International Handbook of Psychological Well-Being in Children and Adolescents_ Bridging the Gaps Between Theory, Research, and Practice

Appendix A: Semantic differential scalea 236 R. S. Peterson and M. J. Giles Psychological well- Participant groups being factors Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers parents children children adolescents adolescents teachers teachers teacher parents * Proximal ecological layer: individual and personality factors Respon- * ** * ** sive < - > Unaware of social cues Empa- * ** ** thetic < - > Uncon- cerned, inability/ lack of desire to see another's point of view Emotional regula- * ** * ** ** ** tion < - > Impulsivity Obedience, and con- * * * * forming to cultural norms < - > Deviance from cultural norms and expectationsb Flexibility < - > Rigid- ity Ability to plan and ** * ** set goals < - > Indeci- * ** * ** sive, erratic ** * Active < - > Hyperac- * ** * * tive or inactive Intelligent < - > Intel- * lectually challenged Physical abil- * ** ity < - > Physical disability

Psychological well- Participant groups 14  Children of Tanzania: Culturally Specific Resilience and Vulnerability being factors Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers adolescents adolescents parents children children teachers teachers teacher parents * * Externalizing prob- * lems < - > Internaliz- ing problems Locus of control: * ** ** * ** ** self < - > others Confidence, * optimism, high self-esteem < - > Inse- curity, pessimism, low self-esteem Being male < - > being * * ** ** ** female or a member ** ** of a minority sexual orientationb Safety < - > being a * * * * ** ** victim of trauma and violence, maltreat- ment, neglect, abuse Good nutrition * * and basic necessi- ties < - > malnutrition and lacking basic needs Acknowledging ** * ** ** * ** problems < - > Ignor- ** * ** ing problems Ability to solve prob- * lems < - > Inability to solve problems Ability to manage * * stress < - > Effects of distress 237

Psychological well- Participant groups 238 R. S. Peterson and M. J. Giles being factors Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers children children adolescents adolescents parents teachers teachers teacher parents * * Psychological health < - > Men- tal Illness or Psychopathology Genetically * * ** transmitted * ability < - > disability ** ** Basic trust < - > mistrust Sense of self; coher- * ence < - > sense of emptiness Sense of humor, fun, and adventure < - > no experience of fun or adventure Good communication ** * * * ** skills < - > Lack of skill in communica- tion with people in family or peer groups Autonomy and com- * petence < - > Depen- dence, and a feeling of inadequacy or a belief that one is unable to meet a challenge Ability to self- * ** ** reflect < - > An inabil- ity to think in abstract terms, or to consider factors beyond the obvious

Psychological well- Participant groups 14  Children of Tanzania: Culturally Specific Resilience and Vulnerability being factors Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers children children parents adolescents adolescents teachers teachers teacher parents Motivated, sense * * * * ** ** of purpose, high achievement orienta- tion < - > Lack or inspiration, lack of support for improve- ment, lack of incen- tive to work toward a better future Ability to under- * * * * ** * stand, connect with, and influence people < - > Being socially distant or shy, and unable to express needs or make connections with others Intermediate ecological layer: family, peer, and social relationships Good peer relation- * * * * ** ** ** * ** ** ships < - > Isolation, loneliness, teasing, bullying Good family rela- * * * * tionships < - > Dys- functional family structures, particu- larly marital stress, divorce, substance abuse, domestic violence, parenting problems 239

Psychological well- Participant groups 240 R. S. Peterson and M. J. Giles being factors Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers children children adolescents adolescents parents teachers teachers teacher parents * * Ability to distance * from mentally ill or substance abusing parents (“adaptive distanc- ing”) < - > Being drawn into and repeating negative family and social patterns Prosocial behav- ** * ** * ior < - > Selfishness ** ** Participation in * ** * ** groups which allow them to engage in meaningful, valued activities and roles, develop positive attitudes toward self and others, develop a sense of pur- pose < - > Alienation and isolation; inex- perience with group activities which are valued by social and cultural groups Cohesion in groups * and a sense of belonging < - > Alien- ation and isolation, no sense of affiliation with a group

Psychological well- Participant groups 14  Children of Tanzania: Culturally Specific Resilience and Vulnerability being factors Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers children children adolescents adolescents parents teachers teachers teacher parents * * Moral engage- * ** ment < - > Inability or inexperience in moral reasoning, or acting on moral grounds “Street smarts”, * ** * and situations where youth are able to develop problem-solving skills, planning, decision making, and goal setting skills < - > Inability to identify safe and trustworthy people or situations, indecision, and an inability to think ahead in order to effect a positive outcome Achievement in * * ** ** ** ** * * * ** academics < - > Aca- ** ** demic failure Achievement in non- * academic/vocational subjects < - > Inability to find a job or occu- pation which will meet basic needs and provide a sense of pleasure and mastery Being part of * ** ** a family struc- ture < - > Being 241 orphaned or sepa- rated from family

Psychological well- Participant groups 242 R. S. Peterson and M. J. Giles being factors Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers children children adolescents adolescents parents teachers teachers teacher parents * * * Care and support of * * ** at least one person, not necessarily a parent < - > Isolation Sexual/marriage ** choice < - > Forced ** early marriageb Recognition of good * * ** ** behavior < - > Non- ** recognition of good behavior, and/or harsh punishment Peer group rela- * * ** tionships which encourage appro- priate values and behaviors < - > Devi- ance and tendency to violate societal norms Sense of self and * * purpose < - > Fail- * ure to develop an * increasingly complex and integrated sense of self Confident, competent * parenting < - > Mater- nal stress and parents’ perceptions of themselves as competent parents Mental and physical * * ** ** health of par- ents < - > Parental illness (mental or physical)

Psychological well- Participant groups being factors 14  Children of Tanzania: Culturally Specific Resilience and Vulnerability Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers adolescents adolescents parents children children teachers teachers teacher parents * * * Culturally appro- * * ** priate family values and expecta- tions < - > Family history of devianceb Family/cultural open- ** ** * ness < - > Aversion to discussion, and/or change; observance of and adherence to cultural taboosb High expectations * * ** of youth: moral, social, academic, and vocational, participa- tion and contribution in social activi- ties < - > Low or no expectations of youth in the family and in the culture Positive role mod- ** * * els < - > No role mod- els, or admiration of people who do not conform to socially acceptable attitudes and behaviors Intimacy with oth- ers < - > Isolation, fear of close- ness, or enmeshed relationships Spirituality < - > No ** ** belief in higher 243 power for comfort, support or hope

Psychological well- Participant groups 244 R. S. Peterson and M. J. Giles being factors Male Female Male Female Female primary Female secondary Male secondary Female Male Caregivers children children parents adolescents adolescents teachers teachers teacher parents Distal ecological layer: socio-demographic factors Access to educa- * * * * * * * * ** tion, good teach- ers < - > Ignorance, inability to gain educationb Independence from * * * ** external factors and resources < - > Depen- dence on external resources Societal resources * * * * ** (i.e., food, cash or work) < - > Poverty, unemployment Safe vocations or * * * * ** work < - > Dangerous or exploitative work: mining and transac- tional sexb Access to health * * * * * * * * ** care, housing, and recreation < - > No access to basic needs, such as health care and housing, and no options for recreation a The Semantic Differential Scale was developed through a comprehensive review of the existing literature on resilience and vulnerability to yield factors that are relevant to respective ecological contexts: proximal (personal), intermediate (peers, school, family and community), and distal (national and international policy), as described by Brook, Morojele, Zhang and Brook (2006). This table depicts the extent to which the participant groups in this study endorsed these factors. An asterisk (* ) in any given cell indicates the group (e.g., children, adolescents) that mentioned the resilience or vulnerability factor in the context of focus groups, interviews, or ecomaps (for students). These comparisons thus summarize the similarities and differences between the data collected in the northern Tanzanian population and existing research b Issues specific to women and girls

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Longing for a Balanced Life: 15 Voices of Chinese-American/ Immigrant Adolescents from Boston, Massachusetts, USA Chieh Li and Huijun Li Introduction problems such as emotional distress jumped to the third on the list, preceded only by Mexican This chapter presents the voices from a high- and Haitian immigrant children (Hernandez & achieving and highly stressed group of Chinese Denton, 2003). When surveying the major con- American/immigrant adolescents (C-A/IAs). cerns of Chinese adult immigrants in Boston ages We chose this group for the study because their 35–60, Chen (2008) found that mental health was strong grade point averages (GPA) and standard- ranked as the top concern for themselves and their ized test scores can obscure their high risks for families. The above findings led to our investiga- distress, consequently their psychological needs tion on the stressors that affect the psychologi- and struggles are often neglected (Fuligni & Wit- cal well-being of C-A/I students. To understand kow, 2004). From our own experience as Chinese the C-A/I students from a broader perspective, American (C-A) parents and school psycholo- we briefly review the sociocultural context, the gists, we have seen many C-A/IAs struggling major stressors in C-A/I children’s life, and the with multiple demands and culturally conflicting need for the C-A/I’s cultural perspectives on psy- expectations between the home and school and chological well-being. between parents and peers. Sociocultural Context Current research supports our concerns about the need to attend to the psychological well-being In this study, C-A/IAs refer to ethnic Chinese ad- of Chinese immigrant children. Hernandez and olescents who have at least one parent born out- Denton (2003) reported that among immigrant side of the USA. Currently, there are 3.8 million children from 36 countries, young Chinese im- C-A/I in the USA, 69.0 % of whom are foreign migrant children (ages 3–6) ranked eighth (75 %) born (2,386,392; U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). in being exposed to multiple risk factors for de- This group is diverse in culture, language, world- veloping social and emotional problems. Fur- view, and socioeconomic status. Currently, 56 % thermore, the number of young Chinese immi- of C-As are in the labor force (NYU Center for grant children who were more likely to develop the Study of Asian American Health, 2007). The median household income of C-A is US$ 65,060. C. Li () However, 13.9 % are living below the poverty Department of Counseling & Applied Educational level. Furthermore, 46 % of Chinese immigrant Psychology, Northeastern University, 404 International households contain an adult who does not speak Village, Boston, MA 02115, USA English fluently, and 82.2 % households include e-mail: [email protected] H. Li Florida A & M University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 247 B. K. Nastasi, A. P. Borja (eds.), International Handbook of Psychological Well-Being in Children and Adolescents, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2833-0_15

248 C. Li and H. Li an adult who speaks a language other than Eng- Lack of Culture Specific Interpretations lish at home. of Psychological Well-Being Chinese immigrants come to the USA with Culture shapes the views and expressions of dreams of a better life for their families, especial- psychological well-being. Understanding how ly for their children. This outlook can drive chil- people view and describe their well-being and dren to succeed in school and can provide them concerns in a cultural context is crucial for health with resilience to overcome difficulties in life. psychology and related fields (Sue & Sue, 2008; Chinese parents value education, and view edu- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, cation as the way to blunt the edge of discrimina- 2001). One of the problems is that if C-A/I chil- tion for the next generation (Louie, 2004). They dren are stressed to the extent of seeking help are particularly committed to their children’s ed- from professionals, the professionals may face ucation, and they have high expectations for their difficult methodological challenges (Butcher children’s academic success (Mansell, 2011). & Williams, 2009). The largest obstacles may In general, Chinese students study hard and stem from a lack of existing information on earn high grades in school (Fuligni & Witkow, culture-specific interpretations of psychologi- 2004). However, the parents’ high commitment cal well-being and mental health. That leads and expectation level, along with other stressors to challenges in conceptualizing mental health from home, school, and the community at large, problems, using culturally appropriate terms to can serve as a double-edged sword. On the one talk about the clients’ concerns, and identifying hand, Chinese immigrant students study hard and and measuring psychological symptomatology achieve academically in school (Fuligni & Wit- in different cultural contexts (Li, Friedman-Ya- kow, 2004). On the other hand, Chinese immi- coobian, Min, Gnong, & Seidman, 2013). There- grant children, along with other Asian American fore, unique cultural explanations for the prob- students, tend to report poorer psychological and lems could account for their underutilization of social adjustment, creating an “achievement/ad- clinical services (U.S. Department of Health and justment paradox” (Qin, 2008, p. 22). Human Services, 2001). These issues are more pronounced for recent immigrants (Sue, Zane, & Chinese immigrant children are exposed to Young, 1994). multiple stressors within home and school, in- cluding lack of English proficiency (Davies, Typically,C-As’ perceptions of psychological 2008), misunderstandings between teachers and well-being and mental health are influenced not parents due to language and cultural barriers only by their native culture but also the Ameri- (Vazquez-Nuttall, Li, & Kaplan, 2006), conflict- can culture. According to previous research (Bal- ing expectations between home and school (Li & lard, 1994; Helman, 1985), native culture has Vazquez-Nuttall, 2009), and growing accultura- more fundamental influence on immigrants than tive gaps between parents and children (Hwang, Western cultures. However, a thorough literature 2006; Hwang & Myers, 2007). Acculturation search has not found any studies on Chinese or refers to changes in the behaviors, attitudes, C-A or Chinese immigrant students’ perspectives values, and identities of individuals when they on psychological well-being in the past 20 years. adjust to the new culture (Berry, 1980). Poverty (Reardon-Anderson, Capps & Fix, 2002; Wight, Current Study Chau, & Aratani, 2010) and racial discrimination (Krieger, Sidney, & Coakley, 1999; Louie, 2004) Given the relatively large Chinese immigrant are also significant stressors. All these issues population in the USA and the large proportion may affect C-A/IAs’ psychological well-being. of less acculturated immigrants in this group, the However, voices of C-A/I children, especially amount of stress that children are exposed to, and school age children, are not yet represented in the research.

