Parenting styles and career decision-making among French and Korean adolescents.

Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Vocational Behavior journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvb Parenting styles and career decision-making among French and Korean adolescents☆ Laurent Sovet a,⁎, A.J. Metz b a Research Centre for Work and Development Studies, National Conservatory of Arts & Crafts, EA 4132, 41, rue Gay Lussac, 75 005 Paris, France b Department of Educational Psychology, University of Utah, SAEC #3227, 1721 Campus Center Drive, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA article info abstract Article history: This study compared the relationship of parenting styles to the career decision-making of Received 8 October 2013 adolescents from a Western and an Eastern context. Specifically, 575 French high school Available online 16 February 2014 students and 613 South Korean high school students completed a questionnaire assessing perceived parenting style, career decision-making difficulties, and career decision self-efficacy. Keywords: The Korean adolescents had lower career decision self-efficacy beliefs and higher career Parenting style decision-making difficulties than the French adolescents. The authoritarian parenting style Career decision-making was associated with higher scores on career decision self-efficacy and lower scores on a High school students measure of career decision-making difficulties in the Korean sample while the authoritative France parenting style was associated with higher scores on career decision self-efficacy and lower South Korea scores on a measure of career decision-making difficulties in the French sample. Results Cross-cultural comparison showed significant effects for gender and parenting style on the career decision-making outcomes of both samples. © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Accumulated research demonstrates the influence of parenting style on multiple realms of psychosocial development. More recently, scholars have begun to examine how parenting style may impact career development variables such as career decision-making. For example, parenting styles that are characterized by greater levels of warmth, acceptance, and autonomy-granting, and moderate levels of strictness/control have been associated with greater career self-efficacy (Guay, Senecal, Gauthier, & Fernet, 2003), career exploratory behaviors (Vignoli, Croity-Belz, Chapeland, De Fillipis, & Garcia, 2005), and vocational maturity (Tracey, Lent, Brown, Soresi, & Nauta, 2006). However, findings are inconsistent with respect to cultural and gender differences. Moreover, there are issues with the traditional categorical measurement of parenting styles. This study explored the relationship between parenting style and career decision-making in adolescents. It addressed limitations and inconsistencies found in previous studies. 1.1. Adolescent career decision-making Toward the end of their high school years, young people face numerous personal decisions that can have wide-ranging and long-lasting effects on their lives (Mann, Harmoni, & Power, 1989). Some of these decisions are career-related: joining the military, finding a job, obtaining an apprenticeship, going to college, choosing a major, or gaining skills through volunteer service. While some students make these early career decisions with relative ease, others struggle. Albion and Fogarty (2002) found that over 70% of high school students in their sample were “slightly” to “very undecided” about their career choice. At the same time, ☆ We would like to acknowledge Mrs. Yun-Kyeong Jeong and Mr. Philippe Dancie for their precious help in data collection. ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Sovet), [email protected] (A.J. Metz). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.02.002 0001-8791/© 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

346 L. Sovet, A.J. Metz / Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 84.3% were “moderately” to “highly satisfied” with their level of decidedness, indicating that those who were not decided were not necessarily worried about their indecision. In another sample of adolescents, 40% did not know where to go for help with decision-making and 38% thought they had to seek information from too many different sources (Julien, 1999). Difficulties before or during this early career decision-making process may result in stress, avoidance, delayed decisions, or a lack of perceived ownership and may result in someone else making the decision (Gati & Saka, 2001). Conversely, successful career preparation and identity development are associated with personal and social adjustment, happiness, self-esteem, well-being, and career satisfaction (Creed, Muller, & Patton, 2003; Kunnen, Sappa, van Geert, & Bonica, 2008; Skorikov, 2007). Making educational and vocational decisions based on a clear, organized, and realistic self-concept informed by structures and opportunities in the world of work can be a complex process that is difficult to manage (Gati, Krausz, & Osipow, 1996; Mallet, 1999). Numerous factors may hinder career development. Fortunately, adolescents are not alone in their career decision-making. In the secondary school system, parents or legal guardians are invited to participate in formal educational and career planning for their child. Given that most adolescents still live at home, they may have significant informal influences from their family-of-origin as well. 1.2. Parental influences on career decisions Empirical work has identified specific aspects of parenting that influence adolescent career development. For example, Fouad et al. (2010) confirmed that families influence career and work choices through the provision of information, emotional support and financial support, and by promoting career expectations that are consistent with the individual's gender, religion, or culture. These activities are consistent with findings