\" It's a verb: \"We really need to change manage that process.\" It's an adjective: \"My change management skills are improving.\" It's an expletive: \"Change management!\" But what exactly is it? Change management is a structured approach for ensuring that changes are thoroughly and smoothly implemented, and that the lasting benefits of change are achieved. The focus is on the wider impacts of change, particularly on people and how they, as individuals and teams, move from the current situation to the new one. The change in question could range from a simple process change, to major changes in policy or strategy needed if the organization is to achieve its potential. MANAGING CHANGE IN YOUR ORGANIZATION Theories about how organizations change draw on many disciplines, from psychology and behavioral science, through to engineering and systems thinking. The underlying principle is that change does not happen in isolation – it impacts the whole organization (system) around it, and all the people touched by it. In order to manage change successfully, it is, therefore, necessary to attend to the wider impacts of the changes. As well as considering the tangible impacts of change, it's important to consider the personal impact on those affected, and their journey towards working and behaving in new ways to support the change. The Change Curve is a useful model that describes the personal and organizational process of change in more detail. Change management is, therefore, a very broad field, and approaches to managing change vary widely, from organization to organization and from project to project. Many organizations and consultants subscribe to formal change management methodologies. These 85 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

provide toolkits, checklists and outline plans of what needs to be done to manage changes successfully. When you are tasked with \"managing change\" (irrespective of whether or not you subscribe to a particular change management approach), the first question to consider is what change management actually means in your situation. Change management focuses on people, and is about ensuring change is thoroughly, smoothly and lastingly implemented. And to know what that means exactly in your situation, you must dig down further to define your specific change management objectives. STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE Propose Incentives Assuming employees will follow their own self-interests, the first change management strategy is to offer incentives that will encourage people to accept and ultimately engage with the new direction of the company. Employee recognition programs and rewards tailored to specific actions and company values provide the “carrot” some workers need to buy into change. Incentives also help reinforce the behaviours and actions upper management is looking for in this time of upheaval. Lastly, this positive model of change management shows that the leadership appreciates their employees during a difficult time of transition. Redefine Cultural Values Another way to drive employee buy-in is to redefine organizational culture values. This change management strategy is based on the underlying assumption that people, as social beings, want to “fit in” and “go along” with cultural norms and values. Establishing a culture of continuous improvement is one way to change the hearts and minds of employees asked to change the way they work. In this example, employees may be more receptive to new ways of working (and new ways of thinking about work) if they have already bought into the idea of continuous improvement and the upheaval that comes with change. Exercise Authority Depending on how serious the need for change is, an organization may choose to exercise its authority to decrease employee opposition and get workers to adhere to new standards, processes, and cultural norms as quickly as possible. 86 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