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 249 the significantly large proportion of children at Participants risk of developing social and emotional issues, it is essential to develop culturally appropriate pre- Participants were 33 C-A/IAs in a large northeast- vention and intervention services for this popula- ern city of the USA. The criterion for inclusion in tion. The first step is to obtain C-A/I students’ this study was that participants had to be ethnic views on psychological well-being and other cul- Chinese adolescents who had at least one parent turally valued competencies as cultural referenc- born outside of the USA. Participants were first- es, as well as their perceptions of stressors and (foreign-born US residents) and second-genera- supports in their lives. The current study provided tion (born in the USA who have at least one for- an opportunity for C-A/IAs to share their views eign born parent) immigrants of two age groups: on culturally valued competencies (including 10–12 and 15–17. This group consisted of 11 boys psychological well-being and role expectations and 22 girls. The average age was 13.5 (SD = 2.9). of a student, friend, citizen, teacher, and parent), Sixty-five percent were born in the USA and 33 % individual and cultural stressors, their coping re- were born in Mainland China. The mean number sponses, types of support and/or stress to or from of years living in the US was 10.99 (SD = 4.61). others, and what parents, teachers, school coun- selors/psychologists, and school/community can Among the participants, 75 % reported that do to help C-A/IAs to reduce stress and promote they speak both English and Chinese (either psychological well-being. The research questions Mandarin or Cantonese). As to their preferred were stated in Chap. 2 of this book. language at home, 37 % reported English, 44 % reported Chinese, and 19 % were bilingual. Re- Methods garding preferred language with friends, 100 % reported English. Among the C-A/IAs, 88.4 % As part of a multisite global effort to examine were living with both biological parents, 9.3 % culture-specific perspectives of stressors, cop- with their biological mother (single-parent house- ing, support, and psychological well-being, we hold), 95.3 % reported that their parents were used the same qualitative methods described in married, and 84 % reported living in a household Chap. 2, including focus groups, individual inter- with three to five people. According to the C-A/ views, and structured activities (ecomap drawing IAs, 12 % of their parents have an elementary and story writing) with C-A/IAs. Our data anal- to high-school-level education, 44% held bach- yses followed the uniformed method of coding elor’s or master’s degrees, and 24 % had a PhD and analysis of data described in Chap. 2. The degree. The average GPA of participants was theme generation for stages 2, 3, and 4 were con- 3.91 (SD = 0.83), ranging from 3 (mostly Bs) to ducted by the two authors and a research scholar 5 (mostly As). (who are bilingual with doctoral level school or counseling psychology training backgrounds). Results from the Suinn-Lew Asian Self Iden- The coding results were compared and discussed tity Acculturation Scale (SL-ASIA) (Suinn et among the researchers until reaching a consen- al., 1992) indicate that participants’ accultura- sus. Due to the bilingual and bicultural feature tion level ranged from 2 (less acculturated) to of the C-A/IAs group, a self-developed question- 5 (highly acculturated) out of a scale of 5. The naire and the Suinn–Lew Asian Self Identity Ac- mean score was 3.20 (SD = 0.403). This means culturation Scale (SL-ASIA; Suinn, Ahuna, & that findings from the current study represent the Khoo, 1992) also were administered to obtain views of fairly well acculturated C-A/IAs. participants’ sociocultural and linguistic back- ground and acculturation level. Measures The study measures included focus group inter- views (described in Chap. 2), ecomap activities

250 C. Li and H. Li (described in Chap. 2), demographic/participant Data Collection  The participants first completed questionnaire, and an acculturation scale. The the participant questionnaire and AL-ASIA, fol- following is a more detailed description of the lowed by the focus groups (or individual inter- demographic/participant questionnaire and the views) and ecomap activities. Both authors were acculturation scale. involved in data collection and analyses. Three Asian American high-school students and two Participant Questionnaire  This questionnaire college freshmen assisted the authors in the was an expansion of the demographic question- recording and logistics of the focus groups. The naire used by the larger study. The participant authors followed the same procedures described questionnaire included gender, age, birth place, in Chap. 2, with the exception of a few additional years living in the USA, language spoken, family questions for the interviews. Additional ques- composition, size, and socioeconomic status, and tions focused on participants’ perception of the self-reported academic (GPA) and social func- relationship between religion and stress, coping, tioning (number of friends) as well as religion and psychological well-being (see Appendix for and perceptions of its impact on daily life. The specific questions). Due to the different levels questionnaire also asked participants what they of bilingualism and proficiency in English and like and what they worry about themselves, their Chinese as well as time and transportation con- home, and school. (See Appendix.) straints among C-A/IAs, the authors conducted the sessions at a convenient location for the par- Suinn-Lew Asian Self Identity Acculturation ticipants and in their preferred language, English Scale (SL-ASIA; Suinn et al., 1992) The SL- or Bilingual. Accommodation to participants also ASIA was developed for Asian Americans of a included going to their home to conduct a ses- wide range of ages from older adults to youth and sion (administered the participant questionnaire of a wide range of immigration generation from and AL-ASIA, followed by an interview with the first to fifth generation. SL-ASIA measures cul- same questions asked in the focus group, and then tural preferences, ethnic interaction, generational the ecomap activity). Five girls and two boys, identity, affinity for ethnic identity and pride, and ages 10–17, were interviewed at home based on food preferences on a scale of 1–5 with 1 = least their needs for accommodation. acculturated, 5 = highly acculturated. Cronbach’s alpha for the SL-ASIA was 0.79, reflecting rea- Data Analysis sonable internal consistency of the scale. Procedures The focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps were analyzed following standard project procedures Participant Recruitment  Both authors actively (see Chap. 2). Analyses were separately conduct- conducted joint and individual outreach in C-A ed for gender and age level. Descriptive analy- communities representative of different social ses of the demographic information and the SL- economic status and immigration status. The ASIA acculturation scale were conducted with participants were mainly identified during com- SPSS Version 19. munity outreach. C-A community leaders, ado- lescents, and parents also helped spread our re- Findings cruiting flyers (which were approved by our uni- versity research integrity review board) among Results from the analyses provided prelimi- potential participants. Individuals who met the nary answers to the research questions stated in participating criterion (ethnic Chinese adoles- Chap. 2. This section presents C-A/IAs’ views of cents who have at least one parent born outside culturally valued competencies, individual and of the USA) were included in the study.

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 251 cultural stressors, and source of support as well happiness or manipulate your surroundings to as how C-A/IAs cope with stress and support achieve/maintain happiness.” each other. The section begins with major themes 2. Having a positive outlook. That means “to see generated from the focus groups and interviews, the virtuous, positive, the bright side of human and concludes with participants’ suggestions for kind.” parents, teachers, school counselors, psycholo- 3. “Psychological well-being is when your mind gists, and administrators on ways they can help is at peace, when you are at peace with your- C-A/IAs to reduce stress. self and well balanced.” 4. “Knowing yourself”/self-awareness. That In describing each theme, we use the C-A/ means “you know who you are and the mean- IAs’ own words to maintain the cultural flavor. ing of your life”; “When you are upset, you It should be noted that although there are com- are aware, be able to let it go. It’s not you are monalities among the responses within a certain always happy. It’s that you understand your group who are of similar acculturation levels and emotions.” socioeconomic backgrounds (e.g., 15–17-year- 5. Mentally healthy. That is “how healthy your old girls), individual differences in worldviews mind is.” “Normal, but there’s no such thing exist for many reasons. Different religious and as ‘normal…’”; “not doing crazy things,” socialization influences may be among the pos- “not doing anything that they know will harm sible factors. them”; “not drinking/ smoking”; “be balanced with all the emotions,” “emotions are not too Culturally Valued Competencies extreme”; and “be mentally stable, so if they get a certain emotion, they’ll know how to Culturally valued competencies are intended to handle it.” reflect adolescents’ internalized cultural norms 6. Self-regulation. The C-A/IAs explained, “It’s regarding positive and negative functioning, and not that you don’t feel angry at all, but when thereby providing a cultural reference to under- you feel angry you know how to deal with it”; stand their experiences of stress, coping, and sup- “able to handle stress”; “can control their emo- port. Themes related to competencies included tions”; and “go along with society’s rules.” psychological well-being and role expectations 7. Being reflective. That includes “the ability to of student, friend, citizen, teacher, and parent. learn from one’s own mistakes.” The following findings reflect consensus across gender and developmental level, unless other- As to what factors influence psychological well- wise indicated. being of children and adolescents, the C-A/IAs identified multiple factors, including physical C-A/IAs’ Perspectives on Psychological Well- health (that influences emotional health), aca- Being  As a group, the C-A/IA participants pro- demic performance, friendship, media, self-per- vided comprehensive and holistic definitions ception and perception/treatment from others, for psychological well-being. To many of them, and social activities. psychological well-being is shaped by physical, psychological, academic, and social conditions. C-A/IAs’ Role Expectations  The C-A/IAs por- The following provide a profile of a psychologi- trayed culturally valued competences expected cally healthy person as described by this group for those in the role of student, friend, citizen, of C-A/IAs: teacher, or parent. Mutual beneficial and con- structive interpersonal relationships were embed- 1. Being happy and having the ability to achieve ded in participant descriptions for all roles. and maintain happiness. That includes “feel- ing content, not worried, not stressed very Student  In general, the C-A/IAs described a easily,” “able to act in a way to bring about “good” student as one who (consistent with

252 C. Li and H. Li expectations) listens, follows teacher’s direc- always there for children, are patient, provide a tions, studies, completes homework on time, is good environment for children to study, and have respectful and attentive in class, gets along well two-way communication with children.” The with peers, follows school rules, does not disturb 10–12-year olds also hope parents can help them the class or peers, and does not “goof off.” Some with schoolwork when in need. The 15–17-year- also described a good student as creative. olds want parents to be a friend/mentor who gives helpful advice and encourages children. Citizens  C-A/IAs recognized that a good citizen They maintain that “good parents give necessary should follow the law, and do no harm to oth- criticism for feedback, but are not too mean and ers, the community, country, or environment. won’t make their children feel hurt in any way.” The 15–17-year-olds also included attitudes and “Good parents do not criticize children too much. behaviors such as respecting others’ opinions, not They do not abuse children.” “They listen to a littering, volunteering in the community, believ- child and give their thoughts thoughtful consider- ing in the greater good, and benefiting the com- ations.” “They set limits for children reasonably munity as a whole, not just one particular group. and give children enough freedom for their right- In the words of one respondent, “They want to ful age.” “They spend fun/quality time together make the world a better place.” with children.” In addition, “good parents have appropriate self-discipline, do not do drugs or Friends  The C-A/I adolescents expect a good involve [themselves] in illegal activities.” friend to be trustworthy, understanding, accept- ing, caring, and supportive. Good friends listen Individual and Cultural Stressors to and help each other when in need, and should also be able to share interest and joy. As one ado- Through the focus groups, interviews, and eco- lescent reported, “A not good friend only cares map activities, C-A/IAs identified a large number about themselves.” of stressors in their lives at school and home (see Tables 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, and 15.4). In the patterns Teachers  In the C-A/IAs’ minds, a good teacher is column of the tables, the stressors are presented good at teaching and classroom management, and is as themes. Across age and gender the outstand- caring, approachable, patient, and does not give up ing stressors are related to interpersonal, aca- on students. The older adolescents articulated the demic/performance, home, school, and culture. characteristics of a good teacher in a more sophis- The main sources of stress are parents, teachers, ticated manner. For example, good teachers “teach peers, tests, heavy loads of homework, family skills necessary for school and for life,” “make economic difficulties, family conflicts, and cul- learning enjoyable,” “teach students in a way that tural conflicts. cultivates learning,” “encourage students [to] work independently,” are “sensitive to student needs and C-A/IAs’ Perceptions of Cultural Stress- provide help when needed,” “help to direct a stu- ors  An overarching stressor for C-A/IAs is cul- dent to the right path,” and “know when to be seri- tural conflicts between children and parents and ous and when to have fun.” Furthermore, “a good between home and school. This is reflected in teacher is observant, keen, and open-minded to the different expectations from teachers, peers, and different approaches of learning various students parents as well as different cultural norms. When have. They understand thoroughly what they are compared to mainstream American parents, the teaching and won't make learning harder through C-A/IAs perceive that Chinese parents place conventional ways of teaching or through their greater emphasis on academic achievement than lack of knowledge on the subject they teach.” on social and emotional needs of children. C-A/ IAs feel sad or frustrated that they have much Parents  In general, the C-A/IAs believe that greater pressure for academic achievement and “good parents take care of their children, are

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 253 Table 15.1   Stressors by age for males Middle Secondary Themes: types of stressors (across (age 10–12) (age 15–17) ages) Tests/MCAS Fail a test Interpersonal Have a lot of homework Bad grades Yelled at by parents Study but get a bad grade Too much work Unreasonable teachers Get in trouble Not enough sleep Disappointed by a friend Yelled at by teachers or parents Teachers when they are unreasonable Peer pressure Home alone Peer pressure Conflicts with family members Worries about safety/getting lost High expectations (from parents) Academic/performance Fears (of dogs, darkness, after a scary Parents when they yell at me Tests video game) When I am disappointed by a friend Too much homework Not able to do fun outdoor activities- If I cannot get into a class Fail a test/bad grade Fail to meet a personal goal When my computer’s running very Cannot get into a class (age 15–17) Being interrupted (e.g., during study, slow Get in trouble (age 10–12) video game, piano practice, by sib- Being sick Fail to meet a personal goal lings and parents) Not having a stable home Home When people talk too much American friends have lenient parents Worries about safety Conflicts with family members/sib- and can get away with things (but I Home alone (age 10–12) lings due to daily minor issues do not) Not having a stable home Struggle in video games Waking up early (5:30 a.m.) Family problems (Sports) games Losing a sport/game Strict parenting Health Being sick (waking up early) Not enough sleep (age 15–17) Competition Video games (age 10–12) Losing a sport/game equipment Cultural High expectations (from parents) American friends have lenient parents and can get away with things (but I do not) a Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps MCAS: Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System less time to play or relax since their parents have With the high expectations of academic much higher academic expectations of them than achievement and the increasing difficulties for their peers’ parents. students to get into the top colleges (that C-A/IAs feel their parents want them to apply for), C-A/ Two responses exemplify the stresses related IAs’ days are filled with academic and extracur- to parental expectations. One describes a stress- ricular activities that are supposed to strengthen ful situation: “with grades, they (parents) expect their college application. A large number of C-A/ so much out of you and sometimes it’s not possi- IAs (especially those from the middle-class fami- ble to get an A+ with a certain teacher.” Another lies) also attend Chinese language schools on the depicts the heightened sense of anxiety prior to weekend where the completion of daily home- giving a report card to parents or asking for their work is expected, have piano or other music les- permission to go out and spend time with friends: sons, art, dance, swimming or other skill lessons, “If you know how they’re [parents] going to react and mathematics or other academic lessons. Fur- to a grade or if you want to go somewhere, you thermore, these activities continue into the sum- feel kind of stressed asking them or giving them mer, leaving these students with minimal time off your report card or a paper to sign or something from school. The days for the 10th–12th graders because they’re going to make a big deal over it are even longer, often going beyond midnight. or start lecturing you.”

