In the preface to the first book of this series, The Ancient World and Classical Civilization, I discussed many pertinent topics that apply to this tome as well. These include my purpose, approach, and sources. There remains little to be said that is unique to this volume, with the exception of some rationale for the extended treatment of Christianity and Islam. Some readers may wonder why religion has received so much space in a history of science. For a long time, students of the history of science have recognized that religion cannot be separated from science in any historical treatment, especially one that deals with the Middle Ages in Europe. If we are to understand the history of science, we must understand science as the people who constructed it understood it. In the Middle Ages, science in Europe largely meant natural philosophy, and philosophy was subjugated to theology. In 1277, the Christian Church cracked down on heretical teachings at the University of Paris. The condemne
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