Parenting Programmes What the Parents Say

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 37 examined the impact of an external intervention on the child, specifically parenting programmes, I focused here on Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecolog- ical systems theory (Bronfenbrenner 1979) as it provided a framework within which this impact could be discussed. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory explains how every- thing in a child’s immediate and also more remote environment can affect how a child grows and develops socially, emotionally, physically and cognitively. Bronfenbrenner developed this multi-levelled system to demonstrate how the different aspects of the environment impact on chil- dren’s development. The four levels are identified as the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem and the macrosystem (refer to Fig. 3.1). The microsystem is the immediate environment in which the child lives. A child’s microsystem includes any direct relationships or group they interact with, for example their immediate family or caregivers and their nursery or school. How these organisations interact with the child will have an impact on how the child grows; the more positive and nurturing these interactions and places are, the better the child will be able to develop. The second level, the mesosystem, affects how the different aspects of a child’s microsystem work together in the interest of the child. A posi- tive example of this would be if the child’s parent or carer took an active interest in the child’s school—this could be attending parents evening or watching their child in the school’s concert—this will help promote macrosystem exosystem mesosystem microsystem child Fig. 3.1 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model

38 K. SMART the child’s development. A negative example from the child’s mesosystem would be to find their mother and step-mother fighting on the play- ground on whose turn it is to pick up the child and whether staying up to 9 p.m. was acceptable. The third level, the exosystem, takes account of the other people and places that the child may not interact directly with but which will often still have a significant effect on them; for a child this could include the parents’ workplaces and extended family members. For example, in a time of employment uncertainty the main wage-earning parent is made redun- dant and finds it difficult to pay the mortgage, bills or even to afford the weekly food shop; this could have a negative effect on the child. Conversely if a parent finds a job having been unemployed for a period of time this could result in a positive effect as the family would be in a better position to provide for the child’s physical needs such as food, warmth and clothing. The final level is the largest, most distant environment and set of people from the child; however it will still have a significant influence on their development. The macrosystem includes factors such as the economic background, the political system and the socio-cultural envi- ronment in which the child and the lower levels of the model are situated. As with these lower levels, the macrosystem can affect a child’s develop- ment either positively or negatively through examples such as economic instability, political legislation and national conflict. How does this tie in with theories on good parenting? Central to Bronfenbrenner’s model is the interaction between the layers making it a very complex environment that the child grows up in. Family, specifi- cally parents, are usually the people who have the greatest contact with the child and also create the environment where the child spends the greatest amount of time. Specifically, moving through the first three of Bronfenbrenner’s systems, from the microsystem to the mesosystem to the exosystem, the interactions and environment the parents create and are involved in impact hugely on the child. This is further echoed by Meadows: “The proximal processes of the parent-child microsystem account, I think, for an enormous part of the child’s chances of growing up to be a well-functioning social person” (Meadows 2010, p. 157). Williams et al. (2014) studied the perceptions of 30 preschool teachers in Sweden regarding children’s learning in preschool; they developed a theo- retical framework that drew upon Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. They suggest the interactions between the different layers (the

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 39 preschool curriculum, the teachers’ educational approaches, children’s learning, and the changes in the practices of the setting) demonstrate how children’s learning is impacted not only through their interactions with the immediate environment, but also the interactions between the other layers—this includes how the preschool curriculum and the teachers’ pedagogical style influences the child’s immediate environment. Bronfenbrenner points out the importance of the linkage between the different systems to maximise the impact on child development. Seginer (2006) employed Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework, specif- ically the microsystem and mesosystem levels, in her review to examine parental engagement both at home and at school. Her analysis of 60 studies looked at the relationship between parental engagement and child outcomes, with the studies being categorised into three age-related sections: preschool; elementary school; middle, junior and senior high school. Seginer’s analysis suggests that both home and school based parental engagement is positively related to educational outcomes across the age ranges and social groups. My own personal experience as a teacher also supports that where there is good relationship between the school and the family it promotes consistency and continuity for the child both socially and educationally. This is achieved through information sharing which can help both schools and parents in better supporting children. Developing Parenting Skills Researchers have often tried to categorise parenting styles in order to better understand their impact on the child. For my research the iden- tification of parenting styles has helped inform the development of the parenting programme content, how the programme is delivered and how the trainers can tailor the programme to meet the individual parental requirements. Here “parenting styles” refers to the broader pattern of parenting practices relating to the behaviours and interactions between the parent and their child. For example, Baumrind (1967) described four styles of parenting in her research as neglectful parenting, permissive parenting, authoritarian parenting and authoritative parenting. Gottman’s (1997) research also identifies four central parenting styles: the dismissing parent, the disapproving parent, the laissez-faire parent and the emotion- coaching parent. He goes on to suggest that it is by parents recognising their own individual parenting styles that they would be better able to understand and address the quality and type of the interaction they have

40 K. SMART with their child. Miller (2010) agrees that if parents recognise their own parenting style this can be the initial step to changing how they engage with their child. However she suggests that although parents are able to take on any of these parenting styles, the reality of daily life is frequently that we revert back into habitual behaviours that come most naturally to us, whether it is because of our inherited disposition and personalities or because of our own childhood and surroundings. A key component of my own professional experience in promoting children’s development and education has been the importance of working with parents and valuing the knowledge and experience they bring with them. Pugh (2010) emphasises the importance of profes- sionals working in partnership with parents, with both parties equally contributing their knowledge. It is then that outcomes for the child can be improved. Mezirow (1994) agrees that both parents and professionals could view things differently if they listen and share their knowledge with one another. When a woman has a baby there is no sudden rush of knowledge on how to be the perfect parent. The reality is that most parents have very little experience or preparation on how to be a parent. Parenting programmes aim to fill in this gap by providing a structured process and training to prepare mothers and fathers to become a better parent. As part of her invited address to the International Congress on Cogni- tive Psychotherapy, Crittenden suggests that if a longitudinal study was adopted and followed the journey of parents and their children, “parents would be seen to be well-intentioned, but sometimes misdirected” (Crit- tenden 2005, p. 6). The implication here is that on the whole parents do not choose to be “bad” parents, indeed they want to do their best for their child; it could simply be that they do not know how to be a “good” parent or it may be that there is no single definition of what a “good” parent looks like. This is further supported when Moran et al. state that “it also becomes clear that we must be prepared to find many different views of what makes for ‘good parenting’” (Moran et al. 2004, p. 18). Attending a parenting programme has the aim of changing how a parent interacts with their child and by following parents through their experi- ence it will help us understand whether this is the case and whether this has impacted on their child’s development and attainment. Worldwide a number of different programmes have been devised to provide support in becoming better parents and to improve both parent and child outcomes, and numerous reviews into these programmes have

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 41 been carried out. Furlong et al.’s (2012) review found that group-based parenting programmes, programmes that run for parents in groups rather than one-to-one, are particularly effective in supporting parents learning how to manage their children’s behaviour and improving their parenting skills including techniques on how to praise, play, reward and disci- pline their children. This is further supported by Coren and Barlow’s (2009) review of parenting programmes for teenage parents; not only did they conclude positive outcomes for the parents but also for their children. Stevens (1984) found that, in general, parents who had a good understanding of child development displayed good parenting skills; for example, parents who were aware of the importance of a positive phys- ical environment for development were the ones who were found to have provided concept development toys and books. From my own professional experience of working in the early years I found that this acquired understanding of the importance of play in the child’s development encouraged parents to value, actively promote and even participate in play opportunities with their child where previ- ously they may have been negative, dismissive and uninterested in this type of interaction. I have also found that an understanding of child development can promote the parent-child relationship as it helps a parent know how to interact and treat children and the importance of doing so. This was certainly the finding from Coren and Barlow’s review of eight parenting programme studies; both the individual and group- based parenting programmes targeted at teenage parents found significant improvement in mother–child interaction, parental knowledge, maternal identity and attitudes to mealtimes. More recently Lindsay and Cullen’s (2011) report of the Parenting Early Intervention Programme, which included both Triple-P and The Incredible Years , found attendance on the programme did improve parenting skills; these outcomes were maintained one year on. An approach adopted in many parenting programmes is to include elements around improving knowledge on children’s development and better ways to manage behaviour. Al-Hassan and Lansford’s (2011) study on the Better Parenting Programme (BPP) in Jordan used both experi- mental and control groups to compare whether attending the parenting programme made any difference. They found that parents who had attended this programme showed a significant increase in their knowledge on child development, whereas parents in the control group showed no significant increase. Although both groups showed an increase in using

42 K. SMART positive parenting to address their child’s behaviour only the parents who attended the parenting programme explained to their child why their behaviour was wrong. Parents in the experimental group also showed a significant increase in parental engagement in activities with their chil- dren and recognition of behaviours such as leaving the child at home alone, having someone underage looking after their child and not buying them new clothes that could amount to neglect. An important point to note is that the study’s data collection methods relied solely on self- reports from parents which could impact heavily on the trustworthiness of this research. Parents may record what they think would please the researcher; their responses could depend on how they are feeling on the day of completing the questionnaire; they may circle responses randomly as they are unable to read and understand the questions or do not have the time or inclination to read through it properly. Evidence from these reviews and studies would suggest that parenting programmes are not only good at developing parenting skills but also have a positive impact on outcomes for the children. The Importance of Parental Confidence Research suggests that there is an association between parental confidence and parental engagement—the more confident that parents feel regarding their ability to fulfil their parenting role, the more engaged with their child’s education and development they are likely to be (Desforges and Abouchaar 2003; Harris and Goodall 2007). Hallam et al. (2004) agree that parental confidence and parental perception of their role are contrib- utory elements associated with the level of parental engagement with their child. One of the key findings reported by parents was increased confi- dence in understanding and in interacting with their child. However, it should be noted that parents who considered the parenting programme to be beneficial are more likely to respond to a questionnaire than those who did not; further research on the views of parents who did not complete the questionnaire would be necessary to draw any definitive conclu- sion. Desforges and Abouchaar go on to establish that increased parental engagement can lead to improved educational outcomes for the child, and so a positive link can be established between parental confidence and the child’s achievement. Research also suggests that parental confidence can play a role in promoting positive parent–child attachment. Leckman et al.’s (2004)