If the threat is grave enough that imminent change is necessary for survival, organizations might simply not have the time to invest in incentive programs or culture change initiatives. The coercive strategy can be the fastest way to implement change — “my way or the highway” — but it can also breed resentment and opposition among some employees that may become problematic in the future. Shift the Burden of Change Although people are often quick to oppose change, especially change they view as undesirable or disruptive, they are often even quicker to adapt to new environments. Organizations can take advantage of this adaptability by creating a new structure — complete with new processes, workflows, and values — and gradually transfer employees from the old one. This strategy is best suited for situations involving radical, transformative organizational change. Instead of burdening upper management with enticing or coercing employees to accept specific change initiatives, the burden of change is shifted to the workers who gradually (or all at once) find themselves in the confines of a new organization. Once there, employees are faced with the prospect of adapting to new circumstances or being left behind to “die on the vine” with the old organization. 5. Recruit Champions of Change Radical change is often met with a high degree of resistance, but the odds of success can be improved if the voices championing change belong to workers and not solely upper management. Recruiting frontline employees to share the need for change (and the benefits) with their peers can speed up worker buy-in, lower the degree of resistance, and serve as a mechanism for collecting feedback and disseminating information regarding the planned change initiatives. SUMMARY • Like individuals, groups are also entities that pose characteristics and properties which can be observed, measured, classified and predicted. There are certain conditions which predetermine certain kinds of behaviour on the part of members of the group and the group as a whole. The term “group processes” is sometimes applied to the formulations or explanations of such tendencies. “Group dynamics” is a term introduced by Kurt Lewin. Both “group processes” and “group dynamics” carry the implication that groups are to be considered as entities characterized by 31 change and on-going activity. Groups may be formed in different ways. 87 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Once Group Dynamics groups have been formed, they tend to take on certain characteristics. They are likely to develop a structure, whereby members have positions that stand in relationship to one another. Reciprocal role patterns, positions, expectations and certain predetermined attitudes and percepts constitute the structure that gives groups a degree of stability and predictability. The willingness of people to join, remain with, or leave a group may be explained in terms of the rewards they receive and the costs that they incur. Existence of any group depends on the participation and satisfaction of the individuals comprising the group. Social approval as far as the individual is concerned is expressed in terms of his being accepted by other members. As far as the group is concerned, it is expressed in terms of the individual’s conformity to its norms. • The group’s willingness to accept is thus exchanged for the member’s willingness to conform. It is fundamental to group life. This type of exchange is so fundamental in group life that it is difficult to imagine ourselves particularly in any other way. There is an intimate relationship between group acceptance and individual conformity. Group may be formed voluntarily and spontaneously because of a felt need to socialize or to accomplish some practical aim or they may be converted by external authority. The attractiveness of group that develops for its members is termed as its cohesiveness. • Compatibility generally facilitates cohesiveness but cohesiveness and compatibility are not necessarily conducive to group effectiveness in some kinds of tasks. Generally, group cohesiveness depends on the extent to which members recognize and adhere to its norms. Small, intimate, face-to-face groups are the ones that demand and receive the highest degree of personal involvement. Group may be inclusive or exclusive depending on their functions and goals. In traditional societies exclusiveness is more likely to be based on social status than in more equalitarian societies. Our behaviour is not static. Interaction is an important part in this regard. Group dynamics is essential for effective practice with any type of task or treatment group. KEYWORDS • Attitude: An enduring system of evaluations or feelings in favor of or against a person or group. • Belief: Acceptance of a statement about an object, event, person or group. • Cognition: Sensation, perception, thoughts, ideas and such processes. 88 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Cohesiveness: The social force which keeps the group together. It is the product of attractiveness of the interaction with group members. • Communication: The exchange of meaning and mutual influence. • Cooperation: It arises when groups work together in the pursuit of common interest. • Culture: The pattern of all arrangements, material or behavioral, which have been adopted by a society. • Dependence: The condition in which a person or a group relies on another for its need satisfaction and outcomes. • Group: A collection of individuals who are in interdependent relationship with one another sharing common norms of behaviour and attitude. • Group dynamics: The way in which changes which take place in the behaviour of some members of the group lead to changes in behaviour of other members of the group. This is why groups can mobilize power LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. You are working in a school . Write down the different groups in which you are a member and classify groups. ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ 2. Is there any relationship between interpersonal attraction and cohesion with group dynamics? – Discuss ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions 1. Explain the term “group dynamics”? 2. Write in brief about the importance of group dynamics. 3. Describe group development? 89 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4. Write in brief about culture and group. 5. According to Cartwright and Zander (1968) what are the basic assumptions of group dynamics? 6. Define teams 7. How you can turn groups into effective team? 8. Explain 8c’s of team building 9. Explain change and strategies for change. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Normative .................is the desire to meet other people’s expectations and to be accepted by others. Informational influence is accepting and being persuaded by information provided by others. a. Influence b. Motivation c. Team building d. Organizing 2. The third stage of group development is marked by a more serious concern about task performance. a. Norming b. Forming c. Storming d. Adjourning 3. In the case of temporary groups, like project team, task force, or any other such group, which have a limited task at hand, also have a fifth stage. 90 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

a. Adjourning b. Forming c. Norming d. Storming 4.are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. a. Command groups b. Task groups c. Functional groups d. Interest groups 5.is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame a. Functional group b. Command group c. Task group d. Interest group Answers 1. a 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. a REFERENCE • Gerald A. C. (2015). Management Theory and Practice. UK: Cengage Learning EMEA Higher Education. • Chandan, J.S. (1987). Management Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Vikas Publications. 91 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