254 C. Li and H. Li Table 15.2   Stressors by age for females Middle Secondary Themes: types of stressors (across (age 10–12) (age 15–17) ages) Tests/quizzes/MCAS School and academic work Interpersonal Grades Tests Peer gossip Too much homework Many things to do(coursework, col- Being ignored by peers No friends lege application) Broken relationship Public speaking Sports (pressure to perform well) No friends Embarrassment Parent pressure to get good grades Moody teacher/teacher mad at you Forget about homework Cultural difference between children Overcontrolling parents (age 15–17) Get into trouble and parents Boys (age 10–12) Chaotic/noisy classroom Moody, temperamental teacher Teacher getting mad at you Ineffective teaching style Academic/performance Racist people Derogatory comments on Asian stu- Tests Boys dents from Asian teachers based on Too much homework Losing things stereotypes of Asian students Test/grades Family conflicts Overcontrolling parents Many things to do(coursework, col- Health problems of family members Unreasonably high expectation of lege application; age 15–17) Money problems children’s academic performance Parent pressure to get good grades Safety issues Parents making false assumptions Chaotic/noisy classroom (age 10–12) Mother not home (at work, on busi- (like you have a boyfriend) Ineffective teaching (age 15–17) ness trip) Parents fight Get in trouble (age 10–12) Peer gossip Being ignored by peers Home Broken relationship Family conflicts/parents fight A friend’s death Safety issues Tragic events in the media Money problems Health problems of family members Mother not home (at work, on busi- ness trip) Parents making false assumptions (age 15–17) Incidental A friend’s death Tragic events in the media Public speaking Embarrassment Forget about homework Lose things Cultural Unreasonably high expectation of children’s academic performance Cultural difference between children and parents Derogatory comments on Asian stu- dents from Asian teachers based on stereotypes of Asian students Racism Racist people Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps MCAS: Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System Many of them take four to five advanced place- lege entrance tests, these students have college ment (AP) courses, working hard for an A and applications to complete. Many students experi- a perfect test score of 5 for each subject, while ence pressure from their parents to apply to pre- also preparing for the scholastic assessment test mier universities and colleges, such as Harvard (SAT), aiming to achieve perfect scores. On top and other Ivy League schools, and to rigorous of working for top grades and studying for col- majors. One C-A/IA voiced this concern about

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 255 Table 15.3   Sources of stress by age and gender Middle Secondary Themes: sources of stress (ages 10–12) (ages 15–17) (across ages) Males Teachers School Teachers Parents Home Parents Little siblings Parents Peers Self Teachers Siblings Peers Self-anxiety, health condition Ecomap Friends Friends School Self-health condition School My own anxiety Computer Home Computer Ecomap School Upper classmen in school Females Teachers Parents Teachers Peers Teachers Parents Parents Peers Peers Self Relationships Siblings Bullying School work Relationships (age 15–17) Home safety Tragic events Grandparents/aunt/cousin Cultural stereotypes Other Asian kids and their Ecomap parents Tests/examinations/MCAS Ecomap Self Performing School work Schoolwork Teacher Tests/SAT Tests/examinations Aunt Peers Performing Cousin Teacher School Siblings School Bullying Aunt Getting sick Home safety Chores Grandparent Getting sick Babysitting Uncle, aunt Tragic events Society Cultural stereotypes Fall/school starts Society Other Asian kids and their parents Babysitting Running Running Chinese peers Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps SAT: scholastic assessment test, MCAS: Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System being overwhelmed and stressed, “There are so example, under academic stress/stress at school, many things to do” but “not much time to sleep.” a stressor for a 15–17-year-old is “can’t get into a class (that he/she wants to take),” but for a The C-A/IAs experience other stressors be- 10–12-year-old is “get into trouble (in school).” yond academic performance. They often live Under stress at home, to be “home alone” is under an authoritarian parenting style, which, identified as a stressor by the 10–12-year-olds, according to C-A/IA participants, includes one- but not by the 15–17-year-olds. In addition, the way communication (i.e., parents talk, children awareness of internal sources of stress increases listen), parents not listening to children, not re- by age. The 15–17-year-olds identified their own specting children’s opinions, and very strict rules anxiety as a source of stress, but the 10–12-year- (e.g., very limited time allowed for the Internet or olds did not. socializing with friends). Gender differences were found in types of Within-Group Differences by Age and Gender stressors, that is, boys reported stress from health in Perception of Stressors  The stressors identi- problems and competition, whereas girls report fied by participants vary by age and gender. For stress from racism and incidents such as a friend’s

256 C. Li and H. Li Table 15.4   Sources of both stress and support by age and gender Middle Secondary Themes: sources of both stress and (ages 10–12) (ages 15–17) ­support (across ages) Males Parents Parents People Teacher Teachers Parents Siblings Brothers Teachers Classmates Friends Friends Cousin Cousins Classmates/teammates Grandparents Uncle Siblings Class Teammates Cousins School Aunts/uncles/grandparents Uncle/aunt Travel Place (age 10–12) People School Friends Class Activity (age 10–12) Travel Females Parents Parents People Teacher Teachers Parents Siblings Siblings Teachers Aunt Friends Siblings Cousin Supervisor Friends Friends Phone Peers School Computer Aunts/grandparents MCAS Peers/classmates Coach (age15–17) Shopping Grandparents Church people (age15–17) Traveling Community School Place Coach School School coursework Community (age15–17) Tests/college application Concerts Activities Sports competitions Test/MCAS Church people Shopping (age10–12) Traveling (age10–12) School coursework (age15–17) College application (age15–17) Concerts (age15–17) Sports competitions (age15–17) Findings, reflecting student voices, based on ecomaps and represent relationships coded “ambivalent” MCAS: Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System death and tragic news from media. Gender dif- girls reported experiencing derogatory com- ferences also were evident in how stressors were ments from Asian teachers based on stereotypes articulated. For example, boys described specific of Asian students, implying that Asian students cultural stressors, whereas girls described both are expected to be high-achieving academically specific cultural stressor and the nature of the but they are not; boys did not report this same problem. The following is an illustration. Boys experience. described stress as “high expectations from par- ents” and by saying “American friends have le- Source of Support nient parents and can get away with things [but I don’t],” whereas girls characterized stress as C-A/IA participants identified numerous sources “unreasonably high expectations of children’s of support in their ecomaps and focus groups academic performance” and “cultural difference (see Table 15.5). Across age and gender, the most between children and parents.” Furthermore,

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 257 Table 15.5   Sources of support by age and gender Middle Secondary Themes: sources of support (across ages) (ages 10–12) (ages 15–17) Males Friend Friends Friends Siblings Parents Siblings Teacher Guidance counselor Parents Parents Teacher Teachers Coach Sibling Guidance counselor (age 15–17) Family Aunt Classmates/peers (age 15–17) Computer Cousin Aunt/uncles/grandparents Holiday activities Classmates/peers Cousin Vacation Neighbor Online strangers who do not judge Fun activities at school Online strangers who do Neighbor (age 15–17) and elsewhere not judge Religion (age 10–12) Video game Family (age 10–12) Grandparents Fun activities (age 10–12) Cousins Vacation (age 10–12) Aunts, uncles Video game(age 10–12) Religion Age difference The older focus on people, the younger focus on both people and activities Females Parents Friends Friends Friends Siblings Siblings Teacher Parents Parents Siblings Grandparents Teacher Gardening Peers/classmates Cousins Volunteering Teacher Books Pets/dog Teammates Report cards Boyfriend Responses from age 10–12 only Weddings Self Pets/dog Books Invisible friend (online) School Outdoor activities (ice Music Volunteering skating/ tennis) Environment Gardening School Kids (in summer camp) Outdoor activities (ice skating/tennis) Cousin Relatives Report cards Aunts, uncle Weddings Cousins Dance studio Responses from age 15–17 only Swimming pool Teammates Books Boyfriend Entertainments Peers/classmates Reading Boyfriend Geometry Self Daydreaming Invisible friend online Planning Grandparents/aunt, uncle Drawing Dance studio Listening to music Swimming pool Cook Entertainments Church Reading Trips Geometry Daydreaming Planning Drawing Listening to music Cook Church/revered Trips Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps The sources of support are listed by frequency from the top to the bottom. The most frequent is listed first

258 C. Li and H. Li recognized source of support is people. Among identified more sources of support than boys, in- people, the number one source of support is cluding internal resources and relaxing activities. friends, followed by siblings, teammates, parents, The fact that more females participated in the teachers, guidance counselors, family, extended study may have contributed to this finding. family members, boyfriends (identified by the 15–17-year-old girls), and neighbors (identified Source of Both Stress and Support by the 15–17-year-old boys). The 15–17-year-old boys and girls also listed online virtual friends In the ecomap activity, participants designated as a source of support. The 10–12-year-olds sources (people, activities, places) that provid- listed pets as a source of support. C-A/IAs also ed both support and stress (what we labeled as identified places (e.g., school by 10–12-year- ambivalent; see Table 15.4). The mean number olds; entertainment, dance studios, swimming of relationships (across age and gender; labeled pools, and churches by 15–17-year-olds), mate- supportive, stressful, or ambivalent) was nine, rials (video games by the 10–12-year-old boys; with totals ranging from 3 to 19. Figure 15.1 il- books and music by all), and activities (reading, lustrates one respondent’s ecomap. Of the rela- drawing, listening to music, cooking, volun- tionships, 36.4 % were ambivalent, compared to teering, participating in fun activities, and out- 18.8 % stressful and 44.8 % supportive. On aver- door physical activities) as sources of support. age, each individual perceived three relationships A few 10–12-year-olds also identified religion, in his/her life as ambivalent. The main supports whereas the 15–17-year-old girls identified self were parents, teachers, friends, siblings, and rela- as a source of support and listed activities they tives; these were also identified as the primary could do themselves to foster their psychologi- stressors (see Tables 15.1, 15.2, and 15.3). Simi- cal well-being. One source of support identified larly, activities such as traveling, shopping, and across age and gender is extended family. This sports were characterized as both relaxing and is consistent with the Chinese cultural value and stressful (Table 15.4). Finally, school was iden- support system of extended family. tified as a source of both support and stress for these students. Age and gender differences were observed in the type of relationships, materials, and activities identified as sources of support. In addition, girls Fig. 15.1   Example of an ecomap. Support is symbolized by a straight line (i.e., _____). Stress is symbolized by xxxxx. Ambivalent is symbolized by xxxxx over a straight line

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 259 Table 15.6   Reactions to stress/coping strategies by age for males Middle Secondary Themes: reaction to stress/coping strategies (ages 10–12) (ages 15–17) (across ages) Emotions Emotions Emotions Get sad and mad (when get- Upset/have tears Sad/upset ting a bad grade) Confused Worried Get frustrated Worried Mad Get mad Frustrated Expressions of emotions Expressions of emotions Expressions of emotions Cry Look not energetic Not talking Fight (with brother who Raise voice Cry keeps bothering me) Swear, fight Fight Fight Swear Not talking Look not energetic Raise voice Thoughts Thoughts Thoughts Not reported “It’s only a game” (in sports) “It’s only a game” (in sports) Actions Actions Actions Talk to someone Talk to friends Talk to friends/someone Seek support/help from Ask friend/teacher* for help for aca- Seek help from friends, teacher for academic others demic problems problems Talk to teachera to clear the confusion Talk to guidance counselor (age 15–17) Talk to guidance counselor Go online and talk to strangers they do not Go online and talk to strangers they do judge (age 15–17) not judge Not parents (because they would not under- Not parents (because they would not stand me well due to) culture gap, difficult, understand me well due to) culture gap, age difference difficult, age difference Age differences Responses from the older students include (1) perception of cultural differences and cultural value issues, (2) talk to guidance counselor, and (3) talk to strangers who don’t judge, whereas the younger students’ responses do not include these a Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps. In response to the question of which teacher, Chinese or American, you would feel comfortable to talk to, acculturated students feel American teach- ers understand them better. It is more about values than ethnicity, for example, Chinese teacher who was raised in America (would understand C-A students more) How Do C-A/IAs Cope with Stress? respondents (ages 15–17) reported cognitive pro- cesses or strategies as illustrated by the follow- The coping responses to stress (generated from ing: “Think of pleasant things” when stressed out; the focus groups, ecomaps, and interviews) were think “It’s only a game” to convince the self not coded as involving emotions, thoughts, or actions to be upset about a basketball game. The older (see Tables 15.6 and 15.7). Overall, the emo- (compared to younger) groups also generated a tional responses are similar across age and gen- more extensive list of coping skills. Responses der, although the older children generated more from the 15–17-year-old boys included: (a) talk to expressions of emotions, (e.g., descriptions of guidance counselor and (b) talk to strangers who physical changes when being anxious). However, do not judge. In response to the question “which age difference in the category of thoughts is sa- teacher, Chinese or American, you would feel lient. Younger respondents (ages 10–12) did not comfortable to talk to?” more acculturated (who report cognitive coping strategies, whereas older scored higher on the SL-ASIA) 15–17-year-old boys say that American teachers understand them