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 43 review reported that mothers of premature babies who expressed confi- dence in their parenting ability, as well as having positive feelings towards their baby, were more receptive to the signals from their child during their interactions with them and were more affectionate in their touching— these are indicators of a secure attachment (Ainsworth et al. 1978). I will discuss the impact of attachment on parenting further in the next chapter. A key element associated with a range of characteristics of child devel- opment and well-being as proposed by Barlow et al. (2014) is parental psychosocial functioning, with depression and anxiety, parental confidence and parental conflict being some of the contributory components. In their meta-analysis looking into parenting programmes for improving parental psychosocial health, 16 out of the 48 studies they reviewed assessed for parental confidence. From these studies they found that there was a signif- icant improvement in parents’ confidence immediately after attending a parenting programme, however the results at short term follow-up were mixed. This suggests that although parenting programmes can improve the psychosocial functioning of parents, including improving parental confidence, follow-up support is needed to maintain these improvements. Sanders et al. (2003) suggest that by promoting parenting confi- dence, along with increasing their knowledge and skills, this can help parents to avoid severe behavioural, emotional and developmental diffi- culties in their child. To this end, the Triple-P parenting programme aims to promote parental confidence through developing parenting knowl- edge and skills (Moran et al. 2004). In an evaluation of group-based Triple-P, Sanders et al.’s (2003) meta-analysis reported on 11 studies that included parental confidence as a measure: seven of these studies reported improved parental confidence as an outcome on completing the programme; results for parental confidence for the other four studies were not included in this paper. Further it was noted that, on the whole, this confidence was maintained at the six-month follow-up. Sanders et al. went on to suggest that parents with increased parental confidence had a more positive attitude towards their child and adopted more positive parenting skills. Martin et al. (2000) agree that there is a correlation between maternal confidence and their child’s aggression. In their study of 248 mothers of preschool children in Australia, Martin et al. exam- ined the relationship between children’s behaviour, mothers’ confidence in managing their children’s behaviour and the mother–child relation- ship. The study reported that the child’s aggressive behaviour negatively

44 K. SMART predicted the mother’s confidence. Furthermore, a mother–child relation- ship characterised by anxiety and guilt was found to be a strong predictor of the child’s aggression. Evidence from these reviews and studies would suggest that parental confidence could be an important contributory factor in developing parental engagement and positive parent–child relationships. As part of my research it was useful that I explored this further and so I looked at the impact on parental confidence having attended a parenting programme and any associated effect this had on the child. The next sections will look specifically at the parenting programmes that I focused on for my research: Triple-P , The Incredible Years and PEEP . All three of these parenting programmes are run by trained and experienced practitioners and are standardised in how they are delivered with the expectation that parents attend all the sessions. The aims of these programmes include improving knowledge on child development and parenting skills, improving parent–child relationships and promoting appropriate behaviour. The Parenting Programmes in This Research Triple-P Triple-P (Positive Parenting Programme) is an evidence-based programme developed by Matthew Sanders at the University of Queens- land in Australia (Sanders et al. 2003). This programme has been developed through 30 years of research providing confidence that this is a sound programme to adopt and is widely used across the UK. There are five levels of intervention in the Triple-P programme: these progress from Level 1, a universally applicable scheme, through Levels 2 and 3, aimed at supporting parents of children with mild to moderate behavioural difficulties, to Levels 4 and 5 targeting families with severe and serious problems. These levels are coupled with both one-to-one and group delivery styles. The rationale for the development of this programme was to provide parents with a better quality of advice around parenting. The five main principles that form the basis of Triple-P are: ensure a safe and stimulating environment; create a positive learning environment; use assertive but non-coercive discipline; have realistic expectations; take care of oneself as a parent.

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 45 Triple-P is probably the most researched of the parenting programmes included in my study, however this has been conducted mostly outside of the UK. This may be attributed firstly to the research carried out at the University of Queensland where Sanders is based and secondly as it is a widely used programme other researchers have also become interested in the impact it has on both parents and children. However most of this research is around the impact on children’s behaviour and not around the impact of the programme on the home learning environment or children’s development and attainment. Webster Stratton’s The Incredible Years Similar to Triple-P , The Incredible Years has several different programmes under its umbrella. The Incredible Years has six distinct evidence- based programmes: Parents and Babies; Parents and Toddlers; Early Childhood Basic Parent Training; Advanced Parent Training (6–12); Support Your Child’s Education Parent Training; School-Age Basic Parent Training (Incredible Years 2012). The main aims of The Incred- ible Years programmes are to increase children’s social and emotional learning and self-control skills, reduce challenging behaviours in children, strengthen parent–child relationships and promote school readiness. The Incredible Years, like Triple-P , is one of the most rigorously eval- uated of the behavioural programmes; however this research has again mostly been conducted outside of the UK. PEEP The Peers Early Education Partnership ( PEEP ) is a parenting programme that was developed in Oxford in the UK and which aims to improve the life chances of children by raising educational attainment, partic- ularly in disadvantaged areas, by supporting parents. This is achieved through group activities that promote parents’ awareness of children’s development and the importance of maximising early learning opportuni- ties (PEEP 2012, 2015). In most parts PEEP groups are run weekly and children attend with their parents. Groups may be universal or targeted; some may also be universal groups where a number of places are reserved for targeted families. Like both Triple-P and The Incredible Years there are several different elements to this programme, in this case they are

46 K. SMART based around the age of the child. There are five PEEP Learning Together programmes: Baby; Ones; Twos; Threes; Fours. Having been devised in Oxford it is not then surprising to find that much of the research around the effectiveness of the PEEP programme has been carried out by the University of Oxford Department of Educa- tion. Evangelou and her colleagues have been involved in much of this. One particular study focused on early intervention for children at risk of educational underachievement (Evangelou et al. 2007); this is one of the very few studies that looks at the correlation between parents attending a parenting programme and education which has a longitudinal perspective. With an understanding of the research into parenting skills and good parenting, we will now move on to look at what I found out about the parents’ views on learning and using parenting strategies. What the Parents Say Each of the chapters around the themes that developed from my research will follow the same structure in that there will be a section on What the parents say followed by What this tell us. Although all three questionnaires were analysed you will note that quotations come from the post-programme and one-year-on question- naires. The pre-programme questionnaire’s purpose was to get a baseline of quantitative data: how the parents spent time with their child; their child’s educational setting and parents contact with provision; confidence levels around a number of parent/child scenarios; reasons for attending the parenting programme; and finally a series of demographic ques- tions to ensure that I selected a cross section of parents to interview. The post-programme and one-year-on questionnaires contained the same quantitative questions, minus the demographic ones, so that I could carry out appropriate statistical tests to measure any differences in parental confidence, activities shared with children and time spent playing with them. However it was the qualitative questions on the post-programme and one-year-on questionnaire that gave the parents a greater opportu- nity to express their views about the parenting programme, providing quotations for What the parents say. I will also be using quotations from the semi-structured interviews with the eight parents—these enabled me to probe further, collecting rich data around their experiences. The questions were open-ended promoting a deeper insight to their views and enabling the voices of the parents to

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 47 be heard. The advantage of using semi-structured interviews is that I did not have to rigidly adhere to my pre-prepared interview schedules as I wanted to allow parents the chance to share their perspectives around the parenting programmes, and this required the conversation to develop into areas that I had not considered. An essential element to gaining as many parental voices as possible was by actually visiting and taking part in the parenting groups. This enabled me to introduce my research to the parents and for them to ask ques- tions. It was here that I was able to reassure them that their opinions would be confidential and to be able to offer them the opportunity to have their say anonymously. By taking part in the groups it also enabled me to listen to parents passing comments. I would definitely recommend to other researchers the time you invest at the start of your research and the effort you put in giving time to answer questions, promote confiden- tiality and to devise systems to allow for anonymity really could make the difference to the number of participants taking part in your study. The purpose of my research was to gain the parents’ perspectives and for the parents who took part in the interviews I reassured them that I would use pseudonyms when reporting my findings. Usually participants need confirmation that you will assure this. I say “usually” as I did have one colleague who had a parent who wanted their name to be known. In this case it was discouraged as it would also have identified the child the research was about. It also potentially would have identified other partic- ipants as many of them came from the same area, and they did not want to be recognised in the research. Although some participants want their story and identity known, researchers need to be careful if a participant wants to be known; think about the knock-on effect. When I designed the questionnaires, I took great care to ensure every question was relevant to my research. A vital part of the research process is piloting and it is through this that I made sure that each question was used and that each question would enable me to address my research questions. It was also important that I followed certain questions through from pre-programme, to post-programme to one-year-on. I followed the same process with my interview questions although as they were semi- structured interviews there was scope for discussions to go in various directions; all with the view of addressing the research questions. This was especially valuable as conversations travelled down pathways that had not been raised in the literature. So, on to the parents’ voices.