• Sheldrake John (1966). Management Theory. New Delhi: Published Intl Thomson Business Press. • Northouse.G. Peter (2014). Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice. New Delhi: Sage Publications. • Bolman. G. Lee (2013). Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership. USA: John Wiley & Sons • Baron, R.A. and Byrne, D. (2000). Social Psychology, 8th Edition, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. • Kuppuswamy, B. (1980), An Introduction to Social Psychology, 2nd Revised edition, (reprinted,2004), Asia Publishing House, Mumbai. • Myers, G. David (2008), Social Psychology, 9th edition, The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc. 92 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 5: MBTI: MYERS BRIGG TYPE INDICATOR Structure Learning Objectives Introduction Type A and Type B personality Personality Type C Type A personality Type B personality Development of Type A Behavior Criticism of Type A and Type B theory Jung’s Theory Archetypes The mother archetype Mana The persona Myers – Brigg type indicators Concept of MBTI Types Summary Keywords Learning activity Unit end questions 93 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Reference LEARNING OBJECTIVE After studying this unit, you will be able: • Define Type A and Type B behaviour; • Elucidate the theory of Type A and Type B Personality; • Discuss the characteristic features of the Type A and Type B personality; • Explain the implications of type A behaviour on health; • Trace the history of the development of type A behaviour concept; • Discuss and describe Jung’s theory of personality; • Elucidate the concepts of extroversion and introversion; • Describe Myers Briggs Type Indicator of personality; and • Analyze how Myers Briggs system works in identifying a personality type INTRODUCTION The word personality is an all-inclusive concept. It is the sum total of an individual’s properties as a distinct and unique human being. The external properties are directly observed while the internal are only inferred from the behaviour of a person. The concept of personality is a derived concept. In this unit we will be dealing with Type A and Type B personality theories. Type A and Type B Personality Theory. First we will find out how Type A theory developed and trace its history briefly. Following this, we will learn about the health implications of Type Behavior. We would then contrast this Type A with Type B behaviour and indicate the typical personality features related to the same. We will then take up Carl Jung’s theory and deal with its major features and characteristics and explain how personality develops according to Jung’s theory. The measurement of personality has also been dealt with in terms of Jung’s approach and based on this, Myer’s Briggs Type Indicator is also discussed. TYPE A AND TYPE B PERSONALITY THEORY There are persons who are extremely active, get things done on time and are extremely target 94 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

oriented. For them achieving, completing and accomplishing tasks are very important. They are generally tense if they find that they cannot get their work done. They are extremely punctual and time bound in all their activities and actions. Contrast to this is the B type personality persons who are calm , collected, not over concerned with achieving things on time, less time bound and generally affable by nature and tend to take things easy and work also in groups with greater efficiency. Both these personalities are important in that they both have excellent characteristics which help to achieve goals but their approach to life and reaching goals vary a great deal. The Type A and Type B personality theory was developed out of observations of patients, who came for treatment either for stress related disorders or hypertension and who suffered from migraine or other forms of disorders including extreme anxiety etc. As the in depth understanding of these persons took place it came to light that these are persons who are anxiety prone and possess certain characteristics that describe a pattern of behaviours that could be characterized as Type A, indicative of the person’s vulnerability to stress, anxiety etc., and are prone to develop psychosomatic disorders. Such persons were found to be more prone to develop coronary heart disease. Although, the theory has been widely criticized for lacking scientific rigor, it is still being used by many. Some characteristics of a Type A Personality are: • Always in a hurry. Eats fast, walks and talks fast (often interrupting others) • Restless when waiting • Highly competitive • Very precise • Ambitious, sets own goals, takes work very seriously • Tries to do more than one thing at a time • Aggressive Friedman and Rosenman observed that certain behaviours of the above given ones were more likely to exist in people with heart disease than in others. They called the combination of these behaviours the Type A behavior pattern and the absence of these characteristics as Type B personality Another important aspect of Type A personality is that it is defined as one in which ‘A’ type behaviour pattern characterized by tenseness, impatience and aggressiveness, often result in 95 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