from qualitative studies examining parental intentions (Young & Friesen, 1992; Young, Friesen, & Pearson, 1988). Additionally, the anticipation of parental support for specific careers was related to middle school students' self-efficacy for those specific careers (Turner & Lapan, 2002) and the degree to which students valued these careers (Lapan, Hinkelman, Adams, & Turner, 1999). In math and science domains, encouragement from parents influenced learning experiences which in turn influenced self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations (Ferry, Fouad, & Smith, 2000). Although one may consider the influence of parental characteristics such as socioeconomic status, education, occupation, and sex role orientation on the transmission of work values from parent to child, Mannheim and Seger (1993) found no relationship between these demographic variables in mothers and the work values of their male or female children. Keller and Whiston (2008) suggest that relational factors between parents and their child are influential in the development of adolescents' interests, values, and vocational identity. Young et al. (1999) examined these relational interactions and found that career conversations between parents and adolescents were more effective when there was open communication, shared goals, identified methods for achieving goals, leadership from parents, and individuation between the adolescent and the parent. O'Brien (1996) found that adolescent girls' career related goals were significantly influenced by their attachment to their mother and movement toward individuation from their mother. Attachment and individuation were further associated with female high school students' career confidence, realistic career choices, achievement orientation, and the degree to which they valued their career orientation (O'Brien, 1996). Individuation can be thought of as emotional autonomy, an ability to separate one's feelings and express disagreement in this case, with parents. Li and Kerpelman (2007) suggest that as adolescents struggle to achieve an identity and make decisions impacting their future, a healthy level of emotional autonomy will prevent over-dependence on parents and can help the child explore their possible selves. Emotional autonomy can be facilitated by family cohesion, maternal warmth, and parental control (Fuhrman & Holmbeck, 1995). 1.3. Parenting styles Parental warmth and control represent two dimensions of parental behavior that influence development. Baumrind (1971, 1991) described four parenting styles that correspond to high and low scores on an index of parental warmth and an index of parental control. Parental warmth is the degree of acceptance and responsiveness parents display; parental control is the degree to which parents manage their child's behavior — from being very strict to setting few rules or demands. Thus, the four parenting styles are: authoritarian (high control and low warmth), authoritative (high control and high warmth), indulgent permissive (low control and high warmth), and neglectful permissive (low control and low warmth). Authoritative parents are warm, but firm. They provide emotional support, have high standards, grant autonomy appropriately, maintain limits and controls, and provide clear bi-directional communication. Authoritarian parents also have high standards, but are more directive and less emotionally supportive. They are strict disciplinarians and do not debate family rules. Indulgent permissive parents are warm, supportive, trusting, and democratic, but undemanding. They do not like to say “no” to the child or disappoint them; hence, they often give in to the child's demands. Neglectful permissive parents are not warm and do not place any demands on the child — they are disengaged from the responsibilities of child rearing. There is consistent evidence that the authoritative parenting style is related to positive developmental outcomes in children such as competence, achievement, social development, self-esteem, and mental health (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). For example, in a sample of over 4000 ethnically diverse adolescents, the authoritative parenting style corresponded to higher mean scores on measures of academic competence, self-reliance, and work orientation, and lower mean scores on measures of delinquency and school misconduct as compared to adolescents from authoritarian, indulgent permissive, or neglectful permissive homes (Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1991). Further results demonstrate that adolescents reared in authoritarian homes had the lowest self-reported drug use and the least amount of somatic complaints but also endorsed the least amount of self-reliance and social competence. Adolescents from neglectful permissive homes had the lowest GPA, lowest academic

L. Sovet, A.J. Metz / Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 347 competence, greatest amount of delinquent behaviors and school misconduct, and the greatest number of somatic complaints and psychological symptoms. Finally, adolescents raised by indulgent permissive parents had the highest perceived social competence, but also the highest self-reported drug use. Results point to the clear positive impact of authoritative parenting, the clear negative impact of neglectful permissive parenting, and the mixed outcomes for adolescents from authoritarian and indulgent permissive homes (Lamborn et al., 1991). Although parenting style has been shown to influence psychosocial development, its role in career decision-making has not been explored with the same vigor and demonstrates inconsistent findings (Arbona, 2000; Larson & Wilson, 1998; Whiston, 1996). Lease and Dahlbeck (2009) hypothesized that parenting style may impact decision-making skills such that parents who provide emotional support and grant autonomy appropriately (authoritative parents) may facilitate exploration and independent decision-making. They