48 K. SMART An interesting aspect of this theme is that parental reports differed between parents who attended the PEEP programme and those who attended The Incredible Years and Triple-P programmes. This difference could align with the main reasons why parents attended the programmes in the first place: PEEP parents tended to go to the groups to spend time playing with their young child, interact with other parents and for their child to socialise with other children, whereas many of the parents on The Incredible Years and Triple-P programmes attended because they had concerns around their child’s behaviour. For PEEP parents, they reported that after attending the programme they placed more emphasis on creating a safe and healthy environment for their child: They eat more healthy. PEEP (Q-post) My daughter, she didn’t really eat that much fruit but since coming to the group she’s like tried a lot more fruit and that. She now does eat a lot more fruit. I think that’s really like seeing other children eating and like just trying out new things, I think she’s enjoyed. Emma I am more aware of healthy food and physical play. PEEP (Q-post) I intend to attend … the local swimming pool. PEEP (Q-post) More careful about having hot drinks around children. PEEP (Q-post) Emily also realised that she needed to take precautions to ensure the safety of her children when they went out: It’s like when we went we went for a walk and they scooted too far out of sight and my partner was getting cross with them. I said well you can’t really get, you can get cross with them until a point, because they have done that, but we didn’t say before they went off ‘stop at a certain point’; they need to have some guidance. They can’t necessarily just think for themselves about the dangers. I said you can’t always blame them for

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 49 running off when we don’t give them a guidance first to say where to stop. Emily has also found that proactively anticipating situations, talking to her children about where they were going and what was expected of them, had helped: … you can tell your child this is where you’re going, this is what we doing, you need to hold mummy’s hand … I did that going to the dentist, um because my little one had trouble with the dentist and he’d been about five times and never shown the dentist his teeth. So I did the whole going to the dentist, you’re going to do this, you’ve got a busy road to cross, you need to hold my hand, um and that was the first time he showed the dentist his teeth. PEEP parents also reported that they spent more time with their child particularly singing, counting and reading stories, activities that could all contribute to promoting the child’s language development: I read more books, we don’t have the TV on for so long. PEEP (Q-post) I intend to attend the local library at least fortnightly. PEEP (Q-post) The data suggested parents were beginning to recognise the benefits of reading stories and singing to babies and toddlers. During my visits to groups I spoke to a number of parents who prior to attending a PEEP group had not considered it necessary to engage in these activities as they had felt their child was too young to benefit from this type of interac- tion. In some extreme cases parents had minimal language interaction with their child. Responses from the post-programme questionnaires and interviews suggested parents were learning the importance of the role of play in a child’s development: I am understanding that young children are learning while playing. PEEP (Q-post)

50 K. SMART Understand what children do and little children can learn. PEEP (Q-post) I feel like I’ve learnt more ways to play, new ideas I would have never thought of before. PEEP (Q-year) More patient and more confident in playing with my child. PEEP (Q-year) … some good ideas that I hadn’t wouldn’t have thought about probably otherwise. Some of the stuff we have played like having a tray of rice and things like that, it’s such a simple thing and it means they can kinda make a mess that isn’t really messy because it’s so easy to clear up so that’s quite a good idea so I think I’ve probably picked up a few good activities. Jacob Talking more about everyday things to help speech progression, counting during everyday tasks, e.g. Putting 2 shoes on, you’ve got 1 nose. PEEP (Q-year) One year on, parents continued to report that they were spending more time playing with their child and using the ideas learnt on the programme. One of the main reasons why parents attended a PEEP group was for their children to interact and socialise with other children. Post- programme questionnaire responses revealed that parents found the course helped them achieve this: Meeting new people, helping my child develop. PEEP (Q-post) To help us with making new friends in the area, PEEP (Q-post) Help me and my children become more confident and make new friends. PEEP (Q-post) Give her more confidence in herself and playing with other children. PEEP (Q-post)

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 51 For this mother the impact of attending a PEEP group not only changed her behaviours but also how she felt as a parent: I feel like a better mum and I am more patient, I have learnt loads, I like my child more because we play in a more structured way and we both have input and I watch him more rather than try to lead everything. PEEP (Q-post) This suggested that although parents may have had very specific reasons for attending a programme, for example meeting other parents, social interaction for their child, helping manage their child’s behaviour, they were finding that they were coming away with unexpected outcomes. Parents on the Triple-P and The Incredible Years programmes came away with a largely different set of parenting strategies more appropriate to the ages and needs of their children, particularly in terms of behaviour management. One Triple-P trainer shared that parents who attended her Teen Triple P groups often arrive saying “they’ve in their opinion got the worse teen that ever walked the earth”, sometimes even having police involvement. On attending the group, the parents realise that they are not alone with the challenges they face. The trainer went on to say that having attended the parenting programme “they’ve [the parents] changed and they’ve realised the way they react is how the children reacted to that so hence they change”. Parents were learning how to promote positive behaviour by encour- aging independence and giving their child responsibility: Getting them to take ownership of their behaviour/actions, e.g. not completing homework, accepting consequences from school and discussing why and how we can improve. Triple-P (Q-post) Trying to encourage small independent steps. Triple-P (Q-post) Try to give options so they make the decision. Triple-P (Q-year) Listen to them. Value them more. Allow them to make choices. The Incredible Years (Q-post)

52 K. SMART For some parents, where they felt as though they were in a constant battle with their child, they learnt to evaluate which issues were the important ones that need addressing and which behaviours to ignore: Not trying to correct every behaviour. By picking the battles. The Incredible Years (Q-post) Ava has also experienced the benefits of choosing her battles: You let things go and concentrate on the things that you do need to address …They poke their tongue out at you - you can sort of ignore them rather than try to reprimand them so I think it’s happier all round … a calmer atmosphere. Olivia, a mother of four, also found it to be a matter of choosing which battles to fight but then was able to turn the battles into a game: picking the battles and actually you know it’s… it’s not you know ‘don’t do this’. I don’t feel myself going ‘la-la-la’ you know, and I don’t find myself shouting ‘cause um I remember going to the very first group and having to shout at them to put their shoes on and stuff, you know. And just like this morning um child number three didn’t want to get dressed and so ‘let’s have a race then’. So then it was a game. So then he was dressed you know and fabulous. It was interesting to note that the use of praise was one of the key strategies that was widely identified. The indication is that parents were beginning to realise that they were quick to tell off their children if their behaviour was not appropriate but less quick to praise their child when they were behaving or helping out. Give more ‘I’ messages. Give plenty of reward. The Incredible Years (Q-post) More communication and specific praise. The Incredible Years (Q-post) The kindness chart has done wonders. The Incredible Years (Q-post)

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 53 Praise children more for good behaviour. Triple-P (Q-post) I try to be more patient. More positive praise. PEEP (Q-year) They do respond well to the positive praise. Triple-P (Q-year) The ones I mainly try and use are the positive praise one…they really like being praised so it does have an impact. Emily These last three quotations come from the one-year-on questionnaires and interview and show that parents were still using the positive strategies learnt on the programme and were continuing to see the benefits of doing so. Parents were not only coming away with strategies to help them promote positive behaviour, they were also realising the importance of continuity and consistency in the application of these strategies—by their partner as well as themselves: Deal with discipline more consistently. Triple-P (Q-post) But unfortunately the way you get with families, one day dad has the problem and mum says ‘go away and calm down dad’, and another day mum has the problem and dad says ‘go away and calm down mum’… You know I have a problem with when I come home from work and I find the other half on his laptop, and one watching the telly and the other on the computer and nobody’s checked if the homework’s been done. And every week mum’s bad guy… The status quo gets disrupted when mum comes in and says ‘right this, this, this, this, this, this, de de da’ and they’ve all been sat doing their own thing and not doing what they should’ve been doing. Isabella I’m trying to sort of say to my partner that. Trying to stop them shouting and flying off the handle so much because he’s got less patience than me.

54 K. SMART And trying to tell him about the positive praise and make, try and make, you know, get him on board as well so that it’s consistent. Emily An important outcome is that parents are recognising that it is a change in their own behaviour that is influencing the change in their child’s. Both Emily and Olivia recognised that by changing how they addressed certain behaviours they could have a positive effect on their children: …’cause sometimes you don’t think about your, the impact of your behaviour on your children. Emily I’m trying to be calmer and think that does have an impact on how they respond to you. If you’re telling them off and everything, I think that then makes more negative behaviour. Emily …for me I find the top of the pyramid, the actual punishment, that has reduced down. Definitely, it’s, it very rarely gets to the point where we’re at the top of the pyramid where we’re having to use punishment. Olivia …more patient and understanding of why my children behave in a certain way. More confident to challenge behaviour and not give into tantrums. PEEP (Q-post) This suggests that by adopting positive parenting strategies, parents were resorting less to punitive measures and they were seeing the positive results of doing so: I think it builds up a better relationship with the child. Olivia Not only were parents realising that they were changing their behaviour but others around them were seeing the changes too. Emma had other people notice the change in how she interacted with her children:

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 55 I can’t remember who it was but I was um playing with the children and they wasn’t listening and I said ‘right if you don’t listen we’ll have to put it away’ and someone said to me they can tell that I have learnt that through coming to the group. So others have noticed that I’m more confident with them as well with their behaviour. Emma Another suggestion from the responses to the questionnaires and inter- views was that by adopting positive parenting strategy families were discovering a more harmonious home life: By stay calm and reduced level of shouting in our house becoming a happier home. The Incredible Years (Q-post) Equipped with the appropriate strategies and knowledge, parents reported that they left the course with increased confidence: Probably gives me the confidence to go back to the secondary school to ask for more help. Isabella Ava considered her confidence in managing her grandchildren’s behaviour had increased “dramatically” since attending the programme. She could “cope with that now – before I didn’t know what to do”. Partic- ularly with one of her grand-daughters, Ava could now “understand what she’s going through and calm her down quite quickly; before it would be a meltdown”. Olivia also reported that her confidence in managing her children’s behaviour had increased since adopting parenting strategies learnt on the course: …it’s the being able to deal with the challenging behaviours around doing it. Interestingly the analysis of the quantitative Likert scale post- programme data showed little change in reported parental confidence. In contrast, when parents were asked on the same post-programme question- naire the open question “What element from this parenting programme do you feel has helped you the most?” they frequently commented on how the programme had increased their confidence:

56 K. SMART Having the confidence to take my child to play groups with people I don’t know. PEEP (Q-post) I am more confident in general with my child. I take him out and about more and also enjoy more quality time with him at home. PEEP (Q-post) Socialising with other mothers and becoming more confident with my baby. PEEP (Q-post) Perhaps the implication is that parents found the programme increased their general parenting confidence, but were unable to quantify this in regard to the specific scenarios on the questionnaire. It could be that they found it difficult to measure this in relation to scores on their previous questionnaire; the pre-programme. The single notable change in reported parental confidence in regard to a listed set of scenarios, all came from the one-year-on questionnaire and were all related to the same theme: supporting their child’s education. Interestingly this theme did not emerge as important from the qualitative questionnaire and interview analysis, but is possibly related to the parents’ greater exposure to their child’s educational provision one-year-on. Six out of the eight parents interviewed talked about how they felt better equipped to support their child’s development and manage their child’s behaviour. For Sophia, going to PEEP with her son Mason has helped increase her knowledge around child development, making her feel more confident as a parent: That’s what’s quite nice is that um I kinda come to these groups and because you don’t have a manual of how to do it and so you need that bit of extra confidence of of other parents and children around and seeing, you know, things you kinda play with and seeing how they develop as well that it gives you kinda confidence to be able to kinda do more with your child. …we can go out and you can learn things with them and then that gives you confidence to help them develop.