260 C. Li and H. Li Table 15.7   Reactions to stress/coping strategies by age for females Middle Secondary Themes: reactions to stress/coping strategies (ages 10–12) (ages 15–17) (across ages) Emotions Emotions Emotions Stressed Stressed Stressed Scared Nervous Nervous Nervous Worried Worried Disappointed Pissed/angry Pissed/angry Angry Disappointed Scared Expression of emotions Expression of emotions Expression of emotions Crying Crying Crying Sweating (from being nervous) Irritable Sweating Heart was pounding Perceived by others as mean Heart was pounding Kick Irritable Throw tantrums Perceived by others as mean Kick Throw tantrums Thoughts Thoughts Thoughts (age 15–17 only) Not reported Think of pleasant things (e.g., Think of pleasant things (e.g., vacation) vacation) It is almost the end of the school year, just 2 It is almost the end of the school more weeks year, just 2 more weeks Not to think about it/not think too much Not to think about it/not think too much Actions Actions Actions Ask parents/teachers for help Talk to friends Watch TV for hours  Constructive outlet: Talk to siblings Play with dog Eat a lot   Write about it Play piano Play video games Calm down   Share with friends Call or text a friend for help (for  Do something to feel better/calm down: academic problem)   Watch TV for hours Overcome school stress on one’s   Eat a lot own   Play with dog Bravely made public speech with   Play piano parental support   Play video games/play on computer Do something to feel better (lis-   Listen to music ten to music, play on computer,   Take a rest/relax dance, play piano)   Try to be balanced (age 15–17) Take a rest/relax  Reach out for help Try to be balanced   Ask parents/teachers for help depending on the nature of the problem   Text or talk to friends   Talk to siblings Constructive outlet Age differences Write about it (1) Older—more aware of cognitive strate- Share with friends gies (think of pleasant things), and (2) More extensive list of coping strategies including what strategies they are using and what they can do Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps. Girls’ coping actions include both individual actions by themselves and seeking support from others (adults, peers), whereas boys’ responses only include seeking support from others better. They expressed, “It’s more about values Gender difference is observed in the student than ethnicity. For example, a Chinese teacher responses about coping. Girls’ coping skills in- who was raised in America [would understand clude engaging in individual actions by them- Chinese American students more].”

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 261 selves and seeking support from others (adults, for hours or eating a lot could have negative im- peers), whereas boys’ responses only included pacts on their well-being. seeking support from others. The coping actions of 15–17-year-old girls were more strategic, How Do C-A/IAs Help Each Other to including (a) using constructive outlets (write Cope with Stress? about it, share with friends); (b) doing something to feel better/calm down (listen to music, play The C-A/IAs have generated (from the focus with dog, try to be balanced); and (c) reaching groups and interviews a list of practical strategies out for help (ask friends, parents or teachers for that they use to support each other for each kind of help depending on the nature of the problem). problems (academic, interpersonal conflict, loss One respondent explained why she would seek of loved ones) and the need of the person (prob- peer support to overcome her stressed emo- lem solving, emotional support). See Tables 15.8 tion: “When I am upset, I rely most on my close and 15.9. Their approaches to assisting someone friends because a lot of the time they understand afflicted by stress could be categorized in two exactly how I feel and [know] what to say or how types of support—emotional and instrumental. to help me feel better.” For example, when asked what to do to help a sad or upset peer, the 10-year-olds suggested: Not all coping responses (see Table 15.7) were “Ask what’s wrong,” “tell jokes,” “buy them considered positive. For example, watching TV Table 15.8   Types of support/supportive relationships by age for males Middle Secondary Themes: types of support (across (ages 10–12) (ages 15–17) ages) Be supportive and helpful (e.g., ask Listen to them Help with problem solving what’s wrong) Give them space/leave them alone Helps to cognitively understand the Get them distracted by telling jokes Support them situation Getting them something to eat Simply sympathize for them Helps to solve the problem Buy them soda Give them food or money Encourage you to seek help when Sneak them candy Talk to them and spend time with needed Give them space them Teach you skills to succeed with Encourage to communicate with Try to comfort and allow him/her to academic work, sports, etc parents if the source of stress is from express his/her feelings Emotional support parents Tell parents or other friends Peer support Seek help from adults, such as parents Try to handle it yourself before going Listen, let you vent feelings, accept and teachers to a counselor Spend time with him/her Parental support in resolving sibling Always be there for you Calm (with food, money) conflicts/fights Spend time together/have fun Encourage, cheer up Parental guidance and encouragement together Make you laugh, play, distract you Parental support of school work/test Have shared interest from the negative thoughts and Family support during competitions Listen to you when you are in trouble, feelings Comfort when feeling upset allow you to vent your feelings Parental/teacher support Friendship Help you when you have trouble with Resolving conflicts Be friends with you in a new school assignments Guidance and encouragement Sibling support Also gives you positive feedback Pets are supportive buddies at home Pets are supportive buddies at home, Help you to calm down when you They keep you company when par- especially when parents are busy at lose control of anger ents are busy at work work Peers cheer you up Age differences Coach gives you tips to win More independent from adults and Teacher helps me prepare for a test instrumental help at older ages More sensitive to personal space and preference when coping with stress Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps

262 C. Li and H. Li Table 15.9   Types of support/supportive relationships by age for females Middle Secondary Themes: types of support (across (ages 10–12) (ages 15–17) ages) Help Making them laugh by doing some- Help with problem solving Talk to thing funny Helps to solve the problem Spend time together Share happiness Help with difficult academic Ask what happened Provide comfort assignments Tell a joke Provide a listening ear and Give candy consultation Emotional support Help me solve problems Help them think about something Peer support Encourage me before an examination more pleasant Ask what happened or performance Supportive (if you have a problem, Listen Comfort me when I am upset then they listen to you and they help Help them think about something Take care of me when I am sick you out) more pleasant Help with difficult academic Spend time together assignments Share happiness Trustworthy Provide comfort, candy Having fun together Encourage them Caring Tell a joke Parental support Take care of me when I am sick Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups, interviews, and ecomaps soda,” and “sneak them candy.” A 17-year-old The C-A/IAs in this study shared their pre- responded, “It depends how close the person is vention approaches for psychological well-being to me. If she is close to me, I would observe and (e.g., see Tables 15.8 and 15.9). A representative find what help she (or he) needs. I would offer to approach is maintaining a balanced life. For ex- talk to her (or him), to give her (or him) support. ample, one C-A/IA explained how she maintained If she seemed to need more help, I would talk to her well-being when under multiple pressures: “I an adult or a school psychologist.” A 15-year-old run, exercise, hang out with friends, leisure, do responded, “Assess why they’re having a prob- whatever to keep a balance of life.” Other C-A/ lem and how to fix it. You need to work on it IAs shared similar approaches of participating in yourself first, and if that doesn’t work, ask fam- activities to maintain a balanced life. ily members, peers, etc. for help. If that doesn’t work, seek professionals for help.” C-A/IAs’ Suggestions Age differences in types of support to or The C-A/IA participants seemed very pleased to from others were noted. Older adolescents (ages have an opportunity to voice their views, con- 15–17) reported independent and/or instrumental cerns and solutions to minimizing stress and im- approaches to support that were characterized by proving psychological well-being. They shared multistage problem solving, sensitivity to per- stories of their daily struggle of meeting multiple sonal space and individual needs or preferences, demands and coordinating conflicting expecta- and awareness of available resources (e.g., pro- tions. They expressed longing for understanding fessional help for serious problems). An example from parents, teachers, and others. Table 15.10 of multistage problem-solving strategy is first, highlights the C-A/IAs’ appeal to and sugges- offering support to the stressed friend individual- tions for parents, teachers, school counselors/ ly; second, seeking additional support from peers school psychologists, and schools and communi- and family members; and third, seeking profes- sional help as the last resort.

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 263 Table 15.10   Suggestions from Chinese American/immigrant adolescents for adults at home and school/community Suggestion Explanationa Parents Be understanding Includes (a) being aware of cultural barriers chil- dren experience at home and school and (b) being aware of generation gaps Be more supportive Includes being available but not overprotective Be a good role model Model good behaviors for children, e.g., parents should not watch TV too much if they do not want children to do that Keep good physical and mental health Parents’ health, both physical and mental, is very important to children’s well-being. In order to take care of children, parents should take care of themselves Keep appropriate communication with Includes not to criticize so much and not to yell children so much Be democratic Express opinions but not force it upon a child, because children need space to grow Teachers Provide a balanced environment To lessen stress Use educational model of prevention Develop a good teacher–student To allows students to approach teachers in case relationship of need Be able to listen Ease bullying Space out school assignments To allow students to control their own time School counselors/ Educate students on a wide variety of psychologists topics on mental health Take the time to check students To allow the students to see that the school coun- selors are there to help them Help students solve problems Have fun with students To put their minds at ease Help children feel comfortable To allowing them to express themselves freely School/community Promote diversity and acceptance By implementing more racially, socioeconomi- cally, and culturally aware policies to make sure students of all backgrounds feel comfortable in their learning environment Keep school safe, comfortable, with respect, no bullying Support family and community members Have supportive and approachable teachers and staff when a student struggles Teach right values Balance between freedom and control for students Maintain appropriate communication between adults and children Work out problems Findings, reflecting student voices, based on focus groups and interviews a Participants offered explanations for some (but not all) of their suggestions. Explanations are provided when available

264 C. Li and H. Li ty on ways they can help reduce stress and facili- Overall, the critical stressors identified by tate a balanced life for this population of highly C-A/IAs align closely with the relevant literature achieving and highly stressed adolescents. within the field (Hwang & Myers, 2007; Li & Vazquez-Nuttall, 2009; Louie, 2004). However, In summary, the C-A/IAs made systemic and their responses also further extend the literature by practical suggestions to important adults at home providing a broad list of ambivalent relationships and school to help reduce stressors in their lives. that are sources of both support and stress. Their Their common recommendations for parents and ecomap stories illustrate how people (e.g., parents, teachers are to be understanding and supportive, teachers, friends, siblings), activities (e.g., music and balance between freedom and control for lessons, sports) and places (e.g., home, school) children. They also emphasized listening and can be sources of both support and stress. appropriate communication between adults and children as well as promotion of diversity and ac- Through these discussions, C-A/IAs also de- ceptance in the school and community. Most of scribed their ideals of a good student, friend, the suggestions called for changes in learning or citizen, teacher, and parent, and their conception home environments that would nurture the psy- of psychological well-being. The C-A/IAs’ key chological well-being for all children. characteristics of ideal persons across the roles are fulfilling one’s own duties, being responsible, Discussion trustworthy, understanding, caring, loving, and respectful. For teachers and parents, they em- Through focus groups, individual interviews, and phasized competence, modeling, patience, and ecomaps, C-A/IA described the sources of stress balance between discipline and nurturing. C-A/ and support in their daily lives. They identified IAs demonstrated a sophisticated understanding significant cultural stressors between children of psychological well-being. That includes mul- and parents and between home and school. These tiple dimensions: Being happy and having the cultural stressors stem from conflicting expecta- ability to achieve and maintain happiness, having tions placed on the students by teachers, peers, a positive outlook, knowing who you are, being and parents. Additionally, distinct cultural norms reflective, aware of your own emotions, able to and values among these groups, as well as con- self-regulate, at peace with yourself, and well trasting parenting styles between Chinese and balanced. Additional prevalent themes related mainstream Americans, were considered sources to psychological well-being are personal values, of stress. Conversations with C-A/IAs revealed interpersonal relationships, and living environ- common perceptions of Chinese parents placing ment. The C-A/IAs’ approaches to psychological greater emphasis on academic achievement than well-being revealed significant strengths in cop- on social and emotional needs of children. Con- ing with stress and maintaining mental health and sequently, C-A/IAs described feelings of sadness supporting each other. Many of these students or frustration when discussing how the intense emphasized finding a balance in life and reduc- pressure for academic achievement resulted in ing stress when discussing their perceptions of less time for socialization or relaxation, and how psychological well-being. these high academic expectations differed from their mainstream peers’ parents. C-A/IAs also re- The responses of this group of adolescents ported additional stressors, such as authoritarian reflect Chinese cultural values of balance, self- parenting style at home, and experiences of racial reflection, self-control, and relationship. They discrimination and cultural stereotyping within also reflect the cultural belief in optimism and their schools and community. harmony with the environment. The C-A/IAs’ insightful responses enriched literature that in- forms culturally relevant and strength-based in- terventions for the population.