found that for undergraduate men, the authoritative parenting style was significantly related to career decision self-efficacy; however, for undergraduate women, the authoritarian parenting style was significantly related to career decision self-efficacy. Prior research found that extreme levels of parental control over career decisions (authoritarian parenting style) discouraged the child from further educational attainment but moderate to high levels of parental guidance around career decisions encouraged educational achievement (Trusty, 1998). In another study, Kracke (1997) found that openness, concern, and authoritative parenting were positively related to career exploration in German adolescents. In contrast, Vignoli et al. (2005) did not find the authoritative parenting style significantly related to the frequency or diversity of career exploratory behaviors in a sample of French adolescents. They did find that the neglectful parenting style was significantly and negatively related to the frequency and diversity of career exploratory behaviors in adolescent females and suggested that interpersonal relations are more important in the identity formation of girls than boys. Further gender differences were found in the relationship between three parenting styles and career decision-making difficulties in a sample of Greek adolescents (Koumoundourou, Tsaousis, & Kounenou, 2011). Specifically, for male students, the permissive and authoritarian styles of parenting were significantly correlated with greater career decision-making difficulties; for female students, only the authoritarian style of parenting was significantly related to career decision-making difficulties. 1.4. Cultural differences in parenting styles One important question that has been raised in the extant literature is whether and why parenting style may differ across cultural contexts (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). From a Western perspective, parents who exert an excessive amount of control over their child's life are seen as intruding, pressuring, and dominating thereby causing the child to suffer psychologically (Pomerantz & Wang, 2009). The authoritative parenting style is thought to be of greater benefit to Western children as it promotes autonomy and freedom of choice. In fact, self-determination theory would suggest that the need for autonomy is universal and promotes optimal psychological functioning (Deci & Ryan, 1985). However, Iyengar and Lepper (1999) contend that in the Asian culture, parental control does not have detrimental effects. These researchers argue that when parents make the decisions, it provides children with an opportunity to harmonize with their parents, a value that is prized in Asian cultures over autonomy. Further, Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, and Dornbusch (1994) found that strict control in Asian American families is related to higher school grades. Recently, the term “tiger parenting” has been used to refer to Asian American parents who are highly demanding, use a restrictive, punitive style of discipline, and tightly control their child's schoolwork and extracurricular activities (Chua, 2011). Aspects of the Asian culture may cause children to be more accepting of this strict parental control (Chao, 1994; Iyengar & Lepper, 1999). For example, many Asian cultures emphasize family obligation and academic achievement as ways adolescents can bring honor to the family (Chao, 1994). Traditional Asian families further endorse collectivism, interdependence, conformity, emotional self-control, and humility (Choi, Kim, Kim, & Park, 2013). In contrast, Western cultures emphasize independence, self-esteem, and personal growth (Chao & Tseng, 2002). These differences in core family values and practices render universal assertions of “effective parenting styles” obsolete and must be taken into consideration. Given that South Korea is used as an example of an Asian culture in this study and France is used as an example of a Western culture, these two countries will be compared and contrasted with respect to parental involvement in career development. To begin, educational attainment is one of the most important cultural values in South Korean society (Shin, 1986) and is seen as the avenue for career development. The South Korean people have termed this characteristic “education fever” (Seth, 2002) and spend up to 22% of their household income to ensure their child's academic success (Center on International Education Benchmarking, 2012). Starting at a very early age, many parents enroll their child in private education after the normal school day has ended (Jung & Lee, 2010). Instead of participating in sports or extra-curricular activities, South Korean adolescents go from high school directly to hakwons (cram schools) where they receive tutoring (Lee & Larson, 2000). During adolescence, there is a great deal of time spent preparing for the college entrance exam as scores determine the college or university one may attend (Seth, 2002); prestigious academic institutions are preferred (Lee, 2001). Academic success contributes to the well-being, harmony, and honor of the entire family (Kim & Park, 2008). Social status of the parents is tied to the ranking of the high school and college their child attended (Center on International Education Benchmarking, 2012). According to Hofstede (2001), South Korea is a collectivist country in which people are very connected and loyal to their family and make decisions to promote cohesion and approval. Given the pressure to perform and the lack of school guidance programs, South Korean students may have few chances to explore their career interests before entering college (Hwang, Kim, Ryu, & Heppner, 2006). This may offer an explanation as to why South Korean students have lower scores on measures of career maturity (Lee, 2001) and self-reliance, work orientation, and self-identity (Mantzicopoulos & Oh-Hwang, 1998) than American students.