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 57 Emily who attended a Triple-P programme also commented on how you do not get a manual when you give birth: I think it acts as a sort of a reminder, when you have a child you don’t get a manual do you, what you’re supposed to do with them. I know I’ve done child development but in my degree it doesn’t tell you about discipline it’s more about nature versus nurture and things like that isn’t it rather than how to deal it with all the other things. Olivia attended The Incredible Years programme and found the positive parenting strategies had not only helped with the two children who were exhibiting inappropriate behaviour but was also benefiting her other two children: It encompassed children number two and number three who weren’t showing challenging behaviours but were able to um bring out the better in them. Um for instance the praising, and spending one-on-one time, those kind of things. So it was, it was er a complete balance for both spectrums you know, of both ends really. For children with the most chal- lenging and also to try and sort of grow and work on those relationships of the ones who tend to get left in the middle because they’re not shh, you know not demonstrating that challenging behaviour. Olivia now even shares her newly learnt strategies with friends who are experiencing undesired behaviour from their children: …a friend of mine has twins and they were refusing to put their shoes on and you know it was getting fraught, and I just said ‘do you want me to put your shoes on or you going to put your shoes on?’ Parents consider that many of the strategies they had learnt on the programme, such as giving more positive praise and picking their battles, could be effective and have a positive impact on their child and their family. What This Tells Us What I heard from the parents here addressed my second research ques- tion: What are the views of parents regarding the changes that parents have made as a result of attending a parenting programme? Parents reported

58 K. SMART positive changes in parental behaviour, especially the effective adoption of parenting and behaviour management strategies, along with increased parental confidence. This was seen to also impact other aspects of their lives, including giving parents the confidence to approach their child’s school with concerns or going on to further training to develop their career, all of which was having a direct impact on the child. This outcome aligns with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system model (Bronfenbrenner 1979) whereby factors with which the child does not directly interact can still have an impact on them. In the context of my study, Bronfenbrenner’s exosystem would include the two parenting programmes where the child does not attend with their parent: The Incredible Years and Triple-P . According to Bronfenbrenner, interactions within the exosystem, in this case between parents and trainers, have the potential to indirectly impact the child through induced changes in parental approach, attitude and behaviour. Although the child did not attend the sessions, the strategies parents learnt and were using at home were having a positive impact on their child and their family. Similarly the PEEP programmes would fall into Bronfenbrenner’s mesosystem, where the parents and trainers interacted with each other and also directly with the child. Here the parents were interacting with the trainers, growing their knowledge on child development and positive parenting strategies, and then using what they had learnt not only during group sessions but also at home. My findings add further support to the evidence (Coren and Barlow 2009; Al-Hassan and Lansford 2011; Lindsay and Cullen 2011; Furlong et al. 2012) that parenting programmes can be successful in encour- aging the learning and adoption of new parenting skills and strategies. One key parenting skill reported by the parents in my research was the use of positive parenting techniques to manage children’s behaviour; strategies included verbal praise, kindness chart, listening to their child, negotiation and providing options. Additionally parents reported a new understanding on the value of play in their child’s development. The outcome of this new knowledge has led to parents reporting changes around the time and activities they share with their child; these included sharing stories, singing, cooking and playing with their child. My research also demonstrated two key outcomes arising from the adoption of these positive parenting strategies: firstly an improved parent–child relationship, again echoing the findings of Coren and Barlow; secondly a reported increase in general parental confidence, supporting the findings of Manby

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 59 (2005) who reported improvements in parental confidence as they were able to successfully apply strategies to address their children’s behaviour. In addition to the learning of new parenting skills, these findings demonstrated that parents were also learning more about child develop- ment and the importance of the role they play in this area. This supports the earlier findings of Al-Hassan and Lansford (2011). The subsequent parental behavioural changes reflect how an increased understanding of their child’s development can help improve their parenting skills, as iden- tified by Stevens (1984); in particular it helps them to create a safer and more stimulating environment within which their child can thrive. This ranged from an understanding of healthy eating and physical play to the value of singing, reading stories and playing even with the very youngest infants. From my professional experience I have found that most parents want to do their best for their child; this is further supported by them agreeing to or choosing to attend a parenting programme, often to help them develop their knowledge around child development and positive parenting strategies. I have also found in the years that I have been in the education system, specifically early years and primary, that working in partnership with parents and respecting their knowledge as a parent, helps encourage them to develop their parenting skills. There have been many occasions where I have found parents wanting to do their very best for their child but not knowing how to go about it and have welcomed the opportunity to work in partnership with me to help improve their knowledge in this area. My findings relating to this research question demonstrate that parents are adopting positive strategies learnt on the programmes and are becoming more confident in their role. This is important because it demonstrates how the desire of parents to do their best for their child is being met by the parenting programmes; they are being supported in improving their knowledge on child development and positive parenting strategies resulting in increased parental confidence. References Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Walls, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; distributed by Halsted Press Division of Wiley.

60 K. SMART Al-Hassan, S. M., & Lansford, J. E. (2011). Evaluation of the Better Parenting Programme in Jordan. Early Child Development and Care, 181, 587–598. Barlow, J., Smailagic, N., Huband, N., Roloff, V., & Bennett, C. (2014). Group- based parent training programmes for improving parental psychosocial health. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 6, CD002020. Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75, 43–88. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Coren, E., & Barlow, J. (2009). Individual and group-based parenting programmes for improving psychosocial outcomes for teenage parents and their children (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD002964. Crittenden, P. M. (2005). Attachment and cognitive psychotherapy. International Congress on Cognitive Psychotherapy. Gøtengorg, Sweden. Desforges, C., & Abouchaar, A. (2003). The impact of parental involvement, parental support and family education on pupil achievement and adjustment: A review of literature. Nottingham: DFES Publications. Evangelou, M., Brooks, G., & Smith, S. (2007). The birth to school study: Evidence on the effectiveness of PEEP, an early intervention for children at risk of educational under-achievement. Oxford Review of Education, 33, 581– 609. Field, F. (2010). The foundation years: Preventing poor children becoming poor adults: The report of the Independent Review on Poverty and Life Chances. London: Cabinet Office. Furlong, M., McGilloway, S., Bywater, T., Hutchings, J., Smith, S., & Donnelly, M. (2012). Behavioural and cognitive-behavioural group-based parenting interventions for early-onset conduct problems in children age 3–12 years. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD008225. Gottman, J. (1997). Raising an emotionally intelligent child. Seattle, WA: Gottman Institute. Hallam, S., Rogers, L., & Shaw, J. (2004). Improving children’s behaviour and attendance through the use of parenting programmes: An examination of good practice. Nottingham: DFES Publications. Harris, A., & Goodall, J. (2007). Engaging parents in raising achievement: Do parents know they matter?: A research project commissioned by the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust. Warwick: University of Warwick. Incredible Years. (2012). The Incredible Years. Available: http://incredibleyears. com. Accessed 31 July 2012. Leckman, J. F., Feldman, R., Swain, J. E., Eicher, V., Thompson, N., & Mayes, L. C. (2004). Primary parental preoccupation: Circuits, genes, and the crucial role of the environment. Journal of Neural Transmission, 111, 753–771.

3 THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING AND USING PARENTING STRATEGIES 61 Lindsay, G., & Cullen, M. A. (2011). Evaluation of the Parenting Early Inter- vention Programme: A short report to inform local commissioning processes. London: Department for Education. Manby, M. (2005). Evaluation of the impact of the Webster-Stratton Parent- Child Videotape Series on participants in a Midlands town in 2001–2002. Children and Society, 19, 316–328. Martin, A. J., Linfoot, K., & Stephenson, J. (2000). Exploring the cycle of mother-child relations, maternal confidence, and children’s aggression. Australian Journal of Psychology, 52, 34–40. Meadows, S. (2010). The child as social person. London: Routledge. Mezirow, J. (1994). Understanding transformation theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 44, 222–232. Miller, S. (2010). Supporting parents: Improving outcomes for children, families and communities. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill and Open University Press. Moran, P., Ghate, D., & Van Der Merwe, A. (2004). What works in parenting support?: A review of the international evidence. London: Department for Education and Skills. PEEP. (2012). Peers Early Education Partnership. Available: www.peep.org.uk. Accessed 31 July 2012. PEEP. (2015). Peers Early Education Partnership. Available: http://www.peeple. org.uk/. Accessed 11 May 2015. Pugh, G. (2010). Principles for engaging with families: A framework for local authorities and national organisations to evaluate and improve engagement with families. London: NCB. Sanders, M. R., Markie-Dadds, C., & Turner, K. M. (2003). Theoretical, scientific and clinical foundations of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A popu- lation approach to the promotion of parenting competence. Brisbane: Parenting and Family Support Centre, The University of Queensland. Seginer, R. (2006). Parents’ educational involvement: A developmental ecology perspective. Parenting, Science and Practice, 6, 1–48. Stevens, J. H., Jr. (1984). Child development knowledge and parenting skills. Family Relations, 33, 237–244. Williams, P., Sheridan, S., & Sandberg, A. (2014). Preschool—An arena for children’s learning of social and cognitive knowledge. Early Years, 34, 226–240.