15  Longing for a Balanced Life 265 Lastly, the C-A/IAs provided comprehensive edge generated from the current study to advance and practical suggestions to parents, teachers, culturally responsive intervention for C-A/I school counselors/ psychologists, and schools/ and other culturally diverse students. Third, we communities in how interventions could be should consider the C-A/I children’s views and tailored to this population. These suggestions preferred methods when designing culturally re- should inform teachers, parents, school counsel- sponsive interventions for these children. ors, school psychologists, and other professionals in developing culturally responsive promotion of Concluding Remarks mental health for C-A/IAs and other culturally diverse students. C-A/IAs shared many stories of their daily struggles to meet multiple demands, coordinate Limitations of the Study conflicting expectations, as well as a longing for understanding from parents, teachers, and others. There is great diversity within C-A/IAs. We ob- Across age and gender, a loud and clear voice served age, gender, and individual differences in came out from many stories: Reduce stress and the students’ perceptions of stressors, supports, return to a balanced life. and coping strategies in the current study. The findings from the current study only reflect the Acknowledgments  The authors want to thank all partici- views of fairly acculturated youth from a large pants and community leaders for their support. Particu- northeastern city of the USA. The study used a lar thanks go to Dr. Bonnie K. Nastasi for initiating this convenience sample that may be skewed. Addi- global project as well as all research assistants and volun- tionally, there were more girls than boys in the teers for their assistance to the focus groups, interviews, sample, and the majority of the students were and transcriptions, with much appreciation to Dr. Janine fluent in English, high achieving in schools, and Roberts for editing the manuscript, and to Mr. Colin Cox from highly educated, middle-class, two-parent and Ms. Anastasia Nabatkhorian for their assistance in the families. manuscript preparation. The authors also want to thank Bouve College of Northeastern University for the Ken- Future Directions erson Faculty Scholarship and Commonwealth Research Center of Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Harvard Medical School, for their partial funding to this project. First, this study calls for a cross validation with Appendix stratified sample. Second, future studies are Student Participant Questionnaire needed to explore how school psychologists, counselors, and educators can use the knowl-

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Emic Perspectives of Risk and 16 Support: Voices from Lower Elementary Students in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA Patrick B. Bell, Jorge M. Verlenden, Allisyn L. Swift, Heather L. Henderson and Bonnie K. Nastasi Introduction immigrant, American-born), and city and commu- nity values, identities, and expectations. To understand the systemic factors that promote or inhibit the development of psychological, aca- Therefore, our chief aim is not to tell a broad demic, and social competence for children in the strokes story of “America’s children,” but rather USA, the public school systems are a paramount to situate a specific group of New Orleans el- context to investigate. Roughly 45 million chil- ementary school students’ perspectives on risk, dren spend their childhood and adolescence at- protection, and well-being in both a broad, US tending state-regulated public schools (National context and their unique, culture-specific context. Center for Education Statistics, 2012). It is within Our introductory discussion highlights broader public school ecologies that most children begin macro- and exo-system themes regarding risks, a 12-year, full-time, government-mandated inter- protections, and trends in psychological well-be- action with other children and adults as well as ing (PWB) outcomes for urban youth of color— the legal-, legislative-, and social-systemic factors black youth specifically—as this ecological nar- that potently influence their developmental trajec- rative most closely aligns to our participants and tories. American children are developing in local local population. In the 2012 school year, 90 % contexts at the intersection of regional, ethnic, ra- of public school students in New Orleans were cial, religious, political, economic, and linguistic black (Cowen Institute for Public Education Ini- diversity. Defining any given American racial or tiatives (CIPEI), 2012). Following this introduc- ethnic group, including the current white1 major- tion of the distal, yet potent systemic factors, the ity, is difficult and imperfect when considering study findings provide a deeper layer of inves- the influence of location (e.g., rural, northeastern, tigation into what our specific child participants Alaskan), class (i.e., the spectrum from extreme are telling us regarding their stressors and sup- poverty to affluence), acculturation (e.g., recent ports as they attempt to successfully develop and navigate their public school. 1  The racial constructs of white and black are used as al- The Macrosystem2 of Public Schools: ternatives to ethnic constructs that may incorrectly infer Mindsets and Legislation identity (e.g., African American, Cuban American, etc.). P. B. Bell () · J. M. Verlenden · A. L. Swift · Public schools are currently operating in a chro- H. L. Henderson · B. K. Nastasi no-system typified by shifting mindsets (and Department of Psychology, Tulane University, 2007 Percival Stern Hall, 6400 Freret Street, New Orleans, 2  This chapter is organized according to the levels of eco- LA 70118, USA logical systems theory (see Chap. 2) and proceeds from e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016 271 B. K. Nastasi, A. P. Borja (eds.), International Handbook of Psychological Well-Being in Children and Adolescents, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2833-0_16

272 P. B. Bell et al. therefore, legislation) regarding how best to en- in poverty; however, despite assistance, a gap sure that children succeed academically. The first between middle- and low-income children wid- shift emerged from legislation and racial tensions ened. Fifteen years after ESEA, Congress char- embodied in the civil rights movement of the tered a committee that analyzed national learning 1950s and 1960s; American public schools have data; the committee alarmingly titled their report, moved out of the age of segregating and often A Nation at Risk (U.S. National Commission on relegating children of color or with disabilities to Excellence in Education [USNCEE], 1983). This ineffective schools and into an age of inclusion report sparked urgency about America’s failure and accountability for all. Embodied in the pas- to educate its children, and specifically, children sage of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, of color; at that time, roughly 40 % of minority 2002) is a history of educational inequities sys- youth were functionally illiterate (USNCEE, tematically related to, most often, race, class, and 1983). Since A Nation at Risk, the risk factors ability. Under NCLB, public schools are now and negative outcomes for youth in poverty and charged with closing race-, class-, and disability- youth of color have become an ethical concern based achievement gaps by providing rigorous and a national priority; the past 30 years have instruction to all children and as monitored by witnessed attempts to hold schools and teachers the state via annual standardized tests. A second accountable for student achievement via policy, shift is one away from a “wait-to-fail” model in litigation, and legislation—most recently, the which students only receive individual academic, reauthorization of ESEA as NCLB (Jorgensen social, emotional, or behavioral supports once & Hoffmann, 2003). At its core, NCLB contin- severe academic deficits and/or psychopathol- ues ESEA’s mission to improve academic out- ogy manifest to models that champion prophy- comes by providing funds to underprivileged laxis, early screenings, and monitoring student schools; however, current funding is now tied response to evidence-based interventions (e.g., to a system of accountability (Merell, Ervin, & Fuchs, Mock, Morgan, & Young, 2003; National Peacock, 2012). Specifically, NCLB mandates Association of School Psychologists [NASP], that students take and achieve yearly growth on 2010). Finally, public schools are currently re- proficiency tests in core content areas (e.g., read- negotiating discipline procedures in a shift away ing). Schools that demonstrate adequate yearly from harsh or exclusionary discipline (i.e., sus- progress (a state determined benchmark of suc- pensions, corporal punishment) and toward more cess as evidenced by standardized assessments) positive behavioral discipline (e.g., Sugai et al., are rewarded—typically with money or nominal 2000) and self-discipline via PWB promotion titles (e.g., “distinguished school”). However, (e.g., collaborative for academic, social, and schools that fail to make progress receive sanc- emotional learning (CASEL), 2003). tions that range from allowing parents a choice to change schools to state takeover and chartering No Child Left Behind (2002) and the Age of schools to independent or private organizations Accountability  The origins of the NCLB (2002) (USDOE, 2008). lie in President Johnson’s “War on Poverty” and the passing of the Elementary and Secondary The NCLB Act (2002) produced a host of Education Act (ESEA, 1965). The ESEA was a supportive and risk factors, both intended and reaction to mounting evidence that children in unintended, that manifest similarly across pub- low-income schools excessively underperformed lic school ecologies. The supportive aspects of as compared to their middle-class, largely white NCLB include mandated attention to (a) preven- counterparts (Fege, 2006). ESEA granted federal tion and intervention (e.g., Safe and Drug-Free money to schools serving at least 40 % of students Schools programs), (b) data-based decision-mak- ing strategies, (c) individualized instruction and the most distal (i.e., chrono-, macro-system) to the most student support, (d) higher standards for student proximal (meso-, micro-system). learning and teaching quality, (e) objective in- dicators of student growth, and (f ) prioritizing

16  Emic Perspectives of Risk and Support 273 research-based methods (National Association indirectly affecting local child development. One of School Psychologists [NASP], 2003). How- systemic reaction to the challenges of actualizing ever, NASP (2003) also noted that NCLB and NCLB was local and governmental movements large-scale assessments have far-reaching un- to address PWB deficits and skills known to in- intended consequences that manifest as risks at terfere with or enhance learning, respectively. local levels. These include decisions to retain (i.e., “repeat” a grade) or refuse to graduate stu- Population-Based Movements to Promote Psy- dents based on a single test; practices that pre- chological Well-Being Children’s PWB is an cipitate secondary risk such as school dropout intricate construct receiving overdue but growing (Heubert & Hauser, 1999). Another unintended attention in public schools (Adelman & Taylor, risk is the narrowing of school curricula; schools 2006). It appears that accountability and rigor teach students to survive and pass high-stakes (i.e., NCLB) were necessary, but not sufficient tests instead of teaching comprehensive curricula to actualize equity in academic achievement. that include the arts, physical education, social Although upwards of one in five children expe- sciences, health, and technology (NASP, 2003). rience a psychological impairment that signifi- Further, because schools and teachers are re- cantly impacts school functioning, 80 % of these warded or punished based on outcomes, teachers youth receive no intervention; the probability of report that students now develop in more stress- receiving services incrementally declines when ful classroom environments that subsequently a child is low income, is living in the American lead to increased referrals to special education South, is enrolled in public-funded insurance, (often disproportionately in lower-income, mi- and is black (CDF, 2010; Cook, Barry, & Busch, nority populations), more fads and “quick-fix” 2012; Department of Health and Human Services programs, and exacerbated teacher stress that [USDHHS], 1999; President’s New Freedom leads to burnout and talent shortages (Guglielmi Commission on Mental Health [PNFC], 2003). & Tatrow, 1998; NASP, 2003). Although NCLB Public schools and school psychologists have tra- brought attention to elements of public school- ditionally operated with a “wait-to-fail” model of ing that are now recognized as best practice, data service that activates resources only when diag- suggest it did not solve the problem of education- nosable psychopathology develops (Gresham, al inequity. In 2011, more than half of US public 2002; Martinez & Nellis, 2008). However, para- schools did not make adequate yearly progress digms of practice are shifting toward popula- (USDOE, 2011), and as high as 86 % of urban, tion-based models, characterized by approaches black public school eighth graders are not read- rooted in a public health perspective that empha- ing with grade-level proficiency on standardized size universal promotion and prevention, and tests (Children’s Defense Fund (CDF), 2012). selected and indicated interventions (e.g., NASP, Even as this chapter is written, newer—though 2010). Two such population-based models for contested—initiatives are emerging to respond PWB are the positive behavioral supports (PBS; to the difficulties in actualizing NCLB’s mis- Sugai et al., 2000) and social–emotional learning sion, such as the Common Core movement. Al- (SEL; CASEL, 2003) frameworks. though districts and schools have enormous flex- ibility in the way state standards are addressed, Positive Behavioral Supports The PBS frame- the Common Core movement seeks to national- work infuses preventative, effective, and positive ize learning standards across states to promote a (as opposed to punitive and exclusionary) meth- deep understanding of the most critical content ods of behavioral discipline into school policy (Council of Chief State School Officers, National (Sugai et al., 2000). PBS urges schools to use Governors Association Center for Best Practices, behavioral data to plan, implement, and evalu- 2010). The impacts of NCLB and shifting mind- ate a continuum of multitiered, evidence-based sets toward universal, equitable education were services ranging from school-wide prevention far reaching and illustrate complex distal factors to individual functional behavior assessments

274 P. B. Bell et al. (Sugai et al., 2000). Multiple research agendas and ineffective discipline, specifically punitive indicate that schools that apply school-wide PBS school environments (CDF, 2011, 2012; Fenning models with integrity significantly improve out- & Rose, 2007; Taylor & Kouyaté, 2003). comes for youth as evidenced by reductions in disciplinary action, more positive student apprais- Social–Emotional Learning  Proponents of SEL als of school climate, reductions in bullying, and maintain that the poor outcomes in well-being and increases in scores on standardized measures of academics are due in great part to late or insuf- achievement (Bradshaw, Koth, Bevans, Ialongo, ficient attention to psychological determinants & Leaf, 2008; Horner, Sugai, & Anderson, 2010; of learning—factors consistently shown to be Simonsen et al., 2011). However, amidst this malleable, teachable, and predictive of academic growing zeitgeist of prevention and positive sup- success (CASEL, 2013; Durlak, Weissberg, port, there exist a myriad of behavioral risk fac- Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011; Green- tors and negative outcomes operating at national berg et al., 2003; Hoagwood & Johnson, 2003; levels for youth of color and of low income. One Masten et al., 2005; National Research Council, potent risk is that, although decades of research 2012). Currently, over 200 controlled studies demonstrate the effectiveness of positive disci- demonstrate that this malleable and powerfully pline, public schools continue to react to behav- protective skill set includes (a) self-awareness ior challenges by increasing the type, duration, and the abilities involved in recognizing one’s and intensity of punitive measures such as time- emotions, thoughts, behaviors, strengths, and out, suspension, expulsion, corporal punishment, sources of confidence; (b) responsible decision and zero tolerance (i.e., consistent and swift making and problem-solving; (c) self-manage- suspension for unsafe or “otherwise unaccept- ment and self-regulation; (d) social awareness able” behavior; American Civil Liberties Union, skills such as perspective taking, empathy, diver- 2009; Evenson, Justinger, Pelischek, & Schulz, sity appreciation, and adapting to social–cultural 2009; NASP, 2001; Skiba, 2000; Sugai & Horner, norms and ethics; and (e) relationship skills that 2002). The high prevalence of such punitive and involve initiating and maintaining healthy rela- ineffective measures to discipline students—par- tionships (CASEL, 2013). ticularly youth of color—is a large component of what is now considered a “cradle-to-prison pipe- Population-focused models and SEL also have line” (CDF, 2012) and represents the effects of become the best practice zeitgeist of school psy- historical and institutionalized racism and deep- chology (e.g., NASP, 2010). However, success- seated racial biases and stereotypes—particularly ful and sustained population-based campaigns in targeted toward black males. Black youth made public schools have not caught up with the spirit up 18 % of the total American public school pop- of the field (Hess et al., 2012). Therefore, much ulation in 2012, but were disproportionately indi- like recent and promising movements for aca- cated in corporal punishments (40 % of all cases), demic excellence (NCLB) and positive, protec- multiple out-of-school suspensions (46 %), grade tive discipline (PBS), the SEL movement is prov- retentions (42 %), and expulsions (39 %). In the ing difficult to actualize in natural settings. The same year, black males of traditional college age risks and barriers to SEL programming typically made up 36 % of the prison population, but less fall into categories of (a) service delivery issues than 5 % of the total college student population such as lack of multiple, coordinated systems of and young black males were more than 4.5 times care, lack of professional and financial resourc- more likely to be detained in juvenile detention es, and lack of clarity on why and how children centers than their white peers, 60 % of them should be assessed; (b) federal and state policy for nonviolent offenses (CDF, 2012). Although issues such as lack of strategies and funding for scholars assume complex etiologies of the racial early detection and intervention and lack of coor- disparity in PWB indicators, consensus exists dinated mental health policy; (c) family-level is- concerning the deleterious consequences of harsh sues including limited access, inadequate compli- ance to follow-ups, and stigma and apprehension