stress related symptoms such as psychosomatic disorders, insomnia, ulcer, indigestion etc. and possibly increasing the risk of heart disease. Two American cardiologists named Friedman and Rosenman in the early 1950s, found that some of their patients sat on the edge of the sofas and clutched at the armrests as if they were wanting to finish up the job and flee from the place. The unusual “sitting behaviour” of their patients led Friedman and Rosenman to find out the link between the restless personality type and heart problems. In one interesting experiment conducted by researchers, they gave to men and women subjects a frustrating anagram puzzle to solve. It was interesting to find that those who were more hostile and suspicious (based on a questionnaire the subjects filled up before they took up the experiment) had a tendency to show a higher increase in blood pressure than their counterparts who were not hostile or suspicious. Such research provided evidence that some persons are more stressed and are susceptible to hypertension which is one of the important risk factors for developing heart disease. In addition to Type A and B personalities there is also a personality type called as Type C personality. 5.2.1 Personality Type C This personality typology is more prone to develop cancer. Every individual is well aware that smoking is related to cancer and that if one is a heavy smoker they must try to give it up in order to prevent developing cancer. Normally not that everyone who smokes develops cancer, it is only some who are more prone to or have a predisposition to develop cancer, suffer from the disease. These persons who have a proneness to develop cancer and the behaviour patterns that they manifest are called Type C personality. Such people respond to stress by becoming depressed and / or by feeling helpless and hopeless. Such persons are also introverts, dependent to an extent, obedient, respectful, eager to please others and always conforming to the norms and requirements. They are also passive individuals who do not have the fighting spirit in themselves. Whether being of this type of personality contribute to the typical lifestyle that is related to developing cancer, is yet to be scientifically established. As for instance, a person who chews tobacco may do so whenever he is tense and later on even the slightest tension may make him resort to tobacco chewing which may eventually end up in the development of cancer. Cure from cancer or a person’s lifespan increase could also be due to inculcating ‘fighting spirit’ within themselves. There has been some evidence to suggest that a person’s personality type may have some relationship to his chances of surviving cancer. Those who respond with a “fighting spirit” or those who have a sense of denial seem to do better than the type C personalities who seem to accept their fate passively. A Stanford University (in the USA) professor named David Spiegel discovered that cancer patients who joined a support group which fostered a “fighting 96 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

spirit” had a tendency to live on average, 18 months longer than those who were not in such a group. However, there are many contradictory findings in research work and hence one cannot clearly and conclusively state that such personalities will develop cancer in course of time. Taken to an extreme, some individuals may even feel guilty in considering that their personality type may be responsible for their disease, which may only add to their problems. If personality type does have some effect on the disease process, it is probably related more to the weakening effect it has on the immune system, functioning through an individual’s response to stress. This can then undermine the body’s defenses and make an individual more vulnerable to infection. However, much more research needs to be done to understand the effect of personality type on physical health. The Type A persons keep struggling to overcome the real and imagined obstacles imposed by events, other people, and, especially, time. Their main struggle is actually against time as they try to finish their tasks on time. They are time bound and target oriented. They feel guilty if they do not complete the task within the given time. The struggle against time is so pervasive in them that they get heavily tensed up if they do not complete the task on time. Type A persons are frequently impatient, competitive, easily irritated, quick to anger, suspicious, and hostile. They are often highly successful in their professions, but are dissatisfied with whatever they achieve. They try to do more than one thing at a time, like for instance talking on the phone while working on the computer, or eat while driving. They are constantly preoccupied with deadlines. They tend to speak rapidly and loudly, are impatient and often interrupt or finish others’ sentences. Type B individuals, in contrast, are described as patient, relaxed, and easy-going, generally lacking an overriding sense of urgency. Because of these characteristics, Type B individuals are often described by Type A individuals as apathetic and disengaged. There is also a Type AB mixed profile for people who cannot be clearly categorized. In fact in every individual there are aspects of Type A and Type B characteristic traits, but one of these is more dominant than others. Type B people, as mentioned earlier are less driven and less competitive, more easygoing and usually as successful as or more successful than their Type A counterparts. In fact, type B people represent behaviour characteristics just obverse of type A people. Friedman and Rosenman are of the view that that Type A behaviour represents an effort to diminish an underlying sense of insecurity or self-doubt Type A behavior ends up in a kind of vicious cycle, which is self-defeating in all respects. The person is driven towards a goal to complete, and there is a fear that he may not be able to complete the same on time, this in turn causes stress and anxiety. Once he is stressed and 97 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