CHAPTER 4 The Value of Spending Quality Time with Their Child Abstract This chapter discusses the second theme that developed from my research: “the value of spending quality time with their child”. Parents recognise the importance of ensuring that their interactions with their child are enjoyable and productive rather than confrontational and nega- tive. As a result they are forming improved relationships and experiencing a more harmonious home life. Keywords Parenting · Quality time · Bronfenbrenner · Attachment · Behaviour · Critical realism This chapter shows that having attended a parenting programme, parents are now appreciating spending quality time with their child. This theme the value of spending quality time with their child addressed my third research question: From the perspective of parents, what impact has the parenting programme had on the children? The purpose of this question was to establish an understanding of any impact that the parenting programme had on the child, through a critical analysis of the parents’ views. One of the main things that I heard from the parents was how they described the ways in which they interacted with their child. Specifically, the post-programme questionnaire responses suggest that since attending © The Author(s), under exclusive license to 63 Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Smart, Parenting Programmes: What the Parents Say, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59502-9_4

64 K. SMART a programme parents are spending more quality time with their child. This chapter will start by looking at the impact and the importance of attachment on parenting. Next it will look at the impact of parenting on children’s behaviour before moving on to discover what the parents had to say. I will then finish the chapter by discussing what this tells us. The Impact of Attachment on Parenting Research has indicated that there are many contributory factors in the development of attachment between parent and child, and the subsequent impact of this relationship on the child’s progress. A number of factors could contribute to why what should be an automatic attachment to the infant does not always present itself; these are usually attributed to how the mother or caregiver responds to the infant. A securely attached child usually receives consistent, sensitive, accepting and co-operative attention from their mother or caregiver (Ainsworth et al. 1978). An infant who receives inconsistent responses to their communication and signals can often become anxiously attached and will tend to cry more and for longer periods of time; characteristics of anxious attachment also include smiling less, not responding positively to being held and reacting negatively to being put down. For the anxious/avoidant child, the mother or caregiver tends to be particularly rejecting of the infant to the extent where the mother often exhibits a strong aversion to any physical contact. Research into the changes that occur in the brain during pregnancy, the neural circuitry of parenting, and on the changes that occur during the first months postpartum suggests that the way in which adults respond to their babies can result in lasting consequences for the child (Mayes 2010). Shuffelton (2015) considers that the “mother/child bond is uniquely tight, and lasting, and essential to a child’s healthy psychological devel- opment. Only a mother (not a father, other family member, or paid caretaker) can provide this care” (p. 2). Bowlby (1982) however considers attachment can also be found beyond the mother–infant relationship and recognised a secure attachment could be established by any person, father or any other caregiver, who regularly gives their time and attention. Howes (1999) agrees with Bowlby that a similar attachment to that of the mother–child relationship can be formed between the child and an alternative caregiver. Ainsworth (1985) proposes that the most important factors in a person’s social support system are those that have attachment elements that bring with it a sense of security. That these are not solely

4 THE VALUE OF SPENDING QUALITY TIME WITH THEIR CHILD 65 restricted to parent–child and caregiver–child relationship and that they can be established beyond infancy; it could be formed between sexual partnerships and between siblings. Veríssimo et al.’s (2011) study of 35 families in Lisbon (where in this case a “family” consists of both parents living together and one child attending a private day-care programme) found that even though the chil- dren involved in the study had a secure attachment with both parents, the security with each may correlate to different developmental outcomes. For example, it was suggested that a secure attachment with their father resulted in an increased number of friendships and an improved ability to cope with aggressive behaviours. This may be attributed to the different types of play and interaction between the child and father compared to the mother; a father’s play was typically more physically stimulating whilst a mother’s play was characterised by calmer interactions. Improvement in parent–child attachment relationships is often one of the goals of parenting programmes, particularly those offered to at- risk parents such as teenagers. Barlow et al.’s review (2011), which included eight studies with 513 participants, looked at the outcomes from teenage parents attending parenting programmes. The results suggest that both just after attending the parenting programme and at follow- up there was an improvement in the parent’s responsiveness to the infant and the child’s responsiveness to the mother, both measured using the Nursing Child Assessment Teaching Scale (Sumner and Spietz 1994). There was also evidence, using the same scale, that there was an improve- ment in the parent–child interaction, such as mealtime communication. This would suggest that by attending a parenting programme you can develop or improve an attachment between parent and child where there had been little positive attachment in place. Although Miller (2010) agrees that supporting parents with activities that could promote the parent–child relationship further research would be needed to see whether this improved the parent–child attachment and whether this could also have a positive impact on the child’s development and attainment. Bohr and BinNoon’s (2014) study of teenage parents in Canada attending Right From the Start, an attachment-focused parenting programme which included sessions on teaching specific parenting skills, found that overall parental sensitivity did improve. However a major limitation of this study was that out of the 11 teenage parents who started the programme only four parents continued to the end of study. Egeland and Farber’s (1984) data also supports that the attachment relationship can be changed

66 K. SMART after the child’s first year. Research carried out by Simonicˇ and Poljanec (2014) exploring the mothers’ views of any changes having attended a weekly structured young mothers’ group, focusing on developing their awareness of the importance of the mother–child bond and supporting them through any difficulties in establishing this, suggests that mothers became more relaxed in relation to their expectations around motherhood resulting in an improved mother–child bond. The impact of the parenting programme on the parent–child attachment relationship was one of the key aspects that I focused on in my research study. The Impact of Parenting on Children’s Behaviour Barlow and Parsons’ (2005) meta-analysis of five studies found that group-based parenting programmes for parents with children up to three years of age did show improvement in children’s behaviour. This is further supported by Thomas et al.’s (1999) review of 14 studies, with children aged birth to six years, which also reported significant improvement in both parent and child behaviour, especially where the emphasis was on parental empowerment. Hutchings et al. (2007) investigated the impact of a specific parenting programme, The Incredible Years , in Sure Start services for parents of children aged three and four years considered at risk of developing conduct problems. Their findings showed that chil- dren’s behaviour improved significantly. Results measured included both parents’ self-reports and direct observations carried out by the research team, promoting the trustworthiness of the study, furthered by using a randomised controlled experiment using a block design allocated by area. The results of this study suggest that it is possible to mediate children’s behaviour by teaching parents key parenting skills and modifying how the parents behave. Looking at programmes delivered to parents of slightly older children, Furlong et al.’s (2012) more recent review of parenting programmes found that for children aged three to 12 years who were showing signs of early onset conduct problems, group-based parenting programmes helped parents to develop their parenting skills resulting in improved behaviour of their children. Results only report on the short-term effects; evidence of longer-term effects was not available. This appears to be quite a common factor in many studies investigating the impact of parenting programmes. Menting, de Castro and Matthys’ (2013) review of 50 studies covering 4754 participants, also looking at a wider age range,

4 THE VALUE OF SPENDING QUALITY TIME WITH THEIR CHILD 67 again found that the parent-training programme was an effective inter- vention as measured immediately after the course; no longer-term results were reported. There certainly seems to be a substantial level of research into the effects of parenting programmes on children’s behaviour and it appears to be very positive across the board—including that from UK studies. Rogers, Hallam and Shaw’s (2008) study across 134 local authorities in England found that in almost all cases parents reported an improve- ment in children’s behaviour at home. A one-year-on study on the parenting programme Parents Altogether Lending Support (PALS) in Dundee conducted by Zeedyk et al. (2008) found that parents felt they were still able to manage their children’s behaviour one year after they attended the programme. It must be noted the results of this study came from parents’ perceptions and there was no independent input or trian- gulation. Lindsay and Cullen’s (2011) evaluation of the recent Parenting Early Intervention Programme (PEIP), a national UK Government initia- tive, also found that there was a considerable improvement in children’s behaviour. There is much evidence to support the view that by attending a parenting programme parents can improve their children’s behaviour and this is still an area being actively researched, including the three specific parenting programmes included in my study. Taking this into considera- tion I did not further explore the direct impact on children’s behaviour but instead focused on the parenting programme process, changes in the behaviours of parents and the impact, other than behaviour, this had on the children. Having looked at the research literature it is now time to listen to what the parents have to say about how attending the parenting programme helped them discover the value of spending quality time with their child. What the Parents Say In this section you will hear the parents’ views on parenting programmes. 136 parents took part in the questionnaire phase of my research, from this eight were selected using the information they provided on their demographics to offer a range of views for the interview stage. Parents completed questionnaires before, after and one-year-on having completed a parenting programme. Those who were selected for an interview shared their experiences after having completed a parenting programme and

68 K. SMART again one-year-later. It was important to catch up with the parents one- year-on to establish whether they considered the parenting programme had a long-lasting effect. The data was then analysed giving us the five themes that I will be sharing with you in this book. I would like to reiterate that all participants are fully anonymised and no real names have been used or referred to at any point. Pseudonyms for the participants were selected from the top 100 names for girls and boys. One of the parents interviewed was from Eastern Europe, a common heritage within the south-west region; I considered it important that I should randomly select a name from this part of the world to maintain her heritage. You will recall that my third research question was all about the parents’ views on how attending the programme had impacted their chil- dren. Some of the most interesting and relevant findings from the parents were that they, the parents, identified the value of spending quality time with their child. I’m not suggesting that these parents said they didn’t spend time with their child prior to attending a parenting programme. Rather, what came out of the data was that parents demonstrated a discovery for the value of spending quality time with their child: The group has also been able to help me try new activities with my children and share new experiences with them PEEP (Q-post) Sing a lot more with her at home daily. PEEP (Q-post) Bonding with my child through song and playing PEEP (Q-post) Listen and learn. I like to spend time with my children PEEP (Q-post) Play more and do more crafts, cooking PEEP (Q-post) Spend more time playing and the importance of play. Some great creative ideas PEEP (Q-post)

4 THE VALUE OF SPENDING QUALITY TIME WITH THEIR CHILD 69 Playing, reading more with my child PEEP (Q-post) I spend more time playing with her and focusing on a single topic and involve stories/TV programs to support that theme. PEEP (Q-year) Yesterday we came home from school and made quiches for tea and things like that. We try and do quite a lot with him. My eldest likes drawing so quite often sit down and do drawing with him Emily These last two quotations came from a one-year-on parental question- naire and Emily’s one-year-on interview and demonstrate that parents still valued spending quality time with their child 12 months after completing the programme. Triple-P parents with younger children also reported that they are now making more time to spend with their child: Have a set ‘play 1:1’ time once a week Triple-P (Q-post) In addition to parents reporting that they are spending more time with their child, they are finding that they are more relaxed during this interaction: I am a lot calmer and spend more time with him Triple-P (Q-post) Sophia is very conscious that time passes by quickly and it is too easy to neglect their interaction with their child: …you’re busy kinda doing other things. Sometimes you do actually forget that they just need that time, just to sit down on a one-to-one basis. Jacob also recognises the danger of getting caught up in the house- work: It’s too easy to get caught up in the domestic routine, there’s always washing up, laundry and DIY jobs and all kinds of stuff you’ve got to do when you’re at home.