16  Emic Perspectives of Risk and Support 275 due to experiences with culturally incompetent and those with nontraditional training and emer- services; and (d) uncertainty in how to serve gency certification (Council of the Great City special populations, including immigrant chil- Schools, 2000; U.S. General Accounting Office dren, homeless youth, youth in justice and wel- [USGAO], 2002). Academically healthy urban fare systems, and children in communities with schools exist, and we must laud the resilience and high rates of violence (CDF, 2003; PNFC, 2003; passion of many urban educators, PWB champi- USDHHS, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002). A final dif- ons, and urban youth and families; however, the ficulty in institutionalizing PWB programs rests academically excellent urban school remains in a failure of researchers and practitioners to an exception to the norm of underachievement adequately understand the culture, vision, and (Miranda & Olivo, 2008; Noell & Gansle, 2009). priorities of each school (Greenberg et al., 2003; Finally, the USGAO (2002) detected systematic Sarason, 1996). This lack of attention to the eco- variability between urban and suburban schools logical and cultural specificity of a school poses in that urban schools had greater teacher-to-stu- serious threats to acceptability—perceived con- dent ratios, greater local poverty, fewer library gruence between programs and culture—that resources, and lower parent involvement—vari- negatively affects program integrity, outcomes, ables consistently correlated with the academic and sustained efforts to promote PWB (Nastasi health of a school. & Schensul, 2005). Studies involving urban youth and communi- The NCLB, PBS, and SEL macrosystem fac- ties also identify assets and risks at family and tors are powerful influences that evolved in part community levels. In 2011, Hart Research As- from growing recognition of the disproportional- sociates (HRA), on behalf of the Black Com- ity of negative outcomes for youth of color and of munity Crusade for Children, interviewed over low income. To address the more proximal mani- 1000 black community leaders, caregivers, and festations of these risks and supports, we next ex- youth to elucidate emic perspectives on the risks plicate the exo-systems unique to urban schools, and assets present in their family and community black communities, and lastly, post-Hurricane ecologies. The overarching theme in their nation- Katrina New Orleans. al sample was that urban ecologies had not sig- nificantly improved for black children over the The Exo-Systems of Urban Public past decade and disenfranchised youth of color Schools and Communities were falling even further behind (HRA, 2011). Participants identified economic isolation, parent Recent investigations suggest that although com- unemployment, higher imprisonment rates, com- plex, urban ecologies share common assets and munity violence, failing schools, addiction, nega- risks at both school-system and family–commu- tive cultural influences (e.g., media glorification nity levels that distinguish them from rural and of drugs), and fractured communities (e.g., due suburban US contexts (American Psychological to violence) as impediments in the development Association (APA), 2005). At the school-system of urban black youth (HRA, 2011). Optimisti- level, urban schools are required to do more with cally, black communities share powerful protec- less. Urban public schools serve larger student tive factors; to actualize the optimal development populations and with greater proportions of stu- of youth of color, schools need to reorganize dents with exceptional needs, all the while at- themselves in ways that reinvigorate these sup- tempting to secure financial resources from de- ports (Miranda & Olivo, 2008; Myers, Lewis, & clining local tax bases and lower-than-average Parker-Dominguez, 2003). For example, youth state funding (Miranda & Olivo, 2008; Weiner, of color that overcome disproportionate stress- 2006). School-level risk factors also include ors typically share family- and community-level greater likelihoods of teacher shortages and, supports such as (a) strong and positive racial thus, a higher percentage of first-year teachers and ethnic identity development, (b) connected- ness to a warm and effective school, (c) parental

276 P. B. Bell et al. warmth, (d) approach- or active-coping (often any American city—78 % of New Orleans youth relationship-based) strategies, (e) access to com- attend charter schools (CIPEI, 2012). Charter munity-based spiritual and recreational organiza- schools are a recent school-reform effort and tions, and (f) mastery of culturally valued skills operate on assumptions that parent choice, com- and mindsets such as self-reliance, interpersonal petition, innovative practices, and school-level awareness, problem-solving skills, learning ori- decision-making autonomy (e.g., on budgeting, entations, and persistence (e.g., values for life curriculum, hiring, and firing) will lead to dra- model, Taylor & Kouyaté, 2003; see also HRA, matic student achievement (Hadderman, 1998; 2011; Miranda & Olivo, 2008; Myers et al., Morse, 2010). A recent report from the CIPEI 2003). The paramount charge to urban schools, (2012) identified proximal risk and protective therefore, has been to create meso-systems of in- factors in the New Orleans public school system. fluence (e.g., home–school, community–school Data revealed some New Orleans’ specific pro- partnerships) that respect and foster cultural val- tections for students: (a) master plans in place ues, identify unique local assets, and authentical- to ensure that school buildings for every child ly collaborate to capitalize on these assets (Cen- are renovated and physically safe; (b) a more ters for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009; equitable, single application system for parent Jumper-Thurman, Edwards, Plested, & Oetting, application to the wide array of independent 2003). charter schools; (c) upward trends in achieve- ment data—particularly for elementary schools; New Orleans’ Unique Manifestations of and (d) decreased teacher recruitment activities Macro- and Urban Exo-System Factors indicating that the local teacher shortage may abate (CIPEI, 2012). Regarding proximal risks, The urban school and family microsystems in the CIPEI (2012) detected the following: (a) Al- New Orleans manifest many if not most of the though some specific schools are dramatically aforementioned risks and assets surrounding improving student learning, city-wide achieve- urban youth of color. Long-standing risks such as ment results are mixed; (b) doubts are growing New Orleans’ poverty rates greater than twice the about long-term sustainability of the charter national average, inadequate housing, a dearth of movement; and (c) parents are expressing grow- health and wellness services, community vio- ing distrust of cultural outsiders operating char- lence and murder rates ten times greater than the ters and imposing one-sided values. This last risk national average, failing schools, and complex represents a salient shift in the cultural landscape trauma (i.e., continued and multiple traumatic ex- of New Orleans. Before the school-reform move- posures) compound the existing trauma of 2005 ment, schools served the parents (often alumni) Hurricane Katrina and the slow recovery (Murali and children of the local neighborhood; however, & Oyebode, 2004; USGAO, 2009; Wellford, New Orleans now operates on city-wide access, Bond, & Goodison, 2011). Five years after Ka- meaning that the local school culture no longer trina, 60 % of local youth presented with serious reflects the neighborhood context but instead emotional and behavioral disturbances; less than serves students from all over the city. half received services (Children’s Health Fund and the National Center for Disaster Prepared- Concluding this introductory analysis of ness, 2010; USGAO, 2009). Local media por- important factors of risk and protection in the trayed these risks as a children’s “mental health ecologies of American public schools brings us crisis” (e.g., Grant, 2009; Maldonado, 2009; full circle. We both began and end by noting that Smith, 2009). although there are trends in issues facing urban schools and communities, it is imperative to Despite these risks, New Orleans has wit- engage local stakeholders—including students nessed a school-reform effort unprecedented in themselves—to understand the salient ecological factors proximally affecting child development.

16  Emic Perspectives of Risk and Support 277 Following, we move to a depiction of our local management aspects of their instructional pro- microsystem, its manifestation of the macro- and gram. Results from universal screenings—part exo-system factors discussed, and the percep- of our larger research activities—supported local tions of risk, support, and values from the voices concerns. Teacher reports on a standardized of the children within it. PWB screener indicated that, across grade levels, between 39 and 59 % of students were at risk for The Microsystem: Elementary Charter behavioral or emotional disturbance (Nastasi & School in New Orleans Bell, 2012). These data served as an urgent im- petus to better understand the type, severity, and Our research was conducted at an elemen- sources of risks facing ECSNO students as well tary charter school in New Orleans (hereafter, as information regarding the protective factors “ECSNO”). The student population was predom- present to help assuage this risk. The Promoting inantly black (99 %) and over 90 % of students Psychological Well-Being Globally (PPWBG) qualified for the free- or reduced-price lunch pro- project (Nastasi, 2008; Nastasi & International gram—a proxy indicator of low socioeconomic Psychological Well-Being Research Team, 2012; status. The school’s mission statement, like many see also Chap. 2) served not only as the driver for others in New Orleans, emphasizes academic this chapter but also our applied work with the rigor and achievement; they have an extended students, families, and educators at ECSNO. school year (August 15–June 10), extended school day (7:45 a.m. to 3:45 p.m.), and after- Methods Modifications school tutoring for identified students (3:45–5:00 p.m.), believing that additional time in school The PPWBG-New Orleans primary research will lead to greater achievement (New Orleans team included four school psychology doctoral Parent Organizing Network [NOPON], 2012). students under the direction of Drs. Nastasi and Most, but not all, school staff was white, nontra- Cunningham4 of Tulane University. Student ditionally trained and temporarily certified,3 and participant data for this project are presented in early in their teaching careers. In the same year Table 16.1. Data collection procedures included as data collection, ECSNO earned a “B” from the student focus groups, ecomaps drawings, and state—a grade based on NCLB testing outcomes ecomap stories. Four major modifications were and attendance rates (NOPON, 2012). Although made to the PPWBG procedures described in ECSNO’s mission statement for their “scholars” Chap.  2. First, given developmental attention (their preferred term for “students”) is heavily spans and ECSNO’s emphasis on maximizing focused on college readiness and academic rigor, instructional time, students were pulled for brief it also values strong character. During our early (30 min) and multiple data collection sessions. partnership building with ECSNO stakeholders, Sessions were altered to vary the research tasks educators revealed that they were generally con- and maintain student interest. For example, ses- fident in their academic efficacy but struggled sion activities were designed to shift after each with the character, mental health, and behavior- 10-min block; one block may include drawing oneself on the ecomap, the next, a 10-min dis- 3 In the USA, college graduates who have not been cussion on stressors, and the final block returning trained in a teacher education program within a univer- to the ecomap to draw important relationships. A sity setting may be certified via alternate routes, such second modification was the deconstruction of as state and national organizations. Typically, alternate route certification involves an intensive, 5-week training 4  Michael Cunningham, PhD, is a professor of psychol- in pedagogy and student teaching, followed by a year of ogy at Tulane University, with a specialization in devel- continued coursework and coaching. After this full year, opmental psychology. they may qualify for full teaching certification.