anxious, he puts in more efforts to complete the task and gets all the more stressed and the anxiety and stress itself may not help in completing the task and thus more stress and more anxiety and non-completion of task and the resulting guilt and anxiety. This vicious cycle has to be stopped before the person develops disorders like hypertension, cardio vascular heart disease etc. In some cases it has been seen that Type A personality persons also strive to not only achieve their targets but also aim to achieve more and at higher levels. As they complete one, they take up another challenging task and this kind of putting oneself on to a more and more difficult and challenging tasks lead to tension and fear of failure. All these in turn lead to different types of problems including hypertension etc. This aggressive striving leaves them in prolonged contact with the very situations that provoked feelings of insecurity in the first place, and the cycle is repeated. reason for Type A person’s being more vulnerable to ill health than Type B persons is that they have a substantially greater sympathetic nervous system which responds to stressful or demanding circumstances. This leads to secretion of more stress hormones, a faster heart rate, higher blood pressure, etc. Because Type A people tend to view a greater number of circumstances as demanding and also place themselves in many demanding circumstances, they experience heightened physiological responses for longer periods of time each day. Many studies have found that Type A individuals tend to maintain high levels of stress hormones throughout the daytime hours and this level does not come down even after they have gone to sleep. Thus, the deleterious effects of stress hormones on the heart and the arteries (described previously) are greater for these persons as compared to persons who are not stressed out. TYPE A PERSONALITY The Type A personality generally lives at a higher stress level. Some of the factors related to their working at this level are given below: • They enjoy achievement of goals. • They enjoy achieving goals that are more difficult. • They constantly keep working hard to achieve their goals. • Once they start to work they cannot stop, even when they have achieved goals. • They feel the pressure of time, as they have to reach their goals within the stipulated time period. • They work so hard that there is no rest that they take and thus are totally exhausted. • They are highly competitive and generally creates competition if there is none as it 98 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

gives them great enjoyment and pleasure to compete and win. • They hate failures and work hard to avoid it. • They are well educated persons and successful too and physically they appear fine even though they are highly stressed out. TYPE B PERSONALITY The Type B personality generally lives at a lower stress level. • They work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming stressed when they are not achieving or have failed to reach the target. • When faced with competition, they do not mind losing • They may be creative and enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. • They are often reflective, thinking about the outer and inner worlds. DEVELOPMENT OF TYPE A BEHAVIOUR The question arises as to how the Type A behaviour develops. Is the person born with these traits? Or does he develop these traits in the process of socialization? There are evidences to show that such Type A behavior can be seen even in children as young as 3 years of age. This is to an extent indicative of hereditary factors contributing to Type A behaviour. This in a way suggests a genetic contribution. Also, there have been a large number of studies on twins who have more or less the same heredity endowment, but yet show differences in Type A and Type B behaviour. It is not that if one of the twins has Type A personality the other one also must have the same Type A personality. By providing these children different environment, it would perhaps be possible to develop them into Type A or Type B personalities. At the same time some of these studies on twins have shown that at least some of the Type A characteristics are inherited. On the other hand, several theorists are of the view that if the parents have Type A personality, because of their behaviours, children would model their behaviours and thus tend to become Type A personality Dr. Karen Matthews, of the University of Pittsburgh, has noted striking parallels between the behaviour of Type A adults and Type A children. Type A children, like their parents who are Type A adults, work at rapid rates (with and without deadlines), have high aspirations, and try to complete the tasks assigned on time. They would never take anything lightly and they would strive to achieve the highest and aspire for more and more and work hard towards the same. 99 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)