348 L. Sovet, A.J. Metz / Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 Similar to their peers in South Korea, the last year of high school is stressful for French students. At the end of high school, French students take an exam to obtain their national diploma, a requirement in pursuing a college education. However, the etiology of the stress differs in these populations. Unlike the adolescents in South Korea, French students who pass the exam are able to select the college or university that will help them best prepare for a career of their choosing. Although there may be stress associated with the exam, there is also stress associated with choosing a career path, the type of university education, and the specific institution (Vignoli et al., 2005). To prepare French high school students for this transition, school and career counselors encourage the exploration of interest areas and the development of career goals through innovative and empirically supported methods based on Western career theories and research (Guichard, 1987). Since the late nineties, career education and guidance have been important components of the French education system (Guichard & Huteau, 2006). Similar to the Western culture, French parents encourage their children to develop autonomy in their career choice and goals (Monceau, 2008). Even as early as preschool, French parents cited “awakening individual personality development” and “awakening new and varied interests” as educational objectives for their children (Preteur & Louvet-Schmauss, 1991). These were cited more frequently than developing any specific skill or cognitive ability. Parent involvement seems to be welcome as French students' perceptions of parental academic support were positively related to mastery goals and perceived parental academic monitoring was positively associated with performance goals (Régner et al., 2009). 2. Hypotheses This study extended knowledge of the relationship between parenting style and career decision-making. To date, most of the research on this topic has employed samples of college students. Further, there have been inconsistent findings with respect to gender differences and cultural differences. Specifically, the introduction of the concept “tiger parenting” has stimulated debate as to whether certain parenting practices positively or negatively influence adolescent development. Thus, to more fully explore the impact of parenting style on career decision-making and to understand gender and cultural differences, data was collected from high school students in France (a Western context) and South Korea (an Eastern or Asian context). Three hypotheses guided this study: Hypothesis 1. For adolescents raised in a Western context, the authoritative parenting style associates positively with greater career decision self-efficacy and fewer career decision-making difficulties. Hypothesis 2. For adolescents raised in an Eastern context, the authoritarian parenting style associates positively with greater career decision self-efficacy and fewer career decision-making difficulties. Hypothesis 3. Gender differences moderate the relationship of parenting style on career decision self-efficacy and career decision-making difficulties. 3. Method 3.1. Participants Initially, 846 French students from four public high schools located in Normandy and 706 South Korean students from five public high schools (two all-boys, two all-girls, and one mixed) participated in this study. All participants were enrolled in 11th grade (K-12 equivalence). Due to missing data, 60 French participants (7%) and 84 Korean participants (12%) were excluded from the data analysis. Additionally, to ensure comparability between the samples, only students who reported living with married parents were included in the analyses; further excluding 211 French participants and 9 Korean participants. The final sample was comprised of 575 French high school students and 613 Korean high school students. The French participants ranged in age from 14 to 19 with a mean age of 16.08 years (SD = .56), 67% being female. The Korean participants ranged in age from 14 to 17 with a mean age of 15.49 (SD = .61), 63% being female. 3.2. Measures 3.2.1. Parenting Style Index (PSI, Steinberg, Mounts, Lamborn, & Dornbusch, 1991) The PSI has three separate subscales: Involvement, Psychological Autonomy-granting, and Strictness/Supervision of parents as perceived by adolescents. The Involvement subscale (9 items) measures the degree of acceptance and warmth using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree). A sample item includes, “I can count on my parents to help me out, if I have some kind of problem.” The Psychological Autonomy-granting subscale (9 items) assesses the degree of encouragement received to develop self-thinking and self-decision using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 4 (Strongly agree). A sample item includes, “My parents let me make my own plans for things I want to do.” The Strictness/ Supervision subscale (6 items) assesses the degree of control and monitoring of parents toward their adolescents using a 3-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Don't try) to 3 (Try a lot) for the first three items and from 1 (Don't know) to 3 (Know a lot) for the last three items. A sample item includes, “How much do your parents try to know where you go at night?” In the Korean sample, the

L. Sovet, A.J. Metz / Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 349 Cronbach's alpha coefficients were .68, .74, and .80 and in the French sample, the coefficients were .69, .67, and .70 for respectively, Involvement, Psychological Autonomy-granting, and Strictness/Supervision subscales. In previous research, a median split procedure has been used to calculate parenting styles from only the Involvement and Strictness/Supervision subscales (Chao, 2001). In this method, categorical variables are created from continuous ones such that Authoritative parents are defined as being above the median score on both subscales while Authoritarian parents are defined as being below or equal to the median score on the Involvement subscale and above the median score on the Strictness/Supervision subscale. Parenting styles are further delineated as permissive (above the median score on the Involvement subscale and below or equal to the median score on the Strictness/Supervision subscale) and neglectful (below or equal to the mean on both subscales). However, using a dichotomous scale (low or high) on only two dimensions of parenting behaviors (Involvement and Strictness/ Supervision) to create four parenting styles can be problematic as it may lead to over-fitting the data (capturing noise, random variation, and sampling errors) and subsequently, erroneous or misleading conclusions. To avoid this problem, our study incorporated all three parenting style subscales and retained their continuous nature. 3.2.2. Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale — Short Form (CDSES-SF, Betz, Klein, & Taylor, 1996) The CDSES consists of 25 items that measure the degree of self-efficacy one has for accomplishing specific tasks relative to career decisions using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (No confidence at all) to 5 (Complete confidence). A sample item includes, “Find information in the library about occupations you are interested in.” The CDSES consists of five subscales: accurate self-appraisal, gathering occupational information, goal selection, making plans for the future, and problem solving. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the total score were .91 for the Korean sample and .88 for the French sample. 3.2.3. Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ, Gati et al., 1996) The CDDQ consisted of 34 items that measure perceived difficulties in the career decision-making process using a 9-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Does not describe me) to 9 (Describes me well). A sample item includes, “I believe that I do not have to choose a career now because time will lead me to the right career choice.” The CDDQ examines 10 types of problems including lack of motivation, general indecisiveness, dysfunctional beliefs, lack of information about the process, the self, the occupations, and the ways of obtaining additional information, unreliable information, and internal and external conflicts. The alpha coefficients were respectively .92 and .91 for the total mean score of the Korean and French samples. 3.3. Procedure Most of the scales described above were available and validated in both Korean and French languages. One exception was the CDDQ (Gati et al., 1996). To translate and validate this measure for a Korean population a rigorous procedure as described by Mau (2001) was employed. First, all the items of the CDDQ were translated from English to Korean by a native Korean speaker and then back-translated by another native Korean speaker who was bilingual and had received a college degree in an English speaking country. The second step involved submitting the back-translated items to the original author of the CDDQ for examination. Based on his comments, some revisions to the items were made. Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations of study variables for Korean and French samples. Korean sample Involvement Autonomy Strictness CDSE CDDQ Involvement Autonomy – – – – – Strictness .33⁎⁎ − .15⁎⁎ .27⁎⁎ − .51⁎⁎ 140.21 CDSES − .43⁎⁎ − .14⁎⁎ − .15⁎⁎ 84.36 37.59 CDDQ − .37⁎⁎ .25⁎⁎ 14.42 14.25 M .23⁎⁎ 19.05 2.66 – SD 19.61 4.56 – 129.62 3.97 – − .55⁎⁎ 41.74 − .03 86.45 French sample – – − .01 13.49 Involvement .37⁎⁎ − .10⁎ 13.81 Autonomy .28⁎⁎ .10⁎ 2.46 Strictness .16⁎⁎ − .17⁎⁎ CDSES − .11⁎⁎ CDDQ 26.27 M 27.29 SD 4.23 4.08 Note. CDSES = career decision self-efficacy; CDDQ = career decision-making difficulties. ⁎ p b .05. ⁎⁎ p b .01.

350 L. Sovet, A.J. Metz / Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 Due to known cultural differences between the French and Korean cultures, two items from the Strictness/Supervision subscale of the PSI (Steinberg et al., 1991) were deleted. These two items were, “In a typical week, what is the latest you can stay out on school nights,” and, “In a typical week, what is the latest you can stay out on Friday or Saturday night?” Given that most Korean high school students usually stay out very late for studying in private academies (Korea National Statistical Office, 2008), most Korean respondents were likely to choose the highest level of those two items. Therefore, these two items were deleted to ensure comparability of the data. In both France and Korea, permission for conducting research and data collection is typically granted by the school principal or school district. Approval was obtained at all schools in which data was collected. All measures were then group-administered in the schools by high school principals, teachers, and local researchers. Participation was voluntary and no compensation was provided. Data was collected anonymously. 4. Results 4.1. Descriptive statistics Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the study variables for each sample appear in Table 1. With respect to parenting style, French adolescents perceived their parents to be more involved (M = 27.29, SD = 4.08) than Korean adolescents (M = 19.61, SD = 3.97), t(1186) = 32.88, p b .001, η2 = .48. French adolescents also perceived their parents to promote a greater degree of autonomy-granting (M = 26.27, SD = 4.23) than Korean adolescents (M = 19.05, SD = 4.56), t(1186) = 28.27, p b .001, η2 = .40. At the same time, Korean adolescents perceived their parents to be more strict (M = 14.42, SD = 2.66) than French adolescents (M = 13.81, SD = 2.46), t(1186) = 4.10, p b .001, η2 = .01. In both Korean and French samples of adolescents, scores on the CDSES were in the high range and scores on the CDDQ were in the moderate range. There were significant cultural differences for CDSES scores (t(1186) = − 2.59, p b .05, η2 b .01) such that French adolescents had higher career decision-self efficacy scores than Korean adolescents. There were also significant cultural differences for CDDQ scores (t(1186) = 4.60, p b .001, η2 = .02) such that Korean adolescents reported more career decision difficulties than French adolescents. A correlation matrix of the study variables for each sample appears in Table 1. In the Korean sample of adolescents, the Strictness/ Supervision subscale was significantly and positively associated with CDSES (r = .27, p b .01) and significantly and negatively associated with CDDQ (r = −.15, p b .01) indicating that as parental control and monitoring increased, career self-efficacy increased and career decision difficulties decreased. Additionally, both the Involvement and Autonomy-granting subscales were significantly and negatively associated with CDSES (r = −.37, p b .01, and r = −.14, p b .01, respectively) and significantly and positively associated with CDDQ (r = .23, p b .01, and r = .25, p b .01, respectively) indicating that as parental acceptance, warmth, and the encouragement of self-direction increased, career decision self-efficacy decreased and career decision difficulties increased in the sample of Korean adolescents. The opposite appears to be true in the French sample. Specifically, the Involvement and Autonomy-granting subscales were significantly and positively associated with CDSES (r = .16, p b .01, and r = .10, p b .05, respectively) and significantly and negatively associated with CDDQ (r = −.11, p b .01, and r = .17, p b .01, respectively) indicating that as Involvement and Autonomy-granting subscales increased, career decision self-efficacy increased and career decision difficulties decreased. 4.2. Gender differences in study variables Table 2 presents correlations between CDSES, CDDQ, and the parenting style subscales for boys and girls in each sample. There are few differences in the relationships among study variables for Korean adolescents. For example, Strictness/Supervision subscale was significantly and positively associated with career decision self-efficacy for boys and girls (r = .17, p b .05, and r = .30, p b .01, respectively) and significantly and negatively associated with career decision difficulties (r = − .15, p b .05, and r = − .14, p b .01, respectively). Additionally, involvement was significantly and negatively related to career decision self-efficacy (r = − .31, p b .01, r = − .40, p b .01, respectively) and significantly and positively related to career decision Table 2 Correlations between study variables by gender for Korean and French samples. Korean boys Korean girls French boys French girls Involvement CDSES CDDQ CDSES CDDQ CDSES CDDQ CDSES CDDQ Autonomy .21⁎⁎ Strictness − .31⁎⁎ .17⁎⁎ − .40⁎⁎ .26⁎⁎ .12 − .01 .05 − .17⁎⁎ − .15⁎ .26⁎⁎ − .11 .24⁎⁎ .25⁎⁎ − .20⁎⁎ .05 − .16⁎⁎ − .15⁎ − .14⁎⁎ − .12 − .09 .17⁎ .30⁎⁎ .14 Note. CDSES = career decision self-efficacy; CDDQ = career decision-making difficulties. ⁎ p b .05. ⁎⁎ p b .01.

L. Sovet, A.J. Metz / Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 351 difficulties (r = .17, p b .01, r = .26, p b .01, respectively) for both genders. Finally, Autonomy-granting was significantly and positively related to career decision difficulties for both Korean boys and girls (r = .26, p b .01, r = .24, p b .01, respectively). The only gender difference in the sample of Korean adolescents was that autonomy-granting was significantly and negatively related to career decision self-efficacy in boys but no significance was found for this variable in girls. Thus, there are minimal differences between parenting styles and career decision-making variables for Korean boys and girls. More gender differences exist in the relationships among study variables for French boys and girls. For example, autonomy-granting was positively and significantly associated with career decision self-efficacy in French boys (r = .25, p b .01) while involvement was significantly associated with higher career decision self-efficacy scores in French girls (r = .21, p b .01). For French boys, autonomy-granting was significantly and negatively associated with the CDDQ (r = −.20, p b .01) while for French girls, both involvement (r = − .17, p b .01) and autonomy-granting (r = − .16, p b .01) were significantly and negatively related to less career decision difficulties. 4.3. Moderation effects of gender Correlation coefficients point to possible gender differences in the relationships between study variables across culture. Thus, hierarchical moderated regression analyses were conducted to examine the moderation effect of gender on the relationships between parental behaviors and the dependent variables of CDSES and CDDQ in both the Korean and French samples (respectively, Tables 3 and 4). Gender and the three parent-related behaviors were included in the first step of the regression equation. At the second step, each dependent variable was regressed on the product of gender × involvement, the product of gender × autonomy-granting, and the product of gender × strictness. For the Korean sample, the moderated regression analysis for CDSES showed that involvement and strictness significantly predicted the dependent variable in the first step. However, a non-significant interaction of gender with the three parent-related behaviors was observed suggesting that there is no moderation effect of gender. Similarly, the moderated regression analysis for CDDQ showed that Involvement and Autonomy-granting significantly predicted the dependent variable in the first step but there was also no moderation effect of gender. For the French sample, the first moderated regression analysis showed that gender and involvement significantly predicted CDSES in step 1. In the second step, data indicated a significant interaction of gender with autonomy-granting suggesting a moderation effect for gender on the relationship between autonomy-granting and CDSES. The moderated regression analysis for CDDQ showed only a significant effect of gender in the second step but no moderation effect of gender was observed. According to our results, the moderation effects of gender were minor in both the Korean and French samples. One moderation effect for gender was observed among the French sample with respect to the relationship between autonomy-granting and CDSES. 5. Discussion The results demonstrate that parental behaviors significantly relate to career decision self-efficacy and career decision-making difficulties. Specifically, the first hypothesis, that the authoritative parenting style would be positively associated with greater career decision self-efficacy and less career decision-making difficulties for adolescents raised in a Western context, was supported. The second hypothesis, that the authoritarian parenting style would be positively associated with greater career decision self-efficacy and less career decision-making difficulties for adolescents raised in an Eastern context, was also supported. The first part of hypothesis three, that gender differences exist between the study variables, was partially supported. Gender differences were apparent in the French sample but not in the Korean sample. The second part of hypothesis three, that gender moderates the relation of parenting style to career decision self-efficacy and career decision-making difficulties, was only supported in the sample of French adolescents. The following section will expand on these results, review the limitations of this study, discuss clinical implications, and offer direction for future research. Table 3 Moderated regression analyses for gender as moderator among Korean sample. Step Independent variables CDSES CDDQ β β pβ p p β p .44 1 Gender 1.46 .146 −.28 .782 3.12 .661 − 1.28 .201 .163 4.85 .002 − .56 .577 1 Involvement − 7.09 b .001 − 1.40 .493 − 1.31 b .001 1.94 .053 .958 .191 .135 1 Autonomy − .35 .725 −.69 .566 .089 − 1.50 .136 .545 1.49 .549 1 Strictness 3.06 b.001 .05 .419 − .60 .230 1.20 2 Gender × involvement − .57 .093 2 Gender × autonomy .61 2 Gender × strictness .156 .81 R2 .158 Note. CDSES = career decision self-efficacy; CDDQ = career decision-making difficulties.

352 L. Sovet, A.J. Metz / Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 Table 4 Moderated regression analyses for gender as moderator among French sample. Step Independent variables CDSES CDDQ β p β p β pβ p 1 Gender − 5.11 b .001 − 3.55 b .001 1.81 .071 2.67 .008 1 Involvement 3.679 b .001 − .77 .442 −1.09 .276 1.08 .282 1 Autonomy − .98 .328 − 2.59 .010 3.40 .001 1.60 .110 1 Strictness − .98 .330 − 1.11 .268 −.52 .606 1.69 .093 2 Gender × involvement 1.90 .058 − 1.44 .150 2 Gender × autonomy 2.42 .016 − .72 .472 2 Gender × strictness .86 .393 − 1.86 .064 R2 .090 .050 .074 .036 Note. CDSES = career decision self-efficacy; CDDQ = career decision-making difficulties. 5.1. Cultural differences The current study found significant cultural differences in the career decision-making of youth raised in Western and Eastern contexts. For example, the Korean adolescents in our study had lower career decision self-efficacy beliefs and higher career decision difficulties than the French adolescents. These results seem consistent with previous work examining differences in adolescent psychosocial maturity. Specifically, Mantzicopoulos and Oh-Hwang (1998) found that Korean adolescents scored lower than American adolescents on measures of self-reliance, work-orientation, and self-identity, or what could be termed career maturity. Although the connection between career maturity, career decision self-efficacy, and career decision-making difficulties may not be readily apparent, these constructs are theoretically related such that having confidence in your ability to make the best choice for yourself is a component of career maturity and a lack of career maturity may cause career difficulties. The French adolescents in our study perceived their parents to be involved, encouraging of self-direction, and somewhat strict. (Note that the scale range of the Involvement and Autonomy-granting subscales is 4–36 while the scale range for Strictness is 3– 18.) This constellation of subscale scores seems consistent with the authoritative parenting style expected to be found in highly industrialized Western countries. Additionally, the Involvement and Autonomy-granting subscales were related to greater career decision self-efficacy and less career decision-making difficulties in French adolescents. This finding is also consistent with research demonstrating positive career development outcomes in children who are reared with an authoritative parenting style (Kracke, 1997; Lease & Dahlbeck, 2009). The Korean adolescents in this study also perceived their parents to be involved, encouraging of self-direction and controlling, but the scores on Involvement and Autonomy-granting were much lower than in the French sample. This result is consistent with a more nuanced conceptualization of Asian American parenting that is still more directive and controlling than the Western culture, but incorporates reasoning and warmth (Chao & Tseng, 2002; Kagitcibasi, 2007). For example, the term “Guan parenting” refers to providing close monitoring and direct control while building close parent–child relationships. The “Qin,” or the child's feeling of closeness to the parent, measures how Asian American parents convey affection nonverbally, indirectly, and with few overt expressions of love (Wu & Chao, 2011). Thus parental warmth, acceptance, and autonomy-building exists in the Korean culture, it just looks different from typical indicators of these variables in more Western cultures. One could then argue that if Korean parenting practices maintain a balance between warmth, affection, and firm discipline, they might better be labeled as “authoritative” than “authoritarian.” Although the Involvement and Autonomy-granting parenting behaviors were perceived by the Korean adolescents in our study, they were not associated with positive outcomes. Instead, it was the highly controlling parental behaviors that contributed to greater career decision self-efficacy and less career decision-making difficulties. This finding is consistent with research relating strict control in Asian American families to better academic performance in children (Steinberg et al., 1994). It also lends support to the concept of “tiger parenting” as defined by Chua (2011). While “tiger parenting” may be viewed negatively in Western cultures, highly demanding Korean parents who exert strict control over their children seem to have a positive impact on their career development. 5.2. Gender differences Although it was hypothesized that gender differences would exist in the parenting styles most closely associated with career decision-making, it was difficult to predict possible trends or directions given the inconsistency in previous research. Our findings demonstrate few gender differences among the study variables for Korean adolescents. In general, greater Strictness/Supervision (an underlying characteristic of the Authoritarian parenting style) was associated with higher career decision self-efficacy in both boys and girls. However, the correlation was almost twice as strong for girls than boys (r = .30 and r = .17 respectively) suggesting that Korean girls develop greater career decision self-efficacy beliefs when they are reared with greater Strictness/ Supervision. Another difference is that parental warmth and acceptance (involvement) and autonomy-granting were associated

L. Sovet, A.J. Metz / Journal of Vocational Behavior 84 (2014) 345–355 353 with lower career decision self-efficacy in boys; only involvement was associated with lower career decision self-efficacy in girls. With respect to career decision difficulties, the patterns in the data were nearly identical for boys and girls; Involvement and Autonomy-granting were associated with greater career difficulties and Strictness/Supervision was associated with fewer career difficulties. Moreover, there were no moderating effects of gender on the association between parenting styles and career decision-making variables. One interpretation of these results is that there are no differences in the educational expectations or experiences for Korean boys and girls (Kim & Park, 2008) and thus they develop similar levels of career decision self-efficacy and similar career decision difficulties. For example, Korean boys and girls both attend cram schools (Jung & Lee, 2010) and devote extensive time and effort in preparation for the university entrance exam (Lee, 2001; Seth, 2002). In contrast, several gender differences were found in the sample of French adolescents. For example, greater autonomy-granting was significantly associated with higher career decision self-efficacy and fewer career decision difficulties in French boys. For French girls, it was Involvement that was significantly associated with higher career decision self-efficacy and both Involvement and Autonomy-granting that were significantly associated with fewer career difficulties. Our findings further demonstrate one moderation effect of gender in the relationship between autonomy-granting and career decision self-efficacy. These results are consistent with previous research conducted with French adolescents (Vignoli, 2009; Vignoli et al., 2005). According to Vignoli et al. (2005), gender differences in the career decision-making process may be attributed to gender role socialization. These scholars suggest that French parents' educational expectations are higher for boys than for girls thus causing French boys to experience greater pressure and fear of disappointment. In this vain, autonomy-granting from parents may decrease pressure and encourage French boys to engage in career exploration behaviors. With additional encouragement, boys may engage in greater career exploration than girls, gain more relevant career information, and thus develop greater confidence in their ability to make career decisions. At the same time, parental involvement (the provision of warmth and acceptance) may be more relevant for French girls because close family relationships play a key role in their identity development (Vignoli et al., 2005). 5.3. Limitations The findings of this study should be considered in light of a number of limitations. First, our measures were self-report and based on the perceptions of adolescents. There was no objective validation of parenting styles nor were parents' perceptions of their own parenting styles included. Another limitation is that adolescents responded to mother and father variables together (e.g., “My parents …”). It is possible that each parent implements a different parenting style and this would not be captured in the data (Vignoli, 2009). An additional limitation is the use of a Western frame of reference to interpret the career decision-making process of adolescents raised in an Asian culture. For example, one assumption guiding this research is that it is important for adolescents to engage in career exploration activities, develop their vocational identity, adopt a future orientation, and set career goals. It is unclear whether we can use these assumptions with an Eastern culture such as South Korea. Our results suggest that Korean parents who were highly directive and controlling had a more positive impact on their child's career development. Traditional Western career theories and guidance strategies promote Western values such as self-development, self-determination, and personal goal setting and do not incorporate more collectivistic values. It may be that the career decision-making process for adolescents raised in Asian cultures looks different than that of adolescents raised in Western cultures. Understanding the process of career decision-making in Asian cultures seems to be a promising area for future research. 6. Conclusion The results of this study, based on a large sample of French and Korean adolescents, suggest that perceived parenting styles are significantly related to career decision self-efficacy and career decision-making difficulties. Cross-cultural differences were apparent. 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