278 P. B. Bell et al. Table 16.1   Characteristics Sex Race/ethnicity Grade level of the ECSNO student 29 % kindergarten sample ( n =  42) 60 % female 98 % black 42 % first grade 40 % male 2 % Latino 29 % second grade ecomap drawings into smaller steps. First, the Valued Competencies child drew himself/herself on a separate index card, that card was then glued in the center of Focus group questions targeting valued compe- a larger sheet of paper—to avoid self-drawings tencies elicit the explicit behavioral, cognitive, taking up an entire sheet of paper. Then, children affective, or social knowledge and skills indica- were provided with visual examples of ecomaps tive of adaptive functioning in the local con- (drawn by one member of the research team and text. In their role as students, themes included used in every group) at each stage of completion; (Table  16.2, consensus column): (a) following one demonstrating the constellation of important classroom rules, (b) earning positive and avoid- people and institutions and the other with coded ing negative consequences, and (c) respect and relationships. A third modification was the ex- manners. Competencies in friendship were (a) plicit use of positive reinforcement (i.e., food helping and service and (b) not being mean. Fi- snacks and sticker rewards) to encourage active nally, competencies outside of school or in the participation, successful transitions between neighborhood included (a) obeying adults and (b) tasks, and to show gratitude for participation. Fi- inhibiting aggression. nally, initial data collection revealed that multiple students were reporting suspected abuse; there- At School: Following Classroom Rules  Schol- fore, the team worked with the school mental ars spoke mainly of being a good student in terms health coordinator to create a protocol for report- of complying with classroom rules. Students ing suspected abuse and ensuring follow-up and spoke about following the teacher’s instructions referrals were made. and rules by saying students should “…sit in ‘S.T.A.R.’ (i.e., (S)it still, (T)rack the speaker with Results your eyes, show (A)mbition (i.e., answer ques- tions), and (R)aise your hand to speak). Another Results from the New Orleans site were coded student spoke to procedural rules: “A good stu- using emergent coding procedures (c.f., Chap. 2). dent…walk[s] into the classroom and say[s] hello After emergent codes were identified within to your teacher and walk[s] to your seat to do grade-level data, data were compared across your work.” “[Bad students] don’t listen to the grade levels to assess salience. Specifically, we teacher,” provided a supporting counterexample. organized emergent codes into categories: (a) consensus across kindergarten, first-, and second At School: Earning Positive Rewards and grades; (b) some agreement (i.e., two groups, Avoiding Negative Consequences Students but not all endorsing the code); and (c) grade- spoke often about the ECSNO clip system, a specific codes (single grade endorsing the code). behavioral management system composed of We analyzed ecomaps for new codes and to trian- clothespins (i.e., clips) that a teacher moves up gulate the existing focus group codes. Table 16.2 or down a consequence ladder toward rewards presents a distillation of all emergent codes. (“stars”) or checks (“punishments”), respectively. However, the results discussed hereafter include Students considered to be behaviorally compe- only the codes with high salience (i.e., consensus tent are those whose clips move up. “In class we column) and include verbatim quotes to illustrate have clips;” one student explained, “if you get the data underlying each code. a star, that’s good…When you get two checks

16  Emic Perspectives of Risk and Support 279 Table 16.2   Emergent codes for psychological well-being (PWB) domains from focus groups and ecomaps PWB domain Consensus Some agreement (grade level) Grade level specific (grade level) Competency: Follow classroom rules Kindness (K, 1) Grit and challenging oneself role—student Earn positive consequences Support peers (K, 2) (1) Avoid negative consequences Academic, behavioral success Follow D.R.E.A.M.-TEAM (subtype: clips) (1, 2) school values (K)* Problem-solving abilities (1, 2) Competency: Respect Make amends (K, 2) Defends you (1) role—friend Helping and service Is not mean Competency: Listen and obey adults Engage in play (types: old Engage in gender-normed roles—neighbor/ Inhibit aggression friends; to make friends) (1, 2) activities (K) outside of school Cooperative play (K, 1) Report crime (1) Patience/frustration tolerance Do chores (2) (K, 1) Respect property/neighbor- Manners and respect (K, 2) hood (1) Give holiday presents to family (K) Stressors Family death, separation Neighborhood violence/crime Mosquitoes (K) Physical aggression (types: (1, 2) Vandalism (1) peers; domestic) Media/scary movies (1, 2) Vampire masks (1) Social exclusion General worrying (1, 2) Having a lie told about you Bad neighbors (2) Adult meanness Teasing (2) Punitive discipline (type: Bad dreams (2) physical/corporal) Ghosts/shadows (2) Sibling conflict Being bossed around (2) Reactions to stress Avoid/ignore people Emotional reaction (K, 1) Try to earn rewards (2) Help seeking Disobedience (K, 2) Try to engage in play (K) Aggression (types: physical; Redemption (2) social; self-directed) Self-calming techniques Physiological Supports Peer support and play Talking about feelings (K, 2) Seeking and earning positive consequences and (Source: same-age family avoiding future negative consequences (2) members and school mates) Receptive adults/known teenagers Physical affection Self-calming to regulate heightened emotions Engaging in pleasant activities Pets Gifts/tangibles Reactions to Experience positive emotions (n/a) Playful behavior (K) support Happy facial expressions A version of this table presented to elementary charter school in New Orleans (ECSNO) stakeholders included verbatim quotation samples to illustrate each code. Letters and numbers in parentheses in the “some agreement” and “stakeholder specific” columns represent the grade levels—(K)indergarten, (1)st grade, and (2)nd grade—that endorsed the code *D.R.E.A.M.-TEAM was an ECSNO created acronym to depict a system of values including, [D]iscipline, [R]espect, [E]nthusiasm, [A]chievement, [M]ake a difference, and [TEAM]work you have to go home.” Another student spoke of “…if you [are] a DREAM scholar, you get to go being a “dream scholar” [a student whose clips to Fantastic Friday [a celebration to positively consistently moves to the highest positive rung]; recognize students].”

280 P. B. Bell et al. At School: Respect and Manners Compe- ple, almost every focus group had some variant tent students show respect to peers and adults. of one child’s comment that a good child “listens Respect to peers emerged primarily from coun- to [their] mama always and pays attention to her.” terexamples that reflected disrespectful behav- Another student validated this expectation with ior. For example, a bad student “[calls] another a disturbing, but contextually relevant rationale: student an ‘idiot’ and ‘stupid’ and all kinds of “A good student would listen to [their] mom or words that you shouldn’t say in school.” Another dad or grandma because if you [don’t] listen to group discussed “messiness” (i.e., disrespect) them you, you [could] go where you aren’t sup- and explained, “[A bad student] messes with you posed to go and then [bad neighbors] are gonna and teases you, even after you tell them to leave shoot at you.” Students also talked about obey- you alone.” Respect toward teachers also was ing rules at church: “When the pastor or priest valued. One student illustrated: “A bad student is talking, you track them [with your eyes] and talks back to the teacher and talks behind teach- listen to them.” er's back while the teacher is talking.” Students also valued manners as in the admonishment: In the Neighborhood/Outside of School: “Use your manners. Say ‘please’ or ‘thank you,’ Inhibiting Aggression Students agreed that [and] you gotta be waiting ‘til somebody [is done using physically aggressive behavior was unde- with their] turn.” sired across contexts. “A bad kid is when they fight and hit people and slap people and punch In Friendships: Helping and Service As a people,” explained one student. Students also friend, students valued service to others, particu- agreed that destruction of property was a behav- larly focused on helping friends feel better emo- ior that was undesired, for example, “When [bad tionally and physically. “When your friend is sick children] break things.” and they [are] at home, you make them hot cocoa and you have to help them do stuff because that’s As depicted in Table 16.2, a variety of other what friends do, and if they have to go to the doc- competencies emerged either with some agree- tor, you can [go with] them.” Helping can come ment or specific to a grade-level group; however, in many forms such as helping when a student is illustrating each code extends the limits of this getting teased, helping with schoolwork, or help- chapter. The absence of consensus for less salient ing to maintain appropriate behavior. For exam- codes may reflect developmental differences ple, “If you can’t figure it out [a math problem], (e.g., first and second grade mentioned more ad- a good friend could help.” Help also related to vanced “problem-solving abilities”) or perhaps do the aforementioned clip system as a good friend hold consensus, but for unknown reasons did not would be “helping you get your clip moved up.” emerge across grade levels. Regardless, some less salient codes may become potent targets in fur- In Friendships: Not Being Mean Many stu- ther planning (e.g., competencies such as “mak- dents mentioned that good friends are “not ing friends” and “frustration tolerance” align to mean to you and do not tease you to your face.” aforementioned SEL skills; CASEL, 2003). Another student added that a friend will not “brag and tease you about what you have when they Student Stressors have something better.” Still another added that a good friend does not “talk bad about you…[or] Student perceptions of stressors emerged from hit, push, or call [you] names…this is being a two types of focus group questions. One set ex- mean friend.” plicitly asked students, “What challenges/stress- ors do children your age experience?” Another In the Neighborhood/Outside of School: Obey- set were induced from follow-up questions about ing Adults  A competent child at home and in the things, people, or events that caused them to ex- community follows adult directions. For exam- perience unpleasant emotions (i.e., sad, angry,

16  Emic Perspectives of Risk and Support 281 and scared). Stressors with complete consensus views. Notwithstanding, this concept garnered include: (a) family death and separation, (b) consensus across grades. Perceptions of unwar- physical aggression, (c) social exclusion, (d) ranted, extreme, and inconsistent meanness adult meanness, (e) punitive discipline, and (f) from adults clustered together to form this code. negative sibling interactions. For example, “If I want to talk, [the bus driver] won’t let us talk…because he wants to listen to Death and Separation Students experienced the radio; the bus driver whooped5 us. He used stress when separated from family members. his belt.” Another student explained that it was Sometimes the separation existed between living stressful when “my [mother] slaps me in my face relatives, for example, “My mom [doesn’t] want just to be funny with her friends when they visit.” my Dad to be by me. I want him to live with us Finally, at school, one student illustrated the but my momma [doesn’t]. I want to call my dad adult meanness code by recounting having “[felt] to go somewhere—I never do—I never go places angry at [my teacher] because she moved peo- with my Daddy.” They also spoke of separation ple’s clips down when they don’t know why the via death as stressful; one student shared, “Six clip got moved down. She is mean and I feel mad months ago somebody who was important to me like when she yells at us to move our clip down died, it was my friend's mom.” Finally, one stu- for tying our shoes when standing in line…she dent alluded to separation and death: “My mom takes her anger out on us; she teaches us about tells me that my grandma has to stay in the hospi- letting out our anger without being mean but she tal and [won’t] come home.” looks at us mean when she gets angry and sends us to the end of the line.” Physical Aggression  Students mentioned being physically hurt by someone as stressful. One Punitive Discipline Punishment-based conse- said, “If somebody hits you, it makes you feel quences emerged as a stressor; this code is dif- mad.” Many students expressed that “fights with ferent from adult meanness in that the intended friends” were stressful, particularly “when some- consequence is to modify children’s behavior. body hits you in the face and doesn't say sorry.” For example, one student was sad when “I get Finally, students also reported threats of physical two checks [clip moved down].” Another stu- aggression as stressful. For example, “My mom's dent indicated stress when teachers “yell at you old boyfriend said he was going to kill our mom because you did something wrong and they will and [he] might kill us.” yell and yell.” Many others mentioned punish- ment at home, for example, “When my mom Social Exclusion  Another stressor salient to this makes me go in the corner with my hands up [a group was social exclusion, which typically hap- form of corporal punishment].” Another student pened in peer situations. For example, one stu- said, “When my dad comes in and yells at me.” dent explained, “[It is stressful] when they say Finally, many students mentioned that getting they don’t like you, or they say they[‘re] not your “whoopings” was stressful. friend anymore…[that] breaks your heart…[and] if somebody break[s] your heart, that means that Sibling Conflict Sibling conflict was another they’re not being nice to you.” Another type code that derived solely from ecomap interviews of social exclusion was from access to play or and that reached consensus. Students in all grades treats, as one student shared: “[It makes] me sad mentioned examples of stressful encounters with [when] nobody plays or gives me [any] cake, siblings. For example, one student said, “My when nobody shares with [me].” 5  “Whoop” is a local term akin to spanking. It typically Adult Meanness  The concept of “adult mean- involves hitting a child either with the hand or with an ness” emerged exclusively from ecomap inter- instrument (e.g., a belt).

282 P. B. Bell et al. little sister pulls on [my] ear and bites on [my] my face,” said one student; another added, “I put ear, screams and makes me distracted when I do my arms and head inside [my] shirt.” my homework.” Another explained, “Me and my brother mostly don’t get along. He likes to beat Help Seeking Informing others and seeking me up and he won’t let me go into his room but help were dominant reactions to stress. “You can he comes into my room.” tell somebody about your feelings to make you feel better,” explained one student. Family mem- Similar to the valued competencies, a variety bers, teachers, and peers were identified as help- of stressors did not reach full consensus. How- ers. One student said, “You can tell the teacher, ever, some grade-specific stressors map onto tell the principal, and tell your momma or your aforementioned, known risks cited in research dad.” Students also described peers as helpers in literature and may be important in PWB promo- times of stress. One student offered, “There [are] tion planning (e.g., exposure to neighborhood vio- a lot of things [a friend] can do when someone is lence). The culture-specific stressors that children sad…. When someone is sad, you help them get endorse become powerful within a model of PWB better.” promotion designed to reduce risk and to identify children experiencing intense or numerous stress- Physical, Social, and Self-Directed Aggres- ors via, for example, a school-specific measure of sion  Aggression was a salient reaction to stress risk using emic descriptors of stressors. and was expressed toward others, objects, and the self. For example, “[When] I get really angry Reactions to Stress I push people. I feel like fighting them.” Another student reported, “I [am] mean to the teacher The stressors discussed in focus groups were when I’m angry and kick the teacher’s stuff down presented back to elicit common reactions; for and [don’t] pick it back up or say sorry.” Regard- example, groups that mentioned discipline as a ing relational aggression, “I would hurt them stressor were asked, “When a child’s clip moves back by calling them names or ignoring them.” down, what do they do? How do they feel?” For Another child explained self-harm: “When I get most groups, the primary reaction was “being mad, I throw everything down on the floor… mad,” and stress responses were manifestations get [my] toy and hit [myself].” Other aggressive of, or attempts to regulate, anger. Four salient stress reactions included, “classroom outbursts,” reactions emerged: (a) avoiding/ignoring people; “hitting people,” “kicking chairs,” and “punching (b) help seeking; (c) physical, social, and self- the wall.” directed aggression; (d) and using self-calming, affect-regulation techniques. Use of Self-Calming and Affect-Regulation Techniques  Children spoke in detail about spe- Avoid or Ignore People In response to stress, cific calming and emotion-regulation techniques students described avoiding the stressor. Stu- such as deep breathing and positive thinking. dents retreated to their rooms, ran away from “They can calm [them]selves down by think- situations, and turned their faces away to avoid ing calm thoughts, like thinking about a time continued interaction. One student explained, “I you went to the park. And you can count from go to my room and [don’t] come out.” Another five to zero.” Another student advised, “Take a said, “I run and slam the door and lock it and sit thousand deep breaths.” Self-calming techniques in my room.” Students also said that they delib- also included distraction. For instance, one stu- erately ignored stressors, for example, “I would dent explained, “I have a friend. Every time she just ignore them and ignore them.” Students also is scared she wants me to put on music.” Other described strategies for ignoring stressful indi- related self-calming strategies included “sleep- viduals or situations. “I hum to myself. I cover ing,” “taking a walk,” “cold rags on your face,”