70 K. SMART Both Jacob and Sophia are very conscious of now making time to play with their sons: …it’s trying to kinda, er, you want the structure but you also want to have a bit of playtime for them. Because, you know, we all know that, er, you know children aren’t children for long really, and then we’ve got to get into this whole ‘you’re not meant to do that because you’re now a grown up’ or like that, you know … that’s why I try and do things right now. Sophia Jacob was very aware that he had spent a lot of quality time with his older son but less time with his younger son; coming to PEEP gave them special time to play together: It gives me and Ethan something that’s about us going out to something together, which is something I had a lot of with his brother, Noah, and less of with him. With Jacob spending some quality time by taking Ethan to PEEP , this in turn allowed Jacob’s partner to spend some quality time with their older son, Noah: It gives, it gives his brother a chance to spend some time with his mum as well, which is something that’s important. For him that was, um, really noticed when Ethan was born, that Noah was quite put out because suddenly he’s got to share his time, share his parents, general space and all that kind of stuff. So he needs to have some time to spend on his own with his mum every now and then, which he gets when I take Ethan out. For Sophia, her “… partner is quite a clean freak”, so coming to PEEP allows her to have time to enjoy messy play together without the mess at home: That’s what’s brilliant, you can get the messy here, they can tidy up afterwards and it’s not in your house [laughs]. All the PEEP parents interviewed reported that they are using at home the activities they have shared during the sessions:

4 THE VALUE OF SPENDING QUALITY TIME WITH THEIR CHILD 71 …there’s been some good stuff, some good ideas that I hadn’t wouldn’t have thought about probably otherwise.” Jacob I’ve got to know a lot more songs. I can do more stuff with them and activities, like different ideas like I wouldn’t think of before I seen here and I’ve used it at home, they’ve really enjoyed it … they enjoy me doing things with them. Emma The data analysis also suggests that parents are changing how they communicate with their child; parents are listening to what their child says and responding in a way that makes the child feel valued. It appears that this in turn means that the child will then talk more to their parent improving both communication and the quality of interaction they have with their parent: Listening skills - they confide more The Incredible Years (Q-post) Listen to her more and let her lead when playing PEEP (Q-post) …we talk to each other more and communicate more Triple-P (Q-post) I listen to them more and allow them to be more independent. PEEP (Q-year) PEEP sessions actively encourage parents to play with their child and continue at home the activities and skills learnt on the course. The data analysis suggests parents are doing this and as a result are forming improved relationships with their child: I am more confident in general with my child. I take him out and about more and also enjoy more quality time with him at home PEEP (Q-post) We get on better. PEEP (Q-post)

72 K. SMART What This Tells Us Key to my research has been the role the parents play in their child’s devel- opment and this maps to the first level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system model, the microsystem, which represents the immediate environ- ment surrounding the child. In the context of my research, this level maps primarily to include the child’s interaction with their parents, although for those who attend the PEEP programmes this would also include the exchanges between the trainer and child during the programme sessions. It is through the interactions between the layers in this model, from the exosystem through the mesosystem to the microsystem, that the parenting programme can be seen to have an impact on the children of the parents attending. Answering my third research question, From the perspective of parents, what impact has the parenting programme had on the children?, one of the key outcomes identified is an improved relationship between parent and child. The views of the parents suggest that they recognise the value of ensuring that their interactions with their child are enjoyable and productive rather than confrontational and negative. This is facilitated and supported by the parent learning new skills and strategies coupled with them spending more quality time together. In addition to parents reporting that they are spending more time with their child, they are finding that they are more relaxed during this inter- action. PEEP sessions actively encourage parents to play with their child and continue at home the activities and skills learnt on the course. The data analysis suggests parents are doing this and as a result are forming improved relationships with their child. The data analysis also suggests that parents are changing how they communicate with their child; parents are listening to what their child says and responding in a way that makes the child feel valued. It appears that this in turn means that the child will then talk more to their parent improving both communication and the quality of interaction they have with their parent. Adoption of strategies learnt on the programme is found to be contributing to an improved bond between parent and child, with their relationship being reported as happier, less stressful and more construc- tive. This key outcome of attendance on a parenting programme further supports the findings of Simonicˇ and Poljanec (2014) who researched mothers’ views having attended a young mother’s group. This outcome

4 THE VALUE OF SPENDING QUALITY TIME WITH THEIR CHILD 73 is important to note because this improved relationship feeds back into promoting the child’s behaviour and confidence, and indirectly increases their school readiness. An important strength of my research was how I used Roy Bhaskar’s philosophy Critical Realism (1975), in particular his MELD framework (2008), to guide my research methodology. My ontological and episte- mological perspectives sit comfortably within Bhaskar’s Critical Realism: ontologically I recognise that objects exist in and of themselves, inde- pendently of our knowledge of them; further I acknowledge that our understanding of them may change over time, or between observers, but that the underlying reality remains constant. My epistemological approach, which aligned with Bhaskar’s Dialectical Critical Realism (DCR), was to collect information from multiple perspec- tives, specifically different individuals, different methodologies, different times, in order to assemble a full picture of the “actual” events, leading to an understanding of the underlying reality. DCR further provided me with a framework, MELD, to guide my methodology to the goal of using the new knowledge and understanding of parenting programmes to pursue real change. If we take a look back to how my research fitted within the MELD model as I outlined in Chapter 1, we can see how the parents’ views help me reach 4D: • 1M I observed and collected the perspectives of parents and trainers on the parenting programme process, changes in parental behaviour and impact on the child, and used these to help understand how each individual’s experience is one manifestation of the underlying reality. • 2E identified what were the nature of the changes reported by parents, recognised the nature of both becoming and “be-going”. What is or was missing in regard to parenting behaviours and child development. I looked at whether there were any contradictions in what parents and trainers were saying. Although this book does not include the trainers’ perspectives this was an important element of my research as it provided triangulation to the data and promoted trustworthiness of the findings. The trainers’ views aligned with what the parents were reporting. • 3L looked at the whole picture, the totality, of the impacts of the parenting programme process. I examined this totality through multiple time points, multiple perspectives, both parents

74 K. SMART and trainers, and multiple methodologies (questionnaires and inter- views). • 4D use this new knowledge and understanding to pursue real change; refocus the Government and local authority attention to addressing these changes. Using this as a model I took individual parent’s feedback, combined it with others, analysed it critically looking for deeper implications and meanings. I now share the knowledge and understanding that I have gained with others through conferences and my written work. I believe that my use of Bhaskar’s MELD to frame my methodology provides valuable knowledge to future researchers and professionals, and that it can act as an example for how Critical Realism can be applied within social science research. References Ainsworth, M. D. (1985). Attachments across the life span. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 61, 792. Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Walls, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; distributed by Halsted Press Division of Wiley. Barlow, J., & Parsons, J. (2005). Group-based parent-training programmes for improving emotional and behavioural adjustment in 0–3 year old children. Campbell Systematic Reviews. Barlow, J., Smailagic, N., Bennett, C., Huband, N., Jones, H., & Coren, E. (2011). Individual and group based parenting programmes for improving psychosocial outcomes for teenage parents and their children (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Bhaskar, R. (1975). A realist theory of science. Leeds: Leeds Books Ltd. Bhaskar, R. (2008). Dialectic: The pulse of freedom. London: Routledge. Bohr, Y., & BinNoon, N. (2014). Enhancing sensitivity in adolescent mothers: Does a standardised, popular parenting intervention work with teens? Child Care in Practice, 20, 286–300. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Egeland, B., & Farber, E. A. (1984). Infant-mother attachment: Factors related to its development and changes over time. Child development, 55(3), 753– 771. Furlong, M., McGilloway, S., Bywater, T., Hutchings, J., Smith, S., & Donnelly, M. (2012). Behavioural and cognitive-behavioural group-based parenting

4 THE VALUE OF SPENDING QUALITY TIME WITH THEIR CHILD 75 interventions for early-onset conduct problems in children age 3–12 years. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Howes, C. (1999). Attachment relationships in the context of multiple caregivers. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical application (2nd ed.). New York: Guildford Press. Hutchings, J., Bywater, T., Daley, D., Gardner, F., Whitaker, C., Jones, K., et al. (2007). Parenting intervention in Sure Start services for children at risk of developing conduct disorder: Pragmatic randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 334, 678. Lindsay, G., & Cullen, M. A. (2011). Evaluation of the Parenting Early Inter- vention Programme: A short report to inform local commissioning processes. London: Department for Education. Mayes, L. C. (2010). Introduction. In T. Baradon (Ed.), Relational trauma in infancy: Psychoanalytic, attachment and neuropsychological contributions to parent-infant psychotherapy. New York: Routledge and Taylor & Francis Group. Menting, A. T., de Castro, B. O., & Matthys, W. (2013). Effectiveness of the incredible years parent training to modify disruptive and prosocial child behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 901–913. Miller, S. (2010). Supporting parents: Improving outcomes for children, families and communities. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill and Open University Press. Rogers, L., Hallam, S., & Shaw, J. (2008). Parenting programmes: Do generalist parenting programmes improve children’s behaviour and attendance at school? The parents’ perspective. British Journal of Special Education, 35, 16–25. Shuffelton, A. (2015). Re-privatizing the family: How “opt-out” and “parental involvement” media narratives support school privatization. Critical Educa- tion, 6(12). Simonicˇ, B., & Poljanec, A. (2014). Building motherhood in the young mothers’ group. Child Care in Practice, 20, 270–285. Sumner, G., & Spietz, A. (1994). NCAST Care-giver/parent-child interac- tion teaching manual, Seattle, WA: NCAST . Seattle, WA: University of Washington, School of Nursing. Thomas, H., Camiletti, Y., Cava, M., Feldman, R., Underwood, J., & Wade, K. (1999). Effectiveness of parenting groups with professional involvement in improving parent and child outcome. Effective Public Health Practice Project. Toronto: Public Health Branch, Ontario Ministry of Health. Veríssimo, M., Santos, A. J., Vaughn, B. E., Torres, N., Monteiro, L., & Santos, O. (2011). Quality of attachment to father and mother and number of reciprocal friends. Early Child Development and Care, 181, 27–38. Zeedyk, M. S., Werritty, I., & Riach, C. (2008). One year on: Perceptions of the lasting benefits of involvement in a parenting support programme. Children and Society, 22, 99–111.

CHAPTER 5 How Children Benefit from Opportunities That Promote Their Development Abstract This chapter discusses how parental behavioural changes, having attended a parenting programme, can benefit their child. Parents report an increased awareness of how their interactions can promote child development and school readiness, with outcomes aligning well with the Early Years Foundation Stage targets. Additionally, this chapter captures the system I devised to provide anonymity and confidentiality to the participants in my research. Keywords Child development · Speech and language · Social · Behavioural · School readiness · Improved confidence This chapter goes on to demonstrate the benefit to children arising from parental behavioural changes having attended a parenting programmes. Assuring Confidentiality and Anonymity Before I dive straight into discussing the third theme, I would like to talk about one of the big problems that faces many researchers, in partic- ular those investigating potentially sensitive or personal issues in social science—that of recruitment and retention of participants. This is particu- larly effective for those potential participants who may, for any number of © The Author(s), under exclusive license to 77 Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 K. Smart, Parenting Programmes: What the Parents Say, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59502-9_5

78 K. SMART reasons, rather not take part because of becoming known especially if they would like to share unfavourable comments. Before I continue, I would like to be clear in how I define and use the two terms confidentiality and anonymity. I consider this to be important as I often encounter these terms being used interchangeably which I feel can be very misleading. Confidentiality When I use the term confidentiality I am ensuring that the identity of the participants who took part in my research is not revealed. I know who the participants are but no-one else will know. This requires more than simply removing any references to their name—I must also ensure that I do not share any personal details which could lead to their identity being recognised. Anonymity The term anonymity differs from confidentiality; when I offer anonymity to potential participants, I am saying that I too will not know who they are. I will not have any record of their name or any contact information. It is so important that research captures all the voices and not just a select few. To overcome this and to promote parental participation and honesty, as well as providing participants with maximum protection, I devised a system where: i. parents could remain anonymous to me; ii. the trainers could not see their confidential data; iii. I was able to compare pre- and post-intervention data from indi- vidual participants without loss of anonymity. Firstly I allocated index numbers to the pre-programme questionnaires before they were handed out. The gatekeeper within each group, typi- cally the programme trainer, would then complete and retain a list that mapped parent names to index numbers. The parents completed the questionnaires and returned them in sealed envelopes to the gatekeeper, ensuring that their responses were kept confidential. When I issued the subsequent post-programme questionnaires, again with index numbers, the gatekeepers were able to refer to their lists and ensure that each

5 HOW CHILDREN BENEFIT FROM OPPORTUNITIES … 79 parent received a correctly numbered questionnaire. And again they were returned via the gatekeeper in sealed envelopes. The consistent mapping of parent to index number meant that I was able to match pre- and post- programme responses from individual parents, for comparison purposes, without having visibility of the parent’s identity. I believe that this approach can be widely applicable to the field of collecting longitudinal data. By assuring the parents of anonymity whilst still providing a mechanism to collect further data from them at a later date, this allowed anonymous comparisons between pre-intervention and post-intervention data. Further, by providing envelopes in which the questionnaires were to be returned, I ensured that the parents’ responses were kept confidential from the gatekeepers so promoting honesty of opinions. This combination of anonymity and confidentiality helped to minimise any concerns on the side of the parents and so maximise partic- ipation. This novel approach will, I hope, support future researchers and professionals in promoting participation rates, particularly amongst more vulnerable groups. My research aimed to be as inclusive as possible by looking at a range of parenting programmes in a range of geographical locations and venues, but it was by its very nature constrained to examine the views of only those parents who actually took part in the programmes. This is an impor- tant point to highlight as I have not included in my research the voices of those who chose not to participate in a parenting programme, and it would be valuable to hear why parents might make such a choice. Was it because of the practicalities of attending or was it because of some negative perceptions associated with parenting programmes? Addition- ally, it would have been beneficial to ascertain why some parents did not complete the course. However because of the anonymity offered to parents, such that they were not required to provide their names or contact details on the questionnaires, this meant that I was unable to pursue the reasons why some parents had not completed the course. This is certainly an area that needs further research. Now on to what the literature has to say about the impact of parenting on children’s development and attainment.

80 K. SMART The Impact of Parenting on Children’s Development and Attainment The engagement and interaction of families is a key component in chil- dren’s development (Feinstein et al. 2004) and education (Desforges and Abouchaar 2003). Here development, as outlined in the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) framework, includes: personal social and emotional; literacy; communication and language; mathematics; under- standing the world; physical; expressive arts and design. These elements are the precursors to, and foundation blocks of, the child’s subsequent educational attainment. The rationale for combining “development” and “attainment” in this section is that between them they cover the entire age range from young infants, through preschool and into primary and secondary education. Desforges and Abouchaar’s review found that at home parenting had a bigger impact regarding variations in child attainment than the quality and composition of primary schooling. Parents were found to be the key influences on the choices young people make at ages 14 and 16. This further supports the importance of the parent–child relation- ship and the investment of developing this through such initiatives as parenting programmes. Research such as that of Desforges and Abouchaar suggests that parental input impacts on children’s lifelong learning, behaviour and developmental outcomes. They make a strong argument that parental engagement with their child at home “is much more signifi- cant than any other factor open to educational influence” (Desforges and Abouchaar 2003, p. 91). Hattie’s (2009) meta-analysis into the contri- butions from the home on their child’s education agrees with Desforges and Abouchaar’s findings in that the effect of parental engagement in their child’s learning over a child’s school career can make a differ- ence equivalent to adding an extra one to one-and-a-half years to their child’s education. Harris and Goodall (2007) also agree that parents who support their child’s learning have the largest influence on their child’s educational achievements; they found that when parents and teachers worked together to support the child’s education there was a signifi- cant improvement in the child’s learning, further supporting the role of the parent in their child’s educational development. Harris and Goodall suggest that:

5 HOW CHILDREN BENEFIT FROM OPPORTUNITIES … 81 Parents have the greatest influence on the achievement of young people through supporting their learning in the home rather than supporting activities in the school. It is their support of learning within the home environment that makes the maximum difference to achievement. (Harris and Goodall 2007, p. 5) They consider that the most significant forms of parental engagement are frequently invisible to schools. This is more about the general support parents provide such as trips to the library which the school may not be aware of. Further, Pomerantz et al. (2007) propose that: Parents’ involvement may be particularly beneficial for children when it is autonomy-supportive, process focused, characterized by positive affect, or accompanied by positive beliefs. However, parents’ involvement may have costs for children if it is controlling … characterised by negative affect, or accompanied by negative beliefs. (Pomerantz et al. 2007, p. 388) This is supported by Hong and Ho (2005) who discovered that for parents of adolescents, excessive parental monitoring of their homework and social life had a negative effect on their teenager’s educational aspira- tions. Hattie’s meta-analysis agreed that parents adopting “a surveillance approach” (Hattie 2009, p. 68) regarding their adolescent son or daugh- ter’s homework and social life could result in a negative impact on their child’s learning. Interestingly Hong and Ho (2005) also suggest that it was parental aspirations that had the most significant influence on children’s achieve- ment. Hattie (2009), whose meta-analysis included Hong and Ho’s study, found that the strongest correlation with children’s achievement was indeed parents having high expectations and aspirations for their children, resulting in adding the equivalent of an extra two to three years to their child’s education. Russell and Granville (2005) recognise that there are a number of factors that can affect how parents support their child’s education and have identified seven different types of parental involvement—informal, semi-formal, formal, active, less active, home based and school based. They were surprised by the amount of impact that parental support in the home can have on the child’s educational attainment. Input at home could range from helping with homework and providing learning

82 K. SMART resources through to simply talking to their child about their day. Based on my professional experience I consider that parents should be encour- aged to value the importance and impact of the time they spend simply talking to their child about their school day or activities or tasks they share at home. This interest in their child especially if coupled with parental aspirations (Hong and Ho 2005; Hattie 2009) could have a positive effect on their child’s education. For some parents where they may be living in crisis (Sampson 2007) pressure to support their child’s homework could add to what already may be a very difficult time. From my professional experience, working with a young woman who was coming to terms with having lost her mother and suddenly finding herself to have effectively become the parent of her brother, I found that she was in a constant battle with him as she tried to encourage and support him to do his homework; a battle that neither of them enjoyed. It was only after agreeing with the school that this family did not need the additional pressure of having to get the child to complete his homework and then discussing with the sister the importance of what she was already doing with her brother, sharing activities and tasks in the home and talking about those, that she realised she was still supporting his education. Russell and Granville found that for some parents supporting their child’s education meant paying tutors to teach their child, particularly around exam time. I have also found in my professional experience that more parents are employing tutors to support their child’s education but not just at exam time or in secondary school but starting whilst at primary school. Additionally I have found more parents making arrange- ments with school to take their child out during the school day to have these sessions rather than after school. It may be the case that the child is benefitting educationally from these sessions, but the constant pressure and time spent on literacy and maths raises concerns as to whether the child is missing out on other important subjects which would give them the chance to discover areas of expertise and passion, in addition to the lack of essential play opportunities when they have to go to additional classes after school. School test and exam results may improve but what about the child’s well-being? This is an area for further research, however it is not one that will be addressed in this study. As a direct outcome of Desforges and Abouchaar’s (2003) report, local authorities country-wide received funding to recruit Parent Support Advi- sors (PSA) whose role included delivering parenting programmes. The

5 HOW CHILDREN BENEFIT FROM OPPORTUNITIES … 83 remit of the PSA was to assist in tackling underachievement by working in partnership with families in a school context to enable pupils to have full access to educational opportunities and overcome barriers to learning and participation. The principle behind the PSA role is one of preventative and early intervention (Lindsay et al. 2009). Their role includes targeting parents of children and young people whom local agencies agree to be at risk or those parents with problems that are known to put their children at risk; for example, parents who are offenders or who have mental health, drug or alcohol problems. A key focus of their role is to ensure that they engage with parents and where appropriate refer them to a parenting programme, often one which has been specifically tailored by the local authority. Following Desforges and Abouchaar’s (2003) review, a few years later Goodall and Vorhaus (2011) carried out a follow-on review to establish what interventions best supported and improved parental engagement in their child’s education. Interventions included in the review were those that were aimed at supporting parental engagement in the educa- tion of children from five years of age through to 19. Goodall and Vorhaus summarised the importance of ensuring that a parental engage- ment strategy needed to be integrated as part of the ethos of the whole school approach. They also stressed the importance of understanding what a parent already does with their child and how they are more likely to work with the school when they try to engage them further in their children’s learning. Goodall and Vorhaus proposed that interventions should be targeted at certain groups of parents and importantly families’ cultures and expectations should be taken into account when considering appropriate interventions. Returning to Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological model and the effects of the parent on the child’s development and attainment, we see that proximal interactions between the parent and their child have the most immediate and earliest influence on the child. Kiernan et al. (2008) recognised the importance of the parents’ role in their children’s lives when they examined the factors that contributed to the school readi- ness of children living in a disadvantaged area. The findings from Kiernan et al.’s (2008) study have contributed to the design of new services in three disadvantaged areas of North Dublin in Ireland to help develop parenting skills with the intention that this will improve school readiness. Sampson (2002, 2003, 2004, 2007) has carried out extensive research in the USA around family interventions and children’s attainment for poor

84 K. SMART black and Latino families; much of his work has focused on promoting a positive learning environment. Evidence supports that home life can have a huge impact on the child and their education. Sampson (2007) proposes that children who receive help with their homework and live in a more positive home environment will do well in school. However, Sampson (2007) found that many families live in crisis and although in most cases parents do want to support their children other priorities are at the forefront, including how to pay the bills. Some existing research into parenting programmes has touched on the impact they have on the child’s development and attainment. Furlong et al.’s (2012) review of parenting programmes for parents with chil- dren aged two to 12 included child educational or cognitive abilities as a secondary outcome, however only four out of the 13 studies included in the review had data for this and one of those was excluded as some of the information was missing. All measures were of short-term impact and none of the studies were carried out in the UK. Furlong et al. (2012) were unable to draw any conclusions on the effectiveness of the parenting programme’s impact with regards to educational and cognitive abilities; this could be attributed to the short-term nature of the studies. Although attainment was not the focus of Hallam, Rogers and Shaw’s study (2006) it was recognised that where parenting programmes had an educational focus promoting home-school links, it was beneficial to children in school. School attendance was not one of the reasons for parents attending the programmes examined by Rogers et al. (2008), but they suggest that a positive approach to morning routines at home resulted in improved school attendance. As part of their research for their book “Educating Ruby: what our chil- dren really need to learn” (2015) Claxton and Lucas interviewed parents and were particularly struck by one letter where a parent thanks the school for running a workshop for parents which they found invaluable in providing them with the correct language, tools and ideas to support their child’s education. This appears to further demonstrate that parents want to be good parents and to be better able to support their child’s education, however sometimes they need help in achieving this; parenting workshops or programmes could be the means to provide this support. Hattie (2009) also raises the importance around parents being able to “speak the language of schooling” (Hattie 2009, p. 71) to help parents support and develop their child’s learning.

5 HOW CHILDREN BENEFIT FROM OPPORTUNITIES … 85 Claxton and Lucas go on to suggest that before we can look at how to shape the education system we need to first look at what parents can provide for children at home to support their education: “the informal ‘domestic curriculum’” (Claxton and Lucas 2015, p. 154). Here they talk about how the parent can model and coach engagement in learning using the example of a Scrabble game to illustrate how the parent could support their child with developing words from the letters in a fun way, and of course remembering to praise the child when they formed their letters into a word; this will not only help the child with their language and spelling but also help promote the child’s confidence and self-belief in their own ability. Parents do not necessarily mean to but inadvertently they can dampen their child’s curiosity when they get frustrated with answering their child’s questions and no longer bother to respond. At the heart of our learning is curiosity and parents hold a key role in nurturing and developing this by answering their child’s questions about the world; however silly or obvious they may seem to the parent, to the child they are still learning about the world. Games can be played to promote the child’s curiosity and of course this will also help develop the child’s language and communication skills. Claxton and Lucas suggest that a great deal of unhappiness comes from poor explanation or unintentional misinterpre- tations; in other words poor communication. To help children to develop their communication skills and have their opinions valued, parents could develop opportunities where their child could practise this skill, around the dinner table or with a game of “Just a minute” (Claxton and Lucas 2015). Many of these ideas sound obvious but evidence has shown that not all parents are actively engaging in conversations with their child. Clearly parenting can have a considerable impact on children’s devel- opment and attainment. My research included an investigation of if and how parenting programmes have a role to play in this regard. What the Parents Say Going back to the parents who participated in my research, all eight parents interviewed reported that since attending the programme they had observed an improvement in one or more areas of their child’s devel- opment. This sits comfortably within Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, specifically the microsystem where there is a direct interaction between parent and child.

86 K. SMART Sophia was one of the parents who recognised that by attending a PEEP group she was learning how she could promote her son’s development: I think it’s the fact you can see him developing, it’s also you having the ideas to be able to help develop. The areas of development reported by parents are: speech and language; social; behavioural; confidence; school readiness and education. Each of these areas will be investigated individually below. Speech and Language Development An integral element of the PEEP programme is promoting speech and language development through songs and rhymes in addition to sharing books and stories, so it is not surprising that so many of the PEEP parents report an improvement in their child’s speech and language: She is talking more clearly, using longer sentences and able to tell me stories nearly word for word PEEP (Q-post) Talking more, using more words PEEP (Q-post) Her vocabulary has broadened. Found her voice, so expresses herself at home with her two loud older brothers! PEEP (Q-post) Seems to be developing fast … verbal communication better PEEP (Q-post) Speech has improved PEEP (Q-post) Emma recognises how her son’s speech has improved: His speech – because before he started nursery and coming up here his speech wasn’t that well, and since he’s been going to nursery and coming

5 HOW CHILDREN BENEFIT FROM OPPORTUNITIES … 87 up here he’s started saying so many more words. And now he’s like saying sentences and it’s more clearer; before he wasn’t that well with his speech Emma For Adelajda attending PEEP has been key in developing her daugh- ters’ spoken English. At home the family only spoke their native tongue, so coming to the group was the girls’ main exposure to taking part in English speaking interactions. Emma had noticed a difference in her son’s language development since reading and sharing stories with him: …he’s more interested in books. Before if I showed him a book he didn’t want to read it, he’d just want to play with a car or something. But now he actually sits down and I read the book to him and he like points out things in the book and says what it is, so I think it has helped him. Mirroring singing and reading activities at home, as promoted during PEEP sessions, appears to be supporting speech and language develop- ment in the child. The data analysis suggests not only are PEEP parents reporting an improvement in their child’s speech and language, they have also identified the value of singing rhymes and sharing stories and books with their child, even babies, in promoting this. For The Incredible Years and Triple-P programmes the question- naire and interview data analysis has not identified activities that could promote speech and language development as important components of the programmes. This could be attributed to two factors: firstly the focus of attending the programme for parents is usually around improving their child’s behaviour and secondly the children are mostly older and in school. Social Development One of the main outcomes reported by parents on the post-programme questionnaire after attending a PEEP group is improved child social development: My children have become more sociable with others and are able to sit still for longer PEEP (Q-post)

88 K. SMART They are more happy. They like to play. They like other children PEEP (Q-post) He is more confident and plays nicer with children of his age. PEEP (Q-post) I find he behaves better and plays with other children and getting better at sharing. It nice seeing him playing PEEP (Q-post) Recognising the value of their child socialising with other children was also a common response from the PEEP parents interviewed: I think those groups are really brilliant because they can like prepare you for it so, so kids are really prepared for to play with kids Adelajda …they’re getting the confidence to be um … with other children, learn to share, sit down, snack time and it’s kinda routine Sophia …social development – they’re a lot more sociable Emma …interaction with other kids, so he’s developed. Jacob For Emma, and many other parents that I spoke to in the groups, she felt: If they didn’t come here then they wouldn’t like socialise with many other children For The Incredible Years and Triple-P parents, socialising is viewed through a different lens; for these parents the data suggest it is more about how their child’s behaviour can have a negative impact on how their child socialises with other children. This will be discussed further in the next section on behaviour.