16  Emic Perspectives of Risk and Support 283 “writing music,” “play[ing] on the computer,” I go to my dad. If my dad is doing something, “brushing my doll’s hair,” and “dancing.” I go to my sister. If [she can’t help], I go back to my mom.” Other specific adults included Physiological Responses  Students discussed an teachers, grandparents, uncles and aunts, the array of physical responses including “fast heart- ECSNO principal, and police officers. Children beats” and “shivering.” However, the primary also described their teenaged siblings as sources physiological response was crying. “One time… of support, as in one students’ example: “[My somebody at my table said [my] picture wasn’t sister] used to go to my soccer games but now beautiful and [I] started crying.” Another she’s in high school. I understand [that] because explained, “When my mom whoops me, I be she’s a teenager she won’t be able to go to all crying.” my games, but I know inside of my heart she’ll always be there for me.” Perspectives of Supports Physical Affection Students noted physical affection as a way to make others feel better. When experiencing stress, the sources of support “Give them a hug,” and “Pat [them] on the back described by students included both internal and when [they] get hurt” were discussed in every external supports such as classmates, friends and grade-level group. Students also reported that family, and teachers. Regarding types of sup- “rubbing backs” was a common method of sooth- port, opportunities to play either with another ing used by parents and adults at home to relieve person or alone was one of the most commonly their stress. reported. Other types of support included (a) physical affection, (b) self-calming techniques, Self-Calming  Students listed several self-calm- (c) engaging in pleasant activities, and (d) play- ing strategies, often as directly instructed by the ing with pets. teacher, as important sources of support. One student mentioned smiling to improve mood. Play, Encouragement, and Help  In response to Another spoke of changing thoughts: “[I would] the question, “What do you do for a friend who is think calm thoughts like you’re dancing with a feeling upset?” children most often expressed pro- best friend [who] knows how to dance.” Finally, viding encouragement and help through opportu- another spoke to the ECSNO practice of deep nities to play. For example, one student suggested, breathing in explaining, “Since [I’m] angry, [I “Go[ing] to play in the park together.” Another can] go in that corner. I would count from 1 to 10 said, “You can play football in the grass with them; and take 100 deep breaths.” you can help them on the field…like real football players.” Help and encouragement in general were Engage in Pleasant Activities  Slightly different discussed. For instance, one child offered consola- than general play, students also mentioned engag- tion to a friend who had been teased: “I knocked ing in pleasant activities or events as sources of on her door and she came to answer her door and support. For example, one student mentioned that I said, ‘Just ignore the other kids that don’t like after being upset, his family took him downtown. you. When they say you[‘re] ugly, you say, ‘I’m “We went on the streetcar. We went to Canal not really ugly, I’m beautiful and pretty…’ I told Street. I got a lot of stuff.” Time spent in pleasant her that she was beautiful and pretty.” activities often occurred with family and peers, and typical activities included, “swimming,” Supportive Adults and Teenagers Students “reading,” “playing video games,” and “watch- mentioned family members and other known ing football.” adults as members of their support system. For example, “I will go to my mother and my sis- Pets  Pets offered support to many students, both ter and my dad. If my mom is doing something, through the previously discussed physical touch

284 P. B. Bell et al. and also feelings of love. One child said her earning positive and avoiding negative conse- dog made her “…so, so happy, I took her for a quences, respecting others, helping those in need, walk, and she licked my hand and she gave me avoiding meanness, obeying adults in different a big hug.” Another explained going to his dog environments, and inhibiting aggression. Risk when upset: “I love him, he loves me, I’m happy factors are hypothesized to impede children in about him, he’s happy about me; Roody loves me their development of the aforementioned valued because when he barks he’s trying to talk to me.” competencies. Our children presented variables that they recognized as stressful that included Reactions to Support family deaths and separations, physical aggres- sion from peers or at home, social exclusion, bad Students were also asked how they can detect neighbors, adult meanness, punitive discipline, when someone is experiencing positive feelings and sibling conflict. However, in the face of (such as happiness), and how students react when stress, our participants highlighted common sup- they are experiencing or have received support. ports such as peer support through play, receptive Students described these reactions to support adults or teenagers, physical affection, self-calm- in terms of experiencing positive emotions and ing techniques, engaging in pleasant activities, demonstrating these emotions through facial ex- pets, and receiving gifts. pressions. Our children’s depictions of their most proxi- Positive Emotions  Student reactions to support mal school and home microsystems equip us as were generally described as sensations and feel- scientists and practitioners to appreciate a fuller ings of happiness. The most commonly described ecology in which we strive to promote our dual feelings were “great,” “being happy,” and feeling goals of academic achievement and PWB. An “good inside” when they experienced internal or essential insight from our data was that even external support. They also hinted at the positive young participants were quite attuned to, and emotion from self-efficacy in responding appro- could make explicit, the norms, values, and ex- priately to stress, as one child explained, “When pectations that the adults in their environments they help [themselves] feel better, people feel hold for them. More specifically, in our full data good about themselves.” set that includes parent, teacher, and administra- tor perspectives on the same domains presented Facial Expressions Students explained that herein, 13 valued expectations emerged. Our facial expressions were another common reac- children discerned 11 of these, oblivious only tion to support. For example, one student said to the adult values of internal motivation—an that when you “…make a smile on your face, it abstract concept—and understanding Louisi- means that somebody made you happy.” Another ana culture and history. Our children are keen- student explained, “I see that their whole face is ly aware of the expectations in their ecology; going up like this [demonstrating a wide smile].” nonetheless, high numbers of ECSNO students When happy, another student said, “My face goes screened as having behavioral and emotional up in the air and I start laughing.” risks (Nastasi & Bell, 2012)—indicating that a sizeable proportion of students struggles to Discussion succeed in these behavioral, academic, and so- cial–emotional competencies. The issue is not Across our child participants at ECSNO in New that they do not understand or value what a good Orleans, Louisiana, there was general agreement student is expected to do; there is disconnect be- that a competent student mastered the skills and tween knowledge and skill mastery. This discon- behaviors involved in following classroom rules, nect is likely an overload of inhibiting factors or dearth of promoting factors to assist children in successfully developing these skills in their day-to-day realities. The emergent questions

16  Emic Perspectives of Risk and Support 285 from this observation become practical, and our However, champions for PWB currently struggle results represent one step in cataloguing these with translating this research on social–emotion- factors to best hypothesize which protections al competence into local settings and promoting to boost and which stressors to mitigate. What sustainability of PBS and SEL approaches. are the messages we can take from the children to inform PWB and academic planning? We A second conclusion we observed in these believe there are three stark conclusions from data related to the tension between the PWB sup- our results, each with implications for future re- ports students value as effective and the supports search and practice. schools traditionally employ. Specifically, physi- cal affection and play were valued supports to Our first conclusion involves the importance children; however, both lie in opposition to typi- of relationships. The parents, teachers, and ad- cal educational practice. Regarding human touch, ministrators at ECSNO, in our broader research research has never wavered as to the benefits of project, provided an inventory of stressors and human contact, and indeed, Western medicine challenges that almost perfectly reflected our in- is beginning to embrace touch for its therapeu- troduction on known risk factors in the chrono-, tic benefits (e.g., Brody, 2012). However, touch macro-, and exo-systems for urban youth of color is controversial in schools; lawsuits and fear (Nastasi & Bell, 2012). Parents spoke of their of child sexual abuse have led many schools to children’s challenges developing in a society of adopt no touch policies and create unequivocal racism and with few financial and professional professional distance from children (Andrzejew- resources; teachers addressed the growing pres- ski & Davis, 2008). Play is a fundamental mecha- sures of accountability to rigorous standards vis- nism through which young children learn. How- à-vis a student population entering kindergarten ever, in the age of accountability, knowing how already academically behind their more affluent to read has undoubtedly triumphed over knowing peers. However, our children provided no refer- how to play, manage friendships, and navigate ences to distal influences in their ecology (e.g., conflict prosocially and nonaggressively. In US NCLB). The children depict both their stressors schools, if recess is available at all, it is often and supports almost entirely in reference to their used as the reinforcer to be removed in a nega- immediate personal relationships. Children ac- tive punishment behavioral management para- knowledge that a power dynamic exists in their digm (e.g., Pellegrini, 2005). The dilemma of this relationships with adults (i.e., “listen to your conclusion, therefore, is how to best negotiate mama;” “listen to your teacher”); however, they responding to students in ways they perceive as experience stress when this relational power is supportive while also ensuring their safety (i.e., expressed inconsistently, with an overreliance from inappropriate touch) and balancing learning on punishment, by way of double-standard (e.g., and support to include play. “she teaches us about letting out our anger with- out being mean, but she looks at us mean when A third stark observation involved the ever- she gets angry”) or with corporal methods (e.g., present issue of school discipline. Since the “whoopings”). Of the most salient codes for both founding of our nation, public school admin- student stressors and supports, all but one in- istrators and teachers have been granted vast volved interpersonal (and even human–animal) discretion over the procedures and policies for relationships. This observation holds potential maintaining safety and order in school buildings for both practical application and future, broader (Jacob, Decker, & Hartshorne, 2011). However, research. We are becoming acutely aware that an overreliance on harsh and exclusionary disci- the social and affective characteristics of class- pline (i.e., corporal punishment, suspension, and rooms may be equal, perhaps better, predictors expulsion) and the discriminatory application of of learning than the instructional and cognitive such methods toward students with disabilities characteristics (Doll, Spies, LeClair, Kurien, & and children of color have continually called into Foley, 2010; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1997). question the constitutionality of punishment- based discipline (CDF, 2012; Jacob et al., 2011).

286 P. B. Bell et al. Discipline and order are necessary at school and full operation and evaluation. Efforts to date and home to socialize children to behavioral expec- preliminary analyses hint that the attention to cul- tations; however, discipline and punishment are tural specificity (presented herein) have enhanced not synonymous. Our children were not necessar- teacher and parent acceptability (i.e., perceived ily opposed to rules, expectations, and “clips”— value and congruence with cultural norms) and indeed some reveled in the joy of getting their have allowed the system to successfully accom- clip moved up. They did note, however, that pun- modate programs and mindsets related to SEL and ishment (e.g., yelling, whoopings, “going home,” child PWB (Bell, Summerville, Nastasi, MacFet- i.e., suspension, clips) was a source of stress. ters, & Earnshaw, 2015). These data provided a Both schools and broader research agendas must blueprint to assess vision against reality and to constantly assess their vision for competent stu- make data-informed plans to promote PWB that dents against the methods used to socialize be- were fortified with local specificity. havior and determine whether the methods used for discipline are working for the children to References whom they are intended to “teach.” Our guess is that they currently do not, as a national cradle- Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2006). The school leader’s to-prison pipeline would not exist (CDF, 2012). guide to student learning supports: New directions for addressing barriers to learning. Thousand Oaks: Beyond these observational musings, we also Corwin. believe our methods and results—although host to limitations of external validity—provide guid- American Civil Liberties Union. (2009). A violent educa- ance to both practitioners and future research. The tion: Corporal punishment of children in U.S. public cultural specificity of our results represents both schools. Washington, DC: American Civil Liberties its chief strength (i.e., internal validity) and its Union. Retrieved from http://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/ greatest limitation (i.e., external validity). We be- humanrights/aviolenteducation_execsumm.pdf. lieve that future research and practice might ben- Accessed 3 June 2013. efit from negotiating this tension, such as the field of implementation science that seeks to translate American Psychological Association (APA). (2005). broad research with strong external validity into Toward an urban psychology: Research, action, and cultural niches to facilitate cultural specificity, policy. Washington, DC: American Psychological only to disseminate back to science generaliz- Association. able conclusions about the process at local levels (e.g., Fixsen et al., 2005). More incisively, it is Andrzejewski, C. E., & Davis, H. A. (2008). Human our process that is generalizable, and the results contact in the classroom: Exploring how teachers for each school or system will inherently always talk about and negotiate touching students. Teaching be culture specific and therefore highly internally and Teacher Education, 24, 779–794. doi:10.1016/j. valid. For example, at ECSNO, the strong internal tate.2007.02.013. validity of these data meant that PWB planning at the school level was well positioned to reflect and Bell, P. B., Summerville, M. A., Nastasi, B. K., MacFet- capitalize on shared strengths and visions for stu- ters, J., & Earnshaw, E. (2015). Promoting psy- dent competence while better understanding the chological well-being in an urban school using the discrete stressors active in the microsystem. After participatory culture specific intervention model. this reflection, conducted in administrator and Journal of Educational and Psychological Consulta- teacher meetings, ECSNO has established univer- tion, 25, 1–18. doi:10.1080/10474412.2014.929955. sal mental healths screenings, is initiating school- wide PBS planning for the upcoming school year, Bradshaw, C. P., Koth, C. W., Bevans, K. B., Ialongo, and because of the PPWBG data, a universal SEL N., & Leaf, P. J. (2008). The impact of school- program will move out of its pilot year and into wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) on the organizational health of elementary schools. School Psychology Quarterly, 23, 462–473. doi:10.1037/a0012883. Brody, H. (2012). On talking and touching in medicine. Journal of Pain, Palliative Care, and Pharmacother- apy, 26, 165–166. doi:10.3109/15360288.2012.676619. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). School connectedness: Strategies for increasing pro- tective factors among youth. Atlanta: U.S. Depart- ment of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from: