WRC Knowledge Review 2015_16

The project intends to find the best way to manage Programme 3: Land-use and aquatic ecosystem management salinization of freshwater in South Africa. This will be done by testing the toxicity levels of wastewater from different Refinement of the preliminary guideline for the industries or sectors using aquatic biota. A salinization determination of buffer zones for rivers, wetlands and management framework will be developed. Specific aims estuaries are: Institute of Natural Resources; Nelson Mandela • To conduct short-term chronic (10–14 days, i.e. 240– Metropolitan University; Diatom and Environmental 336 h) ecotoxicological tests using Caridina nilotica as Management; Eco-Pulse; University of KwaZulu-Natal test organism and toxicologically important major salts (Pietermaritzburg); Institute of Natural Resources (TIMS) specific to municipal wastewater, agriculture, No. 2463 mining and industry • To use the results from the ecotoxicity tests to develop This project will provide human capital development in the a set of salinity ranges that correspond to the levels water and science sector through three national training of protection within the resource classification system and development workshops. It is envisaged that 100 specific to municipal wastewater, agriculture, mining –150 stakeholders, including specialists, authorities and and industry students, will be trained to apply the method developed to • To use the resultant risk-based salinity guideline as determine buffer zones. Specific aims are: the basis for setting resource objectives to contribute • To undertake national training and development to the management of streams potentially impacted workshops to train stakeholders in how to apply the by the respective saline effluents from municipal methodology developed to determine buffer zones wastewater, agriculture, mining and industry • To develop a refined guideline for the determination of • To analyse salt management activities in selected buffer zones for rivers, wetlands and estuaries agricultural, industrial, mining and domestic (mainly wastewater treatment) facilities and propose a new Estimated cost: R398 600 management practice using Cultural Historical Activity Expected term: 2015-2017 Theory (CHAT) • To develop a salinization management framework Programme 4: Integrated environmental and drinking water based on the developed SSD salinity risk-based quality guidelines and CHAT-based management practices The application of ecotoxicity and an activity analysis Estimated cost: R2 000 000 of salt management to water resource protection and Expected term: 2015-2018 use (domestic, agriculture, mining and industry) Rhodes University No. 2462 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 99

A new approach to strategic resource planning for THRUST 3: ECOSYSTEM REHABILITATION, REMEDIATION South Africa’s estuaries – shifting from an activity- AND RESTORATION based to a multi-sector paradigm CSIR (NRE: Marine & Coastal); Nelson Mandela Programme 1: Rivers, wetlands, coastal and estuarine systems, Metropolitan University; Department of Agriculture, and lakes (dams) Forestry & Fisheries No. 2464 Rotenone policy support and capacity development through integrating aquatic-ecosystem monitoring Project aims: in postgraduate research projects with particular • The sector-based (or activity-based) approach emphasis on HBUs to estuarine resource planning in South Africa is South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity; Rhodes not sustainable. This research aims to explore an University (Albany Museum); University of Fort Hare; alternative multi-sector approach (tool) using available University of Venda ; Stellenbosch University; Cape data and information (already residing within various Nature; University of the Western Cape sectors and the scientific literature) and standardizing No. 2538 formats and outputs suitable for strategic planning processes (e.g. using geo-referenced spatial formats). Project aims: • Develop a tool (using spatially-explicit software and/ • Provide data on ecosystem responses of two rivers or spreadsheets) to enable intuitive (visual) analysis and two dams following rotenone treatment to guide and interpretation of data and information to inform national policy on the use of rotenone for alien fish strategic spatial planning (e.g. through application of removals spatial analysis technologies). • Test the hypothesis that ecosystem recovery rates in • Demonstrate to key lead agencies (e.g. DWS, DAFF Krom River (invertebrates and fish) will approximate and DEA) how this tool can be applied to easily identify those in the Rondegat River for two years following potential conflicts among sector resource use plans treatment with rotenone and to explore multi-sector resource use scenarios in • Monitor rates of recovery of fish communities in the order to sensitize managing authorities to the value of Rondegat River continuously to determine when joint, multi-sector estuary resource planning. complete recovery has occurred by testing the hypothesis that native fish communities rebuild to Estimated cost: R1 796 800 approximate those in the non-invaded zone of the river Expected term: 2015-2017 within 5 years after treatment • Assess the recruitment and recovery rates of invertebrate communities to the removal of alien fishes using rotenone in two off-channel dams 100 KSA 2: WATER-LINKED ECOSYSTEMS

• Develop a concept for integrating postgraduate • Determine whether wetland degradation is impacting (BSc Honours) projects into a long-term monitoring the hydrological integrity of the river, thereby framework compromising water security and human wellbeing • Develop human capacity in fish and invertebrate monitoring at Historically Black Universities (HBUs) Estimated cost: R500 000 by integrating postgraduate students and supervisors Expected term: 2016-2018 from HBUs in monitoring projects to develop interest for students to pursue careers in aquatic ecology Programme 2: Socio-economic dynamics • Using lessons learnt from this project in the Western Cape, provide recommendations for the Green village catchment management: guidelines and implementation of long-term monitoring projects in training river ecosystems in the Eastern Cape and Limpopo Aurecon; Phuhlisani Solutions cc; University of the Provinces Western Cape; AWARD • Develop a Policy Brief to justify rotenone as the No. 2508 chemical of choice for alien fish eradication; this Policy Brief will facilitate national policy support and buy-in Project aims: • To improve water-energy-food security as well as Estimated cost: R1 443 200 environmental health in rural catchments Expected term: 2016-2019 • To empower and upskill rural communities to support their own green villages (incl. service delivery) Determining the hydrological functioning of the • To identify stumbling blocks to guideline Palmiet wetlands in the Eastern and Western Cape of implementation and catchment management South Africa interventions sustainability in rural areas Institute for Water Research; Parsons & Associates • To improve the state of rural catchments from the No. 2548 individual–household–village outwards • To develop an education and skills development Project aims: programme to support rural job creation to support • Determine the surface and groundwater dynamics of green villages the Kromme River upper catchment (K90A) • Identify the relationship between wetlands and Estimated cost: R1 500 000 hydrological functioning of the catchment Expected term: 2015-2019 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 101

THRUST 4: SUSTAINABLE ECOSYTEM UTILISATION AND sources, economic indicators used, analysis DEVELOPMENT approaches and methodologies, and reporting outputs Estimated cost: R2 000 000 Programme 1: Environmental economics (goods & services) Expected term: 2015-2018 and accounting The utilization of water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) Development of a methodology and decision support from Hartbeespoort Dam in biogas and bio-fertilizer system to determine appropriate protection levels of production, as a solution to water weed challenges water resources using ecosystem services and socio- ARC (Institute for Soil, Climate & Water); The Moss Group; economic tools University of Pretoria Prime Africa Consultants cc; Institute of Natural No. 2543 Resources; Golder Associates Africa No. 2465 Project aims: • To characterise the substrate (water hyacinth and algal There is a need for credible implementation of the Water soup) and to determine the optimum solid retention Resource Classification System. Implementation has been time (SRT), hydraulic retention time (HRT) and biogas weakened by the existing inconsistencies in the use of the yield at lab-scale; this information will be used to current 7-step guideline. Therefore, this project intends optimise the design of the digester for the anaerobic to close this gap. This will support the work of DWS and digestion of water hyacinth and algal soup obtained CMAs. The specific aims are: from Hartbeespoort Dam • Revise and update the current WRCS Socio-Economic • To co-digest water hyacinth, algal soup and various Guideline document other substrates in an attempt to maximize bio- • Investigate and record successes and failures of the methane yield current WRCS and Resource Quality Objectives (RQO) • To test the effect of catalysts on the digestion process socio-economic studies, if any, in addition to those (e.g. certain bacterial species) in an attempt to identified as indicated under the rationale for the augment biogas yield project • To determine the microbial composition (using next • Address the weaknesses identified in each case generation sequencing and DGGE) at various stages • Undertake gap analysis of current WRCS and RQO of digestion which will aid in selecting the species that socio-economic studies may be used in bio-augmentation experiments and to • Review and recommend standardization of data determine the feasibility of the effluent to be used as 102 KSA 2: WATER-LINKED ECOSYSTEMS

a bio-fertilizer (chemical composition and absence of • Identify enterprise development opportunities that pathogens) can be used to boost community involvement in the • To conduct a cost–benefit analysis of the system that protection of the wetland incorporates anaerobic digestion, in comparison to • Develop a business case for a bankable project locally the current method of dam remediation (i.e. harvesting owned and managed by local community members and composting) that addresses issues related to water, food and/or • To determine the social-economic impact of removing energy security water hyacinth and algal soup from Hartbeespoort dam on members of the surrounding communities Estimated cost: R600 000 Expected term: 2015-2017 Estimated cost: R500 000 Expected term: 2016-2018 Pharmaceuticals from South African aquatic plants University of Pretoria; Mothong Heritage; Walter Sisulu Programme 4: Green economy and sustainable (green) University innovations No. 2540 Landscape green innovations to improve aquatic Project aims: ecosystem services for the benefit of urban and peri- • Investigate propagation possibility urban communities • Investigate biological and chemical action of Mentha African Centre for a Green Economy (Africege); longifolia against melasma Environmental Monitoring Group; University of Cape Town; • Investigation of 20 other aquatic plants for treatment NM Envirotech Solutions of melasma, TB and cancer and for peridontal care No. 2507 Estimated cost: R2 358 960 Project aims: Expected term: 2016-2020 • Investigate the nature of landscape innovations suitable for protecting urban and peri-urban aquatic ecosystem services, using Khayelitsha Wetlands Park as a case study • Investigate the nature of ecosystem services that the wetland provides to local community members WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 103

THRUST 5: ECOSYSTEMS AND GLOBAL CHANGE Development of a predictive management tool for Orange River blackfly outbreaks Programme 2: Ecosystems and climate change Groundtruth cc; Red Meat Research & Development SA; Nepid Consultants; Department of Agriculture, Forestry Long term WRFChem modelling and verification of & Fisheries; Philagro SA (Pty) Ltd; University of KwaZulu- wet and dry acid deposition over South Africa and Natal (Pietermaritzburg) investigation of impact of power generation stack No. 2459 emission limits on acid deposition eScience Associates (Pty) Ltd; University of the The study will use an integrated approach that includes Witwatersrand; University of Cape Town; North-West water variables and farming practices to model and University (Potchefstroom) predict blackfly outbreaks. The modelling results will also No. 2466 be used to put together preventative measures, taking into consideration climate change. Specific aims are: The project intends to develop a time-dependent emission • Test and refine the current probabilistic blackfly inventory using 15 years of climate and deposition data. outbreak model by inclusion of temperature and The project will consider using the WRFchem model turbidity data, and using previous flows and to predict dry and wet acid deposition in South Africa. monitoring data This will be done by modelling future power (stations) • Undertake climate change scenario analyses to assist emissions with or without SO 2 . Results from the model future management planning will be verified with actual data (dry and wet acid • Provide an evaluation framework for monitoring data deposition) from other sources (e.g., Eskom and Josipovic of blackfly larval densities, based on the outbreak data). model • Provide a Blackfly Control Programme auditing system Estimated cost: R700 000 using a mobile phone application whereby the general Expected term: 2015-2016 public can report on nuisance levels of adult blackfly • Capacity building for Blackfly Control Programme (Northern Cape Agriculture) staff Estimated cost: R1 200 000 Expected term: 2015-2017 104 KSA 2: WATER-LINKED ECOSYSTEMS

CONTACT PERSONS THRUST 1: ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES Mr Bonani Madikizela E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +27 12 330 9021 THRUST 2: ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT Mr Bonani Madikizela E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +27 12 330 9021 THRUST 3: ECOSYSTEM REHABILITATION, REMEDIATION AND RESTORATION Mr Bonani Madikizela E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +27 12 330 9021 THRUST 4: SUSTAINABLE ECOSYTEM UTILISATION AND DEVELOPMENT Mr Bonani Madikizela E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +27 12 330 9021 THRUST 5: ECOSYSTEMS AND GLOBAL CHANGE Dr Brilliant Petja E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +27 12 330 9052 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 105

KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT SCOPE The Water Use and Waste Management KSA focuses and the waste released to the water environment is thus mainly on the domestic, industrial and mining water of paramount importance to ensure the sustainability of sectors. It aims to proactively and effectively lead and the resource and the activities relying on it. Water use support the advancement of technology, science, and waste management in South Africa is consequently management and policies relevant to water supply, waste a key factor for social and economic growth, as well as and effluent management, for these sectors. This KSA for our environment. The entire way we think about and also supports studies on institutional and management use water is thus an important factor in determining our issues, with special emphasis on the efficient functioning future. In recent years the focus of the KSA has been of water service institutions and their viability. Research on supporting the implementation of various pieces of on infrastructure for both water supply and sanitation is legislation that impact on the provision of sustainable included. A further focus is on water supply and treatment water services. The support was in the form of unpacking technology serving the domestic (urban, rural, large and and understanding key elements within legislation and small systems) as well as the industrial/commercial and the impact on the water services sector. The result has mining sectors of our economy. This KSA also focuses been a bias towards developing guidelines and tools to on waste and effluent as well as reuse technologies that assist new and emerging municipalities and politicians can support the municipal, mining and industrial sectors to understand their responsibilities, which also included and improve management in these sectors with the repackaging information of a technical nature. In the aim of improving productivity and supporting economic process we have maintained a balance with dealing with growth while minimising the negative effect on human and cutting-edge technological advances and have been environmental health. concentrating on their application and commercialisation. Developing innovative processes and technologies for The provision and supply of water of adequate quality water purification, reuse and treatment of wastewater from and quantity for economic and public health purposes domestic to industrial and mining activities has been and remain continuous challenges. Water is a finite resource is of even greater importance to our country, especially in and, specifically in the context of South Africa, is the light of problems related to the deteriorating quality of becoming incrementally scarce. Managing water use our water resources and the rising costs and reliability of 106 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

energy. Considering the emerging challenges, research in and beneficiation with the aim to provide appropriate, the KSA will continue to focus on greater innovation and innovative and integrated solutions for water efficiency development of cutting-edge technologies to respond and waste management for industries to the issues of poor O&M, competency and capacity • To provide appropriate, innovative and integrated constraints, reuse, energy efficiency, climate change solutions to water use and waste management in the constraints, emerging contaminants and the aspect of mining sector drinking water quality. THRUSTS AND PROGRAMMES OBJECTIVES THRUST 1: WATER SERVICES – INSTITUTIONAL AND The strategic objectives of KSA 3 are as follows: MANAGEMENT ISSUES • To support the efficient functioning of water service Scope: The efficient functioning of water service institutions and their viability in order to sustain water institutions and their viability are key to sustaining water services in rural and urban areas services in rural and urban areas. The focus of this thrust • To develop innovative technologies, processes and is to address strategic research aspects related to policy procedures that address aspects related to bulk water issues, institutional reform, regulation, infrastructure supply, water treatment technology, distribution and management, water-related competencies and capacity water quality required for the strengthening of water institutions (water • To develop technologies and systems that optimise services providers, water services authorities, water the full wastewater and sanitation services chain in the boards, national departments) in providing sustainable municipal (domestic) sector water services. • To quantify water use and waste production, predict impacts (risks) over the short-, medium- and long-term, and develop and apply methods of prevention, minimisation, reuse, recycle, recovery WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 107

Scope: The issue of cost-recovery has been identified as a critical aspect affecting sustainable services. In Programme 1: Cost-recovery in water an environment where genuine poverty affects cost-recovery, this programme intends to develop innovative services strategies and processes to tackle the problem. The focus will be on generating in-depth knowledge of the problem and testing new approaches. Scope: Relationships and partnerships between service providers, both external and internal, are important Programme 2: prerequisites to sustainable water service delivery. This programme’s objective is to generate knowledge Institutional and and processes that would support this new form of service delivery. Innovative management techniques are management issues – a necessity for viable and sustainable water service provision. This programme intends to find innovative Water services solutions to critical problems with the financing and management of essential services such as water supply and sanitation. Scope: The focus of research within this programme is to provide support to water service institutions Programme 3: Innovative management with special reference to sustainable cost-recovery and implementation of the free basic water policy; key arrangements – performance indicators for monitoring and evaluation of service delivery; guidelines for sound management Rural water supply of water service institutions and development of effective strategies for promoting an integrated approach to rural development. Scope: Regulation of water services is important for the sector to achieve improved functioning and Programme 4: performance in the delivery of water and sanitation services, to the benefit of the population. Furthermore, it Regulation of water services ensures greater efficiency and improved management of infrastructure and customers. This programme will support, through knowledge creation, the development of an effective water regulatory environment. Scope: A fully-informed community or individual plays a vital role in the sustainable use of water services, Programme 5: Water services education which contributes to water efficiency and improved environmental health. This programme will address and awareness education and awareness aspects which contribute to efficient water use, improved hygiene behaviour and sustainable services. 108 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

THRUST 2: WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT Research support for these activities is the focus of this TECHNOLOGY thrust. The objective of this thrust is to develop innovative technologies and processes that address aspects Scope: The provision and supply of affordable and related to bulk water supply, water treatment technology, reliable water of acceptable quality and quantity for distribution and water quality. drinking (domestic) and economic (industrial/commercial and mining) activities, remain continuous challenges. Scope: The programme aims to acquire adequate understanding of potable water treatment processes and Programme 1: related activities and to be able to assist in treating our scarce water resources in the most efficient and cost- Drinking water treatment effective way to an acceptable quality for potable and industrial use. Expected outcomes include improved technology and more cost-efficient process technologies, increased operational efficiency of treatment plants and an improved manpower training level and knowledge base. Programme 2: Scope: This programme aims to produce innovative and appropriate water treatment and supply Water treatment for rural technologies and processes that will ensure an adequate supply of safe and clean drinking water for rural communities communities. Scope: The programme aims to protect human health by ensuring that water supplies are of acceptable Programme 3: quality and standards. Outcomes include improved analytical methodologies, treatment technologies and Drinking water quality hygiene practices. Scope: The programme aims to optimise the quality, quantity and reliability of the distribution and supply of treated potable water to end-users. The programme has the following expected outcomes: to develop reliable Programme 4: Water distribution and processes in predicting and improving the operational efficiencies in distribution systems, with the purpose of distribution systems reducing both capital and operational costs; to ensure that the quality and quantity of water is maintained in the distribution system – from the water treatment plant to the furthest end-user; and to develop innovative methods, tools and processes that will improve system integrity and reliability. WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 109

THRUST 3: SUSTAINABLE MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER the installed infrastructure. This includes the responsible AND SANITATION management of the wastewater sludge and faecal sludge that is generated. The need for innovative technologies Scope: This thrust focuses on the development and solutions is recognised as we prepare for the future of technologies and systems that optimise the full – achieving more stringent effluent discharge standards, wastewater and sanitation services chain in the municipal developing acceptable non-waterborne sewerage (domestic) sector. This includes the reticulation, treatment solutions, reliable treatment of ever-increasing high- and management of the residues. The challenge is to strength domestic wastewater, informing future policy, etc. implement fitting solutions for a particular application that will remain functional throughout the intended lifespan of Scope: It is imperative to develop technologies which can achieve future policy objectives and stricter standards. It is also recognised that research generates information which could inform future policy. This programme encourages the development of technologies to address the future anticipated municipal Programme 1: Emerging treatment waterborne sewage and sanitation needs as well as to support Government by informing future policy. It technologies – supports development of technological solutions addressing, amongst others: reuse, recovery, non-waterborne Preparing for the future sewerage solutions, grey-water management, peri-urban sanitation solutions, high-strength effluent treatment, industrial and domestic effluent co-treatment, etc. It also supports research aimed at informing future policy through data interpretation, projections, risk assessments, addressing emerging pollutants, predictive models, etc. Scope: This programme addresses the improvement and innovative application of existing ‘fit for purpose’ technology for waterborne sewage treatment and on-site sanitation. The objective is to optimise appropriate Programme 2: application to consistently achieve strict standards, with added benefits such as cost saving, ensuring ease Application of appropriate of operation and maintenance, and improving reliability and energy efficiency. The integration of social and technologies and tools local economic development objectives is encouraged. The programme further focuses on the technical sustainability of wastewater treatment and sanitation services by critically appraising existing policy (including effluent discharge standards) and impacts. Scope: The programme supports the strategic and technical aspects of managing stormwater and sewerage and their impacts in urban, peri-urban and rural contexts. The development of generic stormwater and sewerage planning and technology selection, design and maintenance tools is encouraged to address Programme 3: Stormwater and sewerage current needs. In order to address anticipated needs, the programme supports research focusing on improved systems technology including water-sensitive urban design (WSUD) and stormwater reuse. It will cover technical design, operational, maintenance, refurbishment and management aspects of stormwater and sewerage reticulation systems, to provide sustainable infrastructure in the extended delivery of sanitation services as a national priority. 110 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Scope: All wastewater treatment and on-site sanitation facilities generate a solid/sludge that needs to be Programme 4: Wastewater sludge and managed responsibly. This programme focuses on research dedicated to improve wastewater sludge and faecal sludge management faecal sludge management practices. Research on characterisation, emerging technologies and solutions, anaerobic processes for stabilisation, minimisation, de-watering, disinfection and beneficiation is encouraged. Programme 5: Sanitation technology and Scope: To develop innovative tools and technology which support appropriate sanitation that is socially, innovations environmentally and financially sustainable. THRUST 4: SUSTAINABLE AND INTEGRATED and apply methods of prevention, minimisation, reuse, INDUSTRIAL WATER MANAGEMENT recycle, recovery and beneficiation. This thrust also aims to provide appropriate, innovative and integrated solutions Scope: Water is a strategic issue to the industrial sector. While water usage by the industrial sectors is not as for water efficiency and waste management for industries. great as, e.g., agriculture or domestic consumption, the In addition, Thrust 4 establishes the governance, policy impacts of the pollutants in industrial wastes and effluents and regulatory environment that currently exists and the on health and the environment can be significant, costly enabling environment that will be required to change and long-lasting. The aim of this thrust is to quantify behaviours to conserve water, grow the economy, protect water use and waste production, predict impacts (risks) society and the environment. over the short-, medium- and long-term, and develop Scope: This programme seeks to look at major challenges that may face South Africa in future at a water quality, quantity, and security level. It will explore emerging fields in science and engineering, such Programme 1: as nanotechnology, to provide solutions to these challenges. In addition to seeking new solutions, this Emerging challenges and programme will also investigate new and emerging industries, their water needs and the associated threats to solutions for the 21 century health and environment. The concept of sustainable future industrial complexes and their water management st will allow for better planning and regulation of new industries, enabling improved adoption of integrated resource management systems, processes and tools. Scope: This programme focuses on integrated and innovative management arrangements, e.g., public- private partnerships (PPP), to support industry and government programmes which may be site-, catchment- Programme 2: and/or region-specific. While the programme will focus on water, it aims to promote a more holistic approach Integrated management to resource (water, energy and carbon) management by industries to bring about sustainable approaches to water and wastewater management ensuring that liabilities (waste) are turned into assets (resources) for the benefit of the environment, society and economy. WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 111

Scope: In order to prioritise those facets of industrial water management that need the most urgent attention, it is important to quantify the water used and waste produced by different sectors. This programme Programme 3: will also look to develop new methodologies and models to aid in quantification, prediction and evaluation Quantification, prediction of data. The environmental consequences of waste products are almost always long-term in nature and and minimisation of water these long-lasting (legacy) effects were often not fully appreciated in the past, and consequently not properly use and waste production considered when waste was disposed of. Thus, this programme also aims to establish and improve pollution prediction capabilities appropriate to South African conditions and to develop cost-effective techniques and approaches to minimise or reduce the impact that legacy and new waste products have on the environment. Scope: The regulatory authorities are responsible for authorising and regulating the impact of industrial waste on the quality and quantity of our water resources. Traditionally the resource-intensive command-and- Programme 4: control approach was used almost exclusively to manage water quality. Internationally, use is increasingly Governance, policy, made of indirect economic or other instruments to supplement or even replace the command-and-control regulatory, and economical approach to water quality management. These new approaches are believed to be more cost-effective and instruments to improve to improve equity. Both the established and new approaches are being investigated and refined in order to industrial water support improvements to the governance, policy, regulatory, self-regulatory, and financial mechanisms that management could be used to control and reduce the negative environmental effects associated with industrial waste. This programme will largely look at these mechanisms from an industry perspective in order to improve, review and enable implementation. Scope: This programme looks at water use efficiency and associated tools, methodologies and systems as a primary driver of reduced effluent generation. In spite of efforts to minimise waste production it is acknowledged that effluent production will for the foreseeable future remain an expected consequence of industrial activities, and thus this programme aims to support the development of a range of processes and Programme 5: techniques for effective beneficiation, recovery, reuse, recycle, disposal and ultimately treatment of industrial Water efficiency , cleaner effluents. The international trend towards waste management is to minimise the production of waste by production, beneficiation adopting cleaner production processes and green chemistry concepts for chemicals. Approaches such as and treatment of industrial life-cycle analysis are employed to ensure that the net effect is positive and does not merely represent the effluents transfer of negative effects from one sector or environmental medium to another. In addition, the programme entails the exploration and exploitation of in-process recycling and reuse opportunities prior to end-of-pipe treatment solutions. Expected outcomes include the potential recovery of materials, water and energy for beneficial reuse, and fundamental scientific/engineering support for process development, and thus longer- term initiation of the secondary economy opportunities within South Africa. 112 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

THRUST 5: MINE WATER TREATMENT AND and waste management in the mining sector. Future MANAGEMENT operations will almost exclusively take place in water- scarce regions (e.g. Waterberg, Eastern Limb) and their Scope: The usage of water in mining and mineral development will require reallocation of already stretched processing/refining produces high volumes of solid resources through, e.g., improved water demand and wastes and liquid effluents. Some mining activities water conservation management. Additional priorities generate acid mine drainage (AMD) or other mining- will include brine handling, biological sulphur compound impacted waters. This thrust aims to provide appropriate, transformation and aversion of future impacts. innovative and integrated solutions to water use Scope: This programme focuses on investigations into quantification of water used and waste produced by the sector, currently, and predicting and quantifying the short-, medium- and especially long-term impacts the wastes generated will have. The environmental consequences of mining activity are almost always long-term Programme 1: Water use and waste in nature, with impacts that last for centuries. These long-lasting effects were often not fully understood in production the past, and consequently not properly considered. In the present regulatory environment it is increasingly expected of waste producers to quantify the present and future environmental impacts of their past and present operations and to indicate how these will be remedied, as well as how such consequences can be avoided when planning future operations. Scope: The creation of sustainable arrangements (e.g. public-private partnerships) that enable the mitigation and prevention of the environmental, social and economic legacies of the mining and minerals Programme 2: Regulatory, management industries is complex. Priorities include addressing the treatment and supply of bulk water using acid mine and institutional drainage (AMD), a realistic estimate of non-point-source pollution relating to the waste discharge charge arrangements system and determining the price elasticity for water use of the sector (determine the potential to decrease water use through tariff increases). This programme interrogates such aspects from the perspective of the mining sector. (Note: Policy development falls under KSA1). Scope: This programme focuses on investigations into developing technologies and methods to decrease/ minimise the generation of waste products in the mining sector, either through cleaner production, by-product Programme 3: generation, life-cycle analysis or through applying other risk assessment methodologies. The programme Minimising waste incorporates novel mining methods and mining-impacted water prevention strategies. Waste minimisation at production the national, regional, (catchment), complex or single-site scale is considered. Identification of opportunities to convert liabilities into assets and holistic, long-term research into the beneficial use and recovery of brines, their solutes, and other waste products, are also included. WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 113

Scope: The emerging challenges related to avoiding recreating the legacies of past operations call for emerging solutions. Programme 4 will investigate the prediction and avoidance of long-term water impacts Programme 4: Mining in the 21 century and implications associated with establishing new operations within different geographical areas. It will also st actively pursue beneficiation initiatives, re-mining of wastes, etc. (especially innovative ideas and piloting/ scale-up). Scope: Much research attention has been paid to coal and gold mining; however, other quarried or mined products such as radio-nuclides and platinum group metals also require consideration and in some cases Programme 5: Low-volume mined products present unique challenges. Water use and demand management, water-conserving metallurgical and extraction processes and investigation of the impacts and amelioration of mine discards specific to these products will be addressed in this programme. THRUST 6: WATERSMART FUND Scope: Drinking water and commercial activities have Thus, this fund will support research, demonstration a high cost and assurance attached to them, as well as and development of any innovative idea, technology growing competitive demands. The wise and efficient or process which supports the efficient use, reuse and use of this water has a profound impact on our water conservation of our precious water and related energy environment, resources and investments. efficiency in the domestic, industrial and mining sectors. 114 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

RESEARCH PORTFOLIO FOR 2015/16 COMPLETED PROJECTS THRUST 1: WATER SERVICES – INSTITUTIONAL AND and costs of analyses. The focus should be on on-line MANAGEMENT ISSUES (real-time) measurements to ensure that all the required process barriers are intact. Programme 2: Institutional and management issues – Water services Cost: R547 400 Term: 2013-2015 Monitoring, management and communication of water quality and public acceptance in the direct reclamation Assessing the impacts and achievements of the of municipal wastewater for drinking purposes Strategic Framework for Water Services (SFWS) Chris Swartz Water Utilisation Engineers; Cape Peninsula Sustento Development Services cc; Prime Africa University of Technology; CSIR; Stellenbosch University Consultants, CSIR No. 2212 No. 2415 In South Africa, there has been a lot of interest recently In 2001 South Africa experienced a shift in the in direct water reclamation (direct potable reuse), for responsibility for provision of water services, devolving a number of reasons. South Africa, being an arid from the Department of Water and Sanitation to the region, faces serious challenges with availability of local government, as per Constitutional requirements. conventional water sources. Thus, there is a need to The regulation and monitoring responsibility remained develop standardised terminology for water reuse that is with central government. With this shift, the Strategic understandable by stakeholders and the public, in order to Framework for Water Services (SFWS) was introduced instil credibility and confidence and for effective (positive) to the water services sector, outlining the changes in messaging and communication to the general public. approach that were needed to achieve the Constitutional The project also compiled recommended water quality role of local government. The purpose of the Strategic monitoring programmes and guidelines for water reuse Framework was to put forward a vision for the water consisting of constituents and parameters that will require services sector in South Africa for 2003-2013, and to monitoring, including analytical methods, time to obtain set out the framework that would enable the sector results, reliability of method, detection limits, frequency vision to be achieved. With the 10-year strategic WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 115

timeline of the SFWS being reached in 2013, it was time Risk governance in the South African water sector: in 2014 to review and reflect on the strategy. In light business value creation and best practices of this need, the WRC and Department of Water and Arup (Pty) Ltd; University of Cape Town Sanitation initiated a study to conduct an assessment No. 2416 of the implicit and explicit impacts of the SFWS and the quantification thereof. The purpose of the study The provision of water and sanitation services occurs was to understand current gaps; critical problem areas; within a constantly changing and interdependent social, areas of improvement; and factors of success/failure in economic, political and environmental context, resulting implementation of the SFWS. Recommendations were in a complex set of risks, hazards and uncertainties. to be provided on how to (i) address these challenges Consequently the management of risk is a fundamental and gaps in the SFWS and (ii) align the water services requirement for the effective and efficient delivery of water strategy with new policy/legislation. The study showed and sanitation services. Historically, risk in water utilities that the benefits associated with the SFWS far outweigh has been managed through traditional linear approaches the investment costs of the SFWS. The benefit-cost ratio and usually focusing on operational risks including water for South Africa in 2013 was estimated at R9.50, i.e., for quality and asset failure (such as the Blue Drop, Green every R1 invested in water supply and sanitation, a benefit Drop and No Drop programmes and water safety and of R9.50 was achieved. This is higher than the ESI average wastewater risk abatement planning). However, risks estimate, likely because the methodology used allowed call for a holistic approach that goes beyond the usual assessment of the compounded benefit-cost impacts of linear functions and in the last few years, particularly a 10-year SFWS investment programme, i.e., resulting in international water sectors, a move towards more from a continuous reduction in health risks and continuous iterative frameworks of risk governance rather than just improvement in livelihoods. By 2013, the cumulative risk management is evident. The aim of this study is benefits of the SFWS were R130 billion. This included to understand how water service authorities and water a health cost saving to impacted households of R500 service providers undertake risk governance, and to million, a productivity gain in the economy of R800 million identify what makes this work and the value this is adding. and a hugely significant livelihoods impact of R140 000 To achieve this aim, a standard approach to the collection million. The results showed that the SFWS had achieved of data was conducted and a risk maturity benchmarking its overall aim of improving the health of people, improving model was developed. The model was used to assess livelihoods and protecting the environment. the risk maturity of water sector organisations. The overall average maturity of the organisations varied from 2.4 Cost: R1 672 350 (initial) to 3.9 (managed) out of a possible score of 5. The Term: 2014-2016 water boards and the metropolitan municipalities were observed to have a higher maturity level compared to the small municipalities or municipal entities. It was found that 116 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

all organisations assessed undertake risk management Programme 5: Water services education and awareness primarily in the form of routine risk assessments, water safety and wastewater risk abatement planning. Risk governance is more than just the assessment of risk, Islamic jurisprudence and conditions for acceptability however. Most organisations had established some of reclamation of wastewater for portable use by risk governance practices and are moving towards a Muslim users – case study of eThekwini Municipality governance approach to risk at an enterprise level. University of Cape Town No. 2360 Cost: R800 000 Term: 2014-2017 Water resonates deeply in the day-to-day lives of Muslims in South Africa and beyond. The research was a very successful first step in documenting the extent of Best practices in sustainable water and wastewater management: a road map to Green Drop and Blue water reclamation projects and developments in Muslim Drop for small- to medium-sized municipalities in SA countries. It was even more successful at presenting a Water Group Holdings cc; Sarah Slabbert Associates detailed framework for understanding the ethical and No. 2420 juridical significance of water in the Islamic tradition. This framework made it possible to address the key questions of the project. Water reclamation was supported by The project generated two WIN-SA lessons on best practice in sustainable water and wastewater Muslims in a constructive manner. More substantially, the management: demonstrating a road map to Green Drop majority of Muslim scholars supported Indirect Portable and Blue Drop for small- to medium-sized municipalities Reuse. They were concerned about the continuing threats in South Africa. The two lessons are titled ‘Wrapped to water, and called for caution in the implementation up! - W 2 RAP interventions that paid off for Witzenberg of water reclamation practices. Muslims, in particular, Local Municipality’ and ‘Risk-based planning delivers were still concerned about the threat of medical hazards safe drinking water to //Khara Hais’. The use of the in the water supply. They asked Muslims and other WRC Wastewater Risk Abatement Planning and Water local communities to be more directly involved in water Safety Planning Guidelines in identifying risks and management practices. At the same time, the religious coming up with interventions within the water and waste leaders called upon mosques to lead by example and water management is showcased. The lessons were introduce water saving and recycling measures. They workshopped in Upington on 17 November 2015, as called upon themselves and other religious leaders to raise a way of encouraging ongoing discussion, debate and awareness of water conservation and water management lesson sharing for the benefit of other municipalities. challenges in the country. Cost: R360 000 Cost: R500 000 Term: 2014-2015 Term: 2014-2015 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 117

THRUST 2: WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT Advanced oxidative treatment process for water TECHNOLOGY disinfection using an electrohydraulic discharge reactor and TiO 2 immobilised on nanofibres Programme 1: Drinking water treatment technology University of the Western Cape; Stellenbosch University; University of Cape Town Investigation into the cost and water quality aspects of No. 2132 South African desalination and reuse plants Royal HaskoningDHV (Pty) Ltd; Stellenbosch University; Electrohydraulic discharges have been studied for Umgeni Water; City of Cape Town; G O Water several years; however the integration of innovations Management; Chris Swartz Water Utilisation Engineers in nanoscience and nanophotocatalysis has been No. 2121 incorporated into this area of work on a very limited scale. The present project will focus on the development Around 2009/10, the Southern and Eastern Cape regions of the prototype electrohydraulic discharge reactor in of South Africa experienced the worst drought in known order to generate plasma directly in water which will history, and to prevent the risk of complete water supply produce radicals from water ionisation. The design of failure a number of desalination and water reuse projects the electrohydraulic system originates from the corona were undertaken. A substantial amount of literature exists discharge principle. The corona discharge principle is in the public domain with respect to cost and water quality based on a high voltage alternating current between two aspects for desalination and reuse plants. However, electrodes which are separated by a layer of dielectric none of these provide real information on cost and water material and a narrow gap through which the oxygen quality obtained from actual plants constructed in South bearing gas is passed. The dielectric is necessary to Africa. This project gathered cost, operational and other stabilize the discharge over the entire electrode area so data associated with local (South African) desalination that it does not localize as an intense arc. The prototype and water reuse plants that have been implemented system under development consists of two coaxial quartz recently and are planned for implementation in the near tubes of 200 mm length with different diameters. The future. The information gathered during the project will multi-unit inner tubes with 8 OD - 6 ID, which acts as the be of beneficial use to municipal engineers and the water discharging electrode, is filled with distilled water, and is community as a whole to define real costs for desalination connected to alternating current (AC) high voltage. The and reuse. This may be used for more effective future outer tubes comprise tubes with 12 OD- 9 ID planning and comparison of different water supply leaving 1 mm gap between both tubes where the options. discharge takes place by the means of throughflowing air. The reactor is submerged in contaminated water Cost: R1 000 000 which acts as grounded electrode. Furthermore, multiple Term: 2012-2015 electrodes across the water flow path in combination with 118 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

TiO 2 electrospun nanofibre consolidated photocatalyst and organic matter if they exceed their lifespan of usage, that can promote and enhance the oxidants formation rendering them ineffective and so vulnerable to biofilm will be incorporated in this reactor. Optimisation of the formation. Furthermore, biofilm attachment and growth in reactor configuration using copper wire electrodes, and HWTDs is highly dependent on the type of materials the then replacement of the initial conventional electrodes device is constructed from (i.e. plastic, rubber) as these with nanowire and synergetic effects of photocatalysis for materials can all provide a nutrient source for microbial advanced oxidation processes (AOP) on water treatment establishment. Moreover, the storage conditions (i.e. is the overall innovation of the project. temperature), cleanliness, service life/lifespan of usage, water volume throughput and contact time, the use of Cost: R1 392 800 disinfectant technologies (i.e. KDF or colloidal silver Term: 2012-2015 coatings) and the device’s ability to absorb chlorine from final treated water are all contributing factors which A longevity study into the purification capacity of determine a HWTDs risk for microbial establishment and home water treatment devices (HWTDs) supplied in overall biofouling. The four HWTD filters and filtrate waters South Africa that tested positive for isolated pathogenic bio-filming University of Johannesburg; National Institute of microorganisms were subjected to quantitative microbial Occupational Health; University of Pretoria (Virology); risk assessment (QMRA), and two of them did not comply CSIR; North-West University (Potchefstroom) with set WHO criterion annual ‘acceptable’ risk of infection No. 2366 of 1 in 10 000. These findings suggest that the utilization of these devices to filter Gauteng municipal tap water is The effectiveness of HWTDs as a mechanism to reduce not safe and of a great risk to human health, since they contaminants from water depends primarily on the are prone to possibly harbour microbial pathogens, which water treatment technology that has been utilized by can leach into filtrate water that is intended for human the manufacturers in relation to the quality/source of consumption. water that requires treatment. Water treatment devices utilizing AC, IER, ultrafiltration membranes, microporous Cost: R632 320 sedimentation and ceramic filter technologies primarily Term: 2014-2016 reduce particulate contaminates by size exclusion due to surface or depth filtration mechanisms; however, efficacy is dependent on pore size. The less porous a water treatment technology is, the more likely it is to result in the deposition of organic on their filtrate surfaces, which leads to biofouling. Additionally, water treatment technologies can become overloaded and saturated with dissolved ions WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 119

Water safety and security: emergency response plans Programme 3: Drinking water quality Emanti Management; CSIR; Clive Cumming and Associates An investigation into the presence and impact of No. 2213 free-living amoebae and amoeba-resistant bacteria on drinking water production, storage and distribution This project aimed to provide guidance on the to health care institutions in greater Johannesburg, development of Emergency Response Plans with South Africa associated templates in order to protect public health, National Institute of Occupational Health; University of safety and security. Emergency response planning Johannesburg includes exploring vulnerabilities/threats/challenges, and No. 2138 possible risks (called emergency triggers in this project). The aims of the project were as follows: Free-living amoebae (FLA) are ubiquitous in natural • Survey what exists currently in terms of Emergency and man-made water systems. Certain FLA, including. Response Plans and identify international practices. Acanthamoeba and Balamuthia species are known • Assist Community Water Services to identify water human pathogens and are carriers of amoeba-resistant services and water services infrastructure threats, bacteria (ARB) known to cause serious, potentially fatal vulnerabilities and risks. infectious diseases. Members of the genera Legionella, • Assist Community Water Services to identify Mycobacterium, Vibrio, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas management supporting plans and/or documents and others are known ARB often implicated in nosocomial required in support of risk and asset management infections. Certain non-pathogenic FLA, for example, focusing on water services emergencies. Vermamoeba vermiformis, are also known carriers of • Develop a draft water safety and security Emergency pathogenic ARB. The importance of drinking water quality Response Plan (ERP) guideline with useful templates supplied to and distributed through public health care with reference to international ERP practices. facilities, with special reference to FLA and certain ARB, • Workshop the draft guide at selected communities/ has not been studied previously. The study attempted municipalities. to provide a general overview on the presence of these • Workshop the guide at local, provincial and national organisms within water distribution systems of three meetings and/or conferences. public health care institutions in Johannesburg, South • Develop a final ERP guide with inputs and Africa, and also briefly highlight the potential human health amendments from the pilot and workshops with useful risk implications. templates. Cost: R423 500 Cost: R1 500 000 Term: 2012-2015 Term: 2013-2015 120 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

An assessment of incentivising community changes that can be achieved when considering the engagement in drinking water supply monitoring resource limitations. University of Cape Town; SeeSaw; Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Cost: R1 170 000 No. 2214 Term: 2013-2016 Recent service delivery protests on water and water Detection and quantification of emerging organic services provision have highlighted that communication pollutants in Durban waterways, and remediation between municipalities and communities is often options integrating nanostructured materials and unsatisfactory, resulting in a lack of trust and constructive advanced oxidation processes engagement. This study was based on the premise that University of KwaZulu-Natal (Westville) community engagement is paramount to water supply No. 2215 management and sanitation provision. The research proposed an investigation into the use of ICTs in order This work has resulted in protocols that can be used to to engage rural communities in water supply monitoring determine selected PCBs, OCPs, pharmaceuticals and and the reporting of service faults. The project design was polycyclic musks in environmental samples. The PCB based on using action research in a case study setting levels were much higher within the Msunduzi River than with the intention to develop an ICT intervention. Using the Umgeni River, which may be due to various activities a number of rurality criteria, two local municipalities along the rivers. Selected pharmaceutical compounds in the Eastern Cape were identified as the case study were detected and quantified in both river systems using location: Kou-Kamma and Ndlambe municipalities. LC-MS as well as a newly developed GC-MS method. Both municipalities are water service providers to their Pharmaceuticals in some wastewater treatment plants in communities and exhibit the relevant criteria for being the KwaZulu-Natal region were also determined and levels classified rural. In each of the municipalities three were mostly found to be higher than in surface waters, communities were identified as case study sites. This as expected, and wastewater could possibly be a source project showed that ICT systems can support complaints of these contaminants in the river. A method has been management in municipalities and can result in a developed for the extraction, separation and quantification measurable improvement of adaptive capacity. However, of polycyclic musks using GC-MS. The method has the impact and the improvement is arguably not enough to been successful in quantifying the levels of three selected leave either municipalities or the communities in a better polycyclic musks in both the Umgeni and Msunduzi Rivers position to effectively adapt and respond to the changes. and show significant contamination in both rivers. This does not necessarily mean that an ICT is not useful in order to improve the municipal processes, but Cost: R750 000 implementing any system in a rural resource-constrained Term: 2013-2017 environment should be done cautiously focusing on the WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 121

THRUST 3: SUSTAINABLE MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER Programme 4: Water distribution and distribution systems AND SANITATION Determination of the change in hydraulic capacity in Programme 1: Emerging treatment technologies – Preparing pipelines for the future University of Pretoria; TCTA; Rand Water; Department of Water and Sanitation Performance and efficacy of integrated algae ponding No. 2140 systems in wastewater treatment for water reuse and cost recovery through biomass valorization During this research the hydraulic performance of a Rhodes University number of pipelines were reviewed by conducting field No. 2123 measurements of the energy losses, from which the roughness of the pipelines was calculated. The calculated This report focusses on the IAPS bioprocess, design, roughnesses were compared to the documented or component processes and operation, compliance, referenced roughness for the type of pipe material or incorporation of tertiary treatment components, factors liner, from which it was possible to determine the yearly affecting the technology, and downstream valorization increase of the roughness. The calculated roughness of the end products. Where necessary, aspects of IAPS for the different pipelines which were reviewed during technology that impact greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions this research is well in excess of documented maximum and climate change have been addressed by life cycle values. In cases where biofilm growth was experienced, assessment (LCA). Taken together, it is concluded that: the documented long-term expected roughness was • IAPS is a contemporary wastewater treatment significantly less than the calculated roughness. This technology that is being intensively studied worldwide reflects that whenever biofilm growth occurs, the reference and at the water-energy-food nexus for CO 2 to and use of the surface roughness to determine sequestration and to derive possible substitutes for the hydraulic capacity is unfounded. The higher than fossil fuels. published values of the yearly increase in roughness • Modelling of the kinetic parameters of the Belmont negatively impact the operating capacity of gravity Valley WWTW pilot-scale IAPS advanced facultative systems and will increase the energy cost of pumping pond (AFP)-coupled in-pond digester (IPD) and high systems. It is therefore imperative that periodic review of rate algae oxidation pond (HRAOP) components the hydraulic performance of conveyance systems should confirmed that both organic and hydraulic loading was be undertaken. commensurate with the original design specifications for a 500 person equivalent (PE) system. Cost: R1 125 000 • IAPS-treated water complies with the general limit Term: 2012-2015 values for either irrigation or discharge into a water 122 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

resource that is not a listed water resource for volumes Development and demonstration of a woven fabric up to 2 ML of treated wastewater on any given day; immersed membrane bioreactor package plant for parameters including chemical oxygen demand (COD), decentralised sanitation total suspended solids (TSS), pH, dissolved oxygen Stellenbosch University; Talbot and Talbot; Veolia Water; (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), and N and P values Durban University of Technology; Asian Institute of were within the general limit after tertiary treatment Technology by either a maturation pond series (MPS), slow sand No. 2287 filtration (SSF) or controlled rock filtration (CRF); and, there is no faecal sludge handling. The overall aim of this project was to develop and • Large gaps in terms of technology status, design and demonstrate the woven fabric immersed membrane process operation, and cost of construction exist that bioreactor (WFIMBR) as a technology for small-scale and can only be addressed following implementation of decentralized sanitation. The specific objectives of this full-scale commercial systems. project were: • LCA modelling to map both energy flows and • Developing a 10 person equivalent (PE) package greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the Belmont plant sanitation unit based on the novel woven fabric Valley WWTW pilot-scale IAPS treating municipal immersed membrane bioreactor technology (WFIMBR) sewage revealed that an equivalent commercial • Investigating the optimization of the unit in terms of system would yield −0.16 t CO 2 per ML of wastewater energy usage, simplicity of construction, operation and treated, indicating a technology with an ability to robustness mitigate climate change. • Developing a 30 PE unit based on the optimized • Products from the 500 PE Belmont Valley WWTW geometry and operating conditions pilot-scale IAPS treating municipal wastewater include • Demonstrating the 30 PE product to relevant water for re-cycle and re-use (~28 ML/yr), methane- stakeholders, including wastewater treatment rich biogas (~1880 kgCH4/yr, equivalent to 26 MW or practitioners, municipalities, vendors of systems ~55 kWh/PE per yr), and biomass (>3 t DW/yr). etc., so as to accelerate the implementation of IMBR wastewater treatment package plants in South Africa Cost: R1 500 000 Term: 2012-2015 A 10 PE WFIMBR was constructed and installed at the Veolia Wastewater Reclamation Plant in Merebank, Durban. Initial investigations were performed on the return-activated-sludge (RAS) stream and activated sludge obtained from the Veolia aerobic digester. Subsequently the project team set up an aerobic digester operating on WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 123

the same raw feed as the Veolia plant. This was coupled the laboratory trials, and it was confirmed that fouling to a tank containing the membrane modules, and used in resistance was lower without air scouring than with air further investigations. The product quality and operational scouring. stability of the 10 PE unit was investigated. WFIMBR trials for 10 PE steady-state operation (no increase in Cost: R988 875 fouling resistance) was achieved for over a month, while Term: 2013-2016 the COD removal was completely consistent with that of most commercial IMBRs. The project was subsequently Programme 2: Application of appropriate technologies and relocated to the Zandvliet Wastewater Treatment Works tools in Macassar, Cape Town, where a 30 PE unit was constructed. Although the COD removal was consistent WWTP modelling to support the Green Drop for this trial run, initial investigations indicated that steady- programme state operation was difficult, as pressure drop across the University of KwaZulu-Natal (Howard College); eThekwini membrane modules was excessive. Hence the design of Municipality; Umgeni Water; University of Cape Town the membrane modules was improved. The WFIMBR unit No. 2221 was then evaluated on the RAS stream from the Zeeweed IMBR as well as on the feed stream to the Zeeweed IMBR. In this study, both steady state and dynamic wastewater The product quality was consistent with that obtained for treatment models were evaluated for two case studies, the 10 PE. conducted at the Veolia Reclamation Plant. eThekwini’s Umhlanga and Phoenix WWTPs and Umgeni However, the process stability differed substantially from Water’s Darvill WWTP, respectively, in order to assess the the Veolia Plant trials. Furthermore seemingly anomalous possibility of incorporating modelling as a requirement observations which contradicted most literature and into the Green Drop Programme. The Umhlanga case acceptable operational approaches to IMBRs were study was carried out almost exclusively with data that observed. The project was subsequently extended to had already been captured electronically and this was investigate these seemingly anomalous observations insufficient to resolve a number of questions, especially instead of demonstrating the 30 PE product. A laboratory- regarding the sludge age, dissolved oxygen profiles scale WFIMBR rig was established to investigate the and aeration capacity. It is assumed that many of the authenticity of these anomalous observations and their data gaps could have been addressed during onsite implication for IMBR technology. In this regard, activated inspections and interviews with the operators during a sludges from three local wastewater treatment works process audit; however, this needs to be tested in full- (Macassar, Zandvliet and Belville) were investigated in scale field trials. For Phoenix WWTP, the dynamic model 124 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

was implemented on the WEST modelling platform. The Energy use reduction at biological nutrient removal model development and calibration proved reasonably activated sludge plants: application of mathematical successful using the established IWA ASM2 model, which, modelling to find optimum operating and control however, was only able to represent the aerobic section strategies of the plant. A comparison with a PWM_SA version also TruSense Consulting Services; ERWAT showed satisfactory agreement, which provides a measure No. 2377 of confidence in the new model. However, the anaerobic sludge digesters were not included in the model, as the The aim of this project was to investigate feasible practical investigation focused on the influent characterisation. aeration energy conservation measures that can be Dynamic modelling with the Darvill WWTP was complex implemented at biological nutrient removal activated as overloading made the calibration difficult, and as sludge plants that not only result in energy use reduction such was unsuccessful. The project outcomes suggest but also ensure final effluent compliance with discharge that introducing modelling as a criterion of a Green regulations; thus satisfying both the primary objective of Drop audit would require municipalities to invest in time wastewater treatment as well as energy conservation. and personnel capacity which are currently in short Two biological nutrient removal activated sludge plants supply. However, the capacity to undertake modelling is were selected as case studies: (i) Zeekoegat owned and something that will be very valuable in the pursuit of the operated by the City of Tshwane with a design capacity of long-term objectives of the Green Drop programme, to 85 ML/d average dry weather flow and utilising fine bubble improve the standard of risk management in wastewater diffused aeration and (ii) JP Marais WWTP operated by the treatment. The larger municipalities such as eThekwini, East Rand Water Care Company, with a design capacity Ekurhuleni and City of Cape Town are already investing of 15 ML/d and utilising surface aeration. Zeekoegat in this capacity, for their own purposes. However most is a new plant with the second module and aeration of the smaller municipalities will not have the necessary upgrades commissioned in 2013. The plant was designed resources. to minimise aeration energy use with highly efficient fine bubble diffused aeration. Influent flow is also balanced Cost: R700 000 after primary clarification and the plant aeration control Term: 2013-2016 system is also optimised to minimise energy wastage. Final effluent complied with all parameter limits except for nitrate/nitrite. JP Marais is an old plant constructed in 1990. The design of the activated sludge process is typical of most activated sludge processes of this era that WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 125

were not designed for energy efficiency. The plant uses Programme 5: Sanitation technology and innovations traditional slow single speed surface aerators which have low energy transfer efficiency. The main objectives of the project were to: Evaluating the design of existing rural school • Identify and evaluate feasible aeration energy sanitation infrastructure and developing a model and conservation measures (ECMs) that not only minimise guidelines for optimal design aeration energy consumption but ensure final effluent Partners in Development (Pty) Ltd; Tshwane University compliance with permit requirements of Technology; Walter Sisulu University; Amanz’ abantu • Determine energy and cost savings as well as capital Services (Pty) Ltd; South African Water and Sanitation costs and payback periods for implementing the Asssociation; WatSup identified aeration ECMs No. 2381 • Establish energy use and cost benchmarks for current operation (baseline) and identified aeration ECMs This report represents an exploration of school sanitation • Based on international best practices, identify in South Africa, specifically investigating the design organisation level systems and policies that need to of existing rural school sanitation infrastructure and be in place for successful implementation of energy developing a model and guidelines for optimal design. efficiency at wastewater treatment plants The report explores the background and status of school sanitation in South Africa and its legal environment and looks at best practice for the design of facilities The scope of work for both plants covered, collection and analysis of plant data, determination of 2014 baseline and choice of systems and technologies. The report energy use and benchmarking, identification of feasible reveals that the failure or success of infrastructure is aeration energy conservation measures, application of fundamentally linked to the needs, resources, attitudes advanced process modelling and simulation to determine and beliefs of management and the users of school optimal process and aeration control strategies and sanitation, and that any attempt to improve the status economic evaluation of feasible measures. quo must come from a perspective of a “total solution” which addresses all of these elements coherently. While this report touches on how infrastructure interfaces Cost: R700 000 Term: 2014-2015 with user needs and the implications for management, a careful review of models for management, as well as user education, is planned for the future. It is clear that addressing these three elements – infrastructure, management and education – together is vital in order to expect that any intervention might succeed. Cost: R1 500 000 Term: 2014-2016 126 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Eastern Cape school sanitation – pour-flush pilot hybrid cooling and evaporative cooling (evaporative Maluti GSM cooling will be used as benchmark and will consider No. 2444 freshwater and saline water options) and was used to identify areas most suitable for CSP development from Based on the successful demonstration of the pour-flush a cost and water usage point of view. The model gives sanitation technology in a previous project in three Eastern an accurate indication of the cost per MWh produced Cape Schools in the Cofimvaba District, and based on the on an hourly basis for locations within South Africa with savings which were achieved, this study was initiated to suitable solar resources. Distance from existing and service another two schools: Mbudku and Mvuzo Junior planned transmission infrastructure and distance from Secondary Schools. The schools were identified with transport infrastructure are included, to give an indication the help of the Department of Basic Education. In the of infrastructure-related costs for each location. In completion of the project training has been provided on considering water availability, freshwater, brackish water, O&M. and produced water from other industries is included. In this way the optimal locations can be chosen for future Cost: R372 100 CSPs so that electricity can be produced by CSPs as Term: 2015 cost- and water-efficiently as possible. Cost: R600 000 THRUST 4: SUSTAINABLE AND INTEGRATED Term: 2014-2016 INDUSTRIAL WATER MANAGEMENT Programme 3: Quantification, prediction and minimisation of Programme 1: Emerging challenges and solutions for the 21 water use and waste production st century Improved analytical strategies for monitoring heavy Strategic assessment and mapping of opportunities for water desalination and water-use optimisation of metals removal in selected wastewater treatment concentrated solar power generation in South Africa works and constructed wetlands in Gauteng and Escience Associates (Pty) Ltd; University of Stellenbosch KwaZulu-Natal Provinces No. 2382 University of Johannesburg; University of KwaZulu-Natal (Westville) No. 2116 South Africa has a high resource potential for the use of concentrated solar power plants (CSPs), but it has limited water resources. An integrated CSP cost The focus of this project was the development of efficiency and water usage model was developed for the analytical techniques and procedures for trace element three major CSP technologies incorporating air cooling, (metal ion) analysis in wastewater. Baseline evaluation WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 127

of current metal concentrations in the effluent samples results based on the CRMs show that the SPE method indicated that some of the WWTPs studied had significant using Dowex 50W-x8 resin was suitable and accurate, and levels of trace metals in the treated effluent. It is important validated the results obtained in this study. For organic to note that several plants were functioning above their compounds in wastewater samples, qualitative data were loading capacity, which can impact on parameters obtained with the GCxGC-TOF MS, and processed using such as redox and pH which affect metal ion mobility. an inbuilt library database. Based on the functionalities, Data from the WWTP survey were used to compare the it was predicted that the metals in wastewater samples values obtained in our laboratory analyses against those were predominantly in complexed form. Metal speciation reported by the WWTPs. Generally domestic wastewater in wastewater samples was carried out using SPE (labile treatment plants are designed to process mainly organic metal fraction) and acid digestion (total dissolved metal) matter and nutrients; nitrogen, phosphorus and trace methods. From the data obtained on labile fraction of metals are expected to settle out with the sludge. Not the total metal content, it was concluded that metal much attention is paid to trace metals unless the latter speciation was dominated by the complexes of organic fall within the micro-determinants category. Solid phase ligands (organic-complexed forms) in both raw and treated extraction techniques based on cationic exchange resins wastewater samples. for the speciation of metal ions in wastewater samples were used to establish the fraction of the total metal Cost: R850 000 content that is classified as non-complexed (‘free’ or labile Term: 2012-2015 that is assumed to be toxic) and the fraction classified as complexed (non-labile, assumed to be non-toxic). Revision of Natsurv 1: Water and Wastewater Sample digestion using different hotplate acid digestion Management in the Malt Brewing Industry (edition 2) methods for the influent and effluent wastewater was CSIR; Tshwane University of Technology investigated and various filtration methods prior to analyte No. 2285 determination were employed. The HNO 3 /H 2 O 2 digestion method was the most efficient in the extraction of heavy Beer production for large breweries amounts to over 6 000 000 barrels (704 087 kL) per annum, medium production metals from the raw (influent) wastewater and H 2 SO 4 /H 2 O 2 digestion method showed relatively better efficiency in the is between 15 000 and 6 000 000 barrels and small is extraction of trace metals or digestion of sample matrix less than 15 000 barrels (17 602 kL) per annum. Since for the effluent wastewater. The results obtained showed the publication of the first edition of Natsurv 1 in 1986, that, overall Al, As and Pb levels were above the WHO and the number of breweries in South Africa has increased Department of Water and Sanitation recommended levels. from 8 to more than 150. Previously, most breweries The pre-concentration of Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn were locally-owned; however, current ownership is both on Dowex 50W-x8 resin from wastewater samples prior to national and multi-national for the large breweries, whilst their ICP-OES determination was investigated. The overall the medium-, small and craft/micro-breweries tend to be 128 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

locally owned. Water consumption estimates range from Water management efficiency: The development and 4 to 8 L/L beer produced, but may be higher in the case testing of an optimisation model at selected Eskom of small breweries, generally owing to inefficient water sites for an integrated water solution management processes and systems. Water is used for University of the Witwatersrand; Eskom beer production and also for cleaning, sanitation, heating No. 2289 and cooling processes. The malt brewing industry is classified under the food and beverage category and Volume 1 in this two-volume series focuses on ‘Integrated generates three forms of waste: solid (from raw material Water and Membrane Network Systems’, whilst Volume inputs and packaging), liquid (wastewater from various 2, ‘Cooling Tower Model Development’ is dedicated processes) and gaseous waste. The two predominant to cooling water system design that is characterized streams are solids and liquids. Water used by local by multiple cooling towers. A cooling water system, breweries is variously obtained from four main sources: in the context of this investigation, refers to a cooling borehole, municipal, rain water and fresh water springs. tower with its associated set of heat exchangers. In The majority of breweries use municipal water and the Volume 1, the developed model was validated using quality shows little variation at the different breweries. Eskom Kriel Power Station. The choice of this 110 ML/ There are a few breweries that use borehole (well) day site was informed by the availability of data and water and rain water. The pH of wastewater samples willingness of personnel to give guidance on testing and (combined waste-water streams) from local malt breweries implementation of results. Preliminary results have shown is circumneutral, which is preferred for the industry potential savings of more than 12% in freshwater use. internationally. Nitrate loads were much lower at 0.1 mg/L This facility operates on a zero liquid effluent discharge when compared to the 1.5 mg/L described internationally. philosophy. Consequently, no mention is made of Parameters such as COD, SS, TDS, TOC, total nitrogen, wastewater savings. As part of knowledge transfer, a total phosphorus and soluble ortho-phosphate fall workshop was conducted at Eskom, demonstrating the outside of the given ranges or exceed the recommended applications of process integration in water minimization. maximum values; requiring local wastewater pre-treatment Graphical and mathematical optimization techniques were before discharge. The study has shown that, for a presented in detail. In particular, the attendees were taken number of different industrial sectors, there are common through the entire thinking process that is necessary for technologies available and applicable to reduce resources identification of relevant streams for optimization, as well use and impacts (such as energy and water consumption) as characterization of streams into sources and sinks. and wastewater generation. Many of these technologies The developed model has been successfully tested and would be applicable to breweries in general. applied to Eskom Kriel Power Station. Various scenarios were explored and analysed as potential sources for the Cost: R700 000 final design. The most outstanding among the scenarios Term: 2013-2016 involved the reuse of blowdown from one cooling tower to WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 129

the other and yielded almost 12% savings in freshwater Revision of Natsurv 2: Water and Wastewater use. This scenario was discussed in detail with the plant Management in the Metal Finishing Industry (Edition 2) personnel and proved to be feasible. In essence, this is Stellenbosch University; Metal Finishing Academy of currently happening at Lethabo. South Africa No. 2224 Volume 2 is premised on the observation that cooling water systems are generally designed with a set of heat A comparison of the Specific Water Index (SWI) results exchangers arranged in parallel. This arrangement results for the metal finishing industry from both the previous in higher cooling water flow rate and low cooling water study and the current survey are provided. The SWI return temperature, thus reducing cooling tower efficiency. results indicate that water in the sector is being used Previous research on cooling water systems has focused more efficiently. In fact, the international benchmark mainly on heat exchanger network thus excluding the of 40 L/m is improved on by several of the companies 2 interaction between heat exchanger network and the surveyed based on an average comparison from 1987 cooling towers. This report presents a technique for to 2014 of 310 to 95 l/m , respectively. Data collected 2 grassroot design of cooling water system for wastewater on cleaner production (CP), however, indicates that the minimization which incorporates the performances of uptake of CP is very slow and this could be attributed to the cooling towers involved. The study focuses mainly financial reasons and the current skill level of operators on cooling systems consisting of multiple cooling towers in the sector. For example, Cr (III) plating plants require that supply a common set of heat exchangers. The heat more capital investment and the process requires a highly exchanger network is synthesized using the mathematical skilled technician to ensure that it operates as intended. optimization technique. This technique is based on The significant financial risk associated with the instability superstructure in which all opportunities for cooling water of the economy therefore does not justify the investment in reuse are explored. The cooling tower model is used to expensive capital equipment nor the hiring of highly skilled predict the thermal performance of the cooling towers. labour for operation of a Cr (III) plant. The biggest barrier to the implementation of CP and best practice techniques Cost: R1 500 000 now, as it was in the 1980s, is financial. Companies are Term: 2013-2016 not prepared to invest in CP in an uncertain economic environment, where this investment may not necessarily result in an increased revenue stream. Cost: R700 000 Term: 2013-2015 130 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Revision of Natsurv 3: Water and Wastewater • The pH range is more variable than previously Management in the Soft Drink Industry (edition 2) reported. University of KwaZulu-Natal (Howard College); Dube Ngeleza Wiechers Environmental Consultancy Pty (Ltd) It therefore appears that, while the soft drink sector is No. 2286 consuming more water, this water is being used more efficiently than in the past. More data on the pollution A comparison of the main results from both the previous concentrations are required before any conclusions study and the current survey showed that: can be drawn regarding changes in the pollution load. • On average the water used by the soft drink sector With regards to best practice, a comparison of specific has increased approximately 2-fold, however there water intake to benchmark figures shows that the South is a much larger range in water consumption than African companies are operating at a lower specific previously reported. water intake. An analysis of best practice options • Production volumes have increased 4-fold even implemented by the surveyed companies indicates that though the number of soft drink companies in South the majority are aware of the need to optimise water use Africa has reduced overall. thorough internal reuse. There needs to be more focus on • The average specific water intake (SWI) has decreased preventative management practices such as measuring from 2.7 litres water per litre product to 1.6 litres water and monitoring, and raising staff awareness to ensure that per litre product with a lower range of values. water use is optimised and raw materials and product are • As would be expected due to the increase in water not wasted. use, the average effluent volume has increased (but not in proportion to the increase in water use). Cost: R700 000 • The average specific effluent volume (SEV) remains Term: 2013-2015 constant. No differentiation was made in the 2014 survey between bottling plants with bottle washing Revision of Natsurv 7: Water and Wastewater facilities and those without. Management in the Red Meat Industry (Edition 2) • The reported COD range is higher in the 2014 survey. JR Muller & Associates; Enviro Metsi (Pty) Ltd This is most likely a result of the lower SWI which can No. 2385 result in a more concentrated pollution load. • Where reported, the TDS and SS ranges were higher Internationally, red meat abattoirs (processing cattle, in 2014, but more information is needed to determine sheep, pigs, ostriches) are known to be high-volume if this is a trend. It should be noted that the increase in water consumers. Similarly, they are also serious polluters TDS and SS is due to the inclusion of 100% fruit drink of water due to their effluent. During the 1988 Natsurv manufacturers. 7 survey period, there were 25 registered abattoirs WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 131

throughout South Africa. The ten large metropolitan THRUST 5: MINE WATER TREATMENT AND abattoirs (owned by Abakor) processed approximately MANAGEMENT 50% of the national red meat requirements. In these large abattoirs, weighted process water consumption ranged Programme 1: Water use and waste production between 0.7 kL and 1.2 kL per slaughter unit (SU), whilst in smaller abattoirs consumption figures of as high as Limiting and mitigating the impact of coal mines on 4.64 kL per SU was recorded. When the South African wetlands meat industry was deregulated in the 1980s, most of the CSIR; Prime Africa Consultants cc; Coaltech; SANBI; large abattoirs were closed down and smaller abattoirs University of Pretoria; Stellenbosch University proliferated. Managers of smaller abattoirs are quite No. 2230 often not seriously concerned with water consumption and effluent quality, as they focus on the quality of meat, By virtue of their positions in the landscape and which is their core business. Abattoirs in the category relationship to drainage networks, wetlands are frequently of 2 to 20 slaughter units now (2015) represent 45% of impacted by coal mining activities, especially opencast the slaughter capacity in South Africa. Water consumed methods. The impacts are ongoing, since coal is a per SU increases inversely to the abattoir slaughter strategic resource and will continue to be mined to capacity. Average consumption for large abattoirs is support the country’s development. However, regulatory 0.91 kL/SU, increasing to 2.04 kL/SU (124%) for small authorities and the public now have an improved abattoirs. Wastewaters similarly have typical COD values understanding of the range of economic, social, ecological of approx. 1 200 mg/L in large abattoirs and approx. 5 and hydrological costs of wetland loss and degradation. 000 mg/L in small abattoirs. Abattoir management can The rules of the game have changed, with regulators greatly influence the volumes of water consumed as well increasingly insisting that mines avoid, minimise and as the quality of effluent produced in red meat abattoirs. mitigate their impacts on wetlands, and internalise Reducing water consumption and improving effluent the true costs of wetland loss in their balance sheets. quality can have major impacts on the financial viability of Many mining proposals entailing large-scale wetland red meat abattoirs. To assist abattoirs in reducing water loss have encountered delays in licence approvals, consumption and improving effluent quality, thereby unrealistic rehabilitation commitments and unwelcome reducing production costs, a best practice guide has public and media attention. As a result, the coal mining been provided. Finally, a detailed action plan has been sector has realised that it needs to proactively and supplied. systematically address the business risk posed by its impact on wetlands. One of the key project aims was to Cost: R700 000 improve the knowledge and use of appropriate spatial Term: 2014-2016 information to guide mining companies and regulators in 132 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

their planning and decision-making. This is presented as a Mine water atlas of South Africa High Risk Wetlands Atlas to guide both mining companies Golder Associates Africa (Pty) Ltd (Midrand); University and regulators with regard to high risk wetlands and of Pretoria; University of Johannesburg; Council for associated landscapes. It identifies key wetland Geoscience landscapes in the grassland biome of Mpumalanga that No. 2234 are particularly important or irreplaceable in terms of biodiversity, water resource management and ecosystem Mining has been an integral part of the South African services. There is a users’ guide to the Atlas and a DVD economy for over 100 years. The industry employs close that contains the High Risk Wetlands Atlas, the required to 500 000 workers and contributes 18% to the country’s software to use it, and the underlying spatial data for gross domestic product. The mining sector is also a large those who use their own GIS systems. In addition to user of water in certain areas, with the water pollution the Atlas and its users’ guide, other volumes in this set problems associated with mining being well publicised include: recently. Relatively small volumes of water are used by mining companies compared to other industrial sectors, • A review of depressional wetlands (pans) in South but water is needed for extraction and concentration of Africa, including a water quality classification system metals and non-metallic minerals. Water is also used • Wetland offsets: A best practice guideline for South to generate electricity required for crushing ore, on- Africa site processing, smelting, refining and other aspects • Wetland rehabilitation in mining landscapes: An of treating resources to improve their properties. The introductory guide crucial difference between mining and other industries • Assessment of the ecological integrity of the is the severe and long-term nature of its impact on Zaalklapspruit wetland in Mpumalanga (South Africa) aquatic and terrestrial environments – an impact which before and after rehabilitation: The Grootspruit case is widely acknowledged, but has not been mapped in study South Africa. For this reason, the WRC embarked on a project to creative South Africa’s first South African Mine Cost: R1 056 000 Water Atlas. The Atlas is a comprehensive reference of Term: 2013-2016 the true extent of mine-influenced water in the country, both on the surface and underground. The Atlas informs the implementation of commitments made in the past, while decision-makers will also be able to reference the publication for background information to inform decisions in the future. The first chapters set the scene through an introduction to mine-water and its geological, WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 133

hydrological and legal context, and the following chapters and imported treatment technologies are available to provide the geographical foundations of water quantity, South African projects. The most appropriate technology quality and distribution across South Africa. The Atlas has to be project specific. Various factors, including life illustrates South Africa’s hydrological characteristics by cycle costs, feed water quality and quantity, product water charting and mapping water resources at the provincial quality and quantity, waste and by-product generation, scale: resources, distribution, and the physical setting environmental aspects, implementation risks, regulatory within which water is found. These features are overlaid approval aspects, and interested and affected party with a map of mining activities in order to understand buy-in, influence the selection of the most appropriate the locations at which surface and groundwater and technology. At present, technology selections are often mining collide. In the next chapters, each of the water based on capital costs and existing systems. People management areas is presented by discussing the feel more confident in implementing processes that have challenge, the situation, the constraints and opportunities been tested and are running in similar applications. The of mine water in each one. evaluation tool developed here includes the three pillars of sustainability, namely, the environment, social setting, Cost: R2 700 000 and economic efficiency, in order to select a balanced Term: 2013-2016 sustainable solution to the mine water problem. An additional and crucial factor to be taken into account Programme 4: Mining in the 21 century when selecting a treatment option is ensuring that the st option is technically sound. A ‘technically sound’ theme was added as an up-front screen to the selection tool. Mine water treatment technology selection support methodology and tool This tool is intended to be used by industry to rate and Golder Associates Africa; Tshwane University of rank alternative embryonic and emerging treatment Technology technologies from the perspective of deployment of No. 2395 emerging technologies. The tool is available as an Excel workbook, and along with the accompanying guide, contains: Mine impacted water (MIW), and especially acid mine drainage (AMD) treatment facilities are planned and implemented by the mining industry and the public • A list of evaluation criteria for mine water treatment protector. Mine impacted water and the management technologies through a consultative process thereof continues long after production on mines has • An evaluation matrix based on the selection criteria ceased and it is thus essential that a sustainable solution identified for impacted mine water management is selected when • A review or mine water treatment technologies planning for mining and closure. Several locally developed available at the time of writing 134 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

• A spreadsheet based tool for use by industry to CIP platform to develop functionality allowing users not evaluate treatment options necessarily familiar with climate data to access datasets • A checklist for users and technology providers to hosted by CIP, and conduct location-specific analyses ensure that technologies are evaluated on a common of performance of a rainwater harvesting system. In the platform when using the tool general case, the toolkit provides a practical, interactive illustration of rainwater harvesting principles that may The guide report also describes the process by which the facilitate education around rainwater harvesting and tool was developed and tested, for readers who wish to conservation of water. In the case of a specific user interrogate the spreadsheet further. planning a new or revising existing rainwater harvesting system, the toolkit allows design choices to be explored, Cost: R500 000 taking into consideration climate characteristics of a Term: 2014-2016 particular location, leading to a better understanding of the available water resource and a better allocation of budget in the design. The Rainwater Harvesting Toolkit is THRUST 6: WATERSMART FUND available at: http://cip.csag.uct.ac.za/waterharvest/. The toolkit allows for interactive assessment of performance of Programme 1: Watersmart Fund rainwater harvesting systems Water harvesting toolkit for the climate information Cost: R438 580 portal Term: 2014-2016 University of Cape Town No. 2410 The aim of the project was to provide a free, accessible (easy) interactive, web-based toolkit allowing the use of location-specific up-to-date climate data for design of and learning about small-scale rainwater harvesting systems – rooftop, or small headwater dams. The Climate Information Platform run by Climate Systems Analysis Group hosts a wealth of climate data for the Southern African region. This includes both an archive of historical station data and projected data from climate models. This project utilized the programming environment of the WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 135

CURRENT PROJECTS THRUST 1: WATER SERVICES – INSTITUTIONAL AND given that the DWA Institutional Reform and Re-Alignment MANAGEMENT ISSUES process has highlighted the institutional gap around the management of local water resources. Programme 1: Cost-recovery in water services Estimated cost: R1 620 113 Development of innovative institutional management Expected term: 2013-2015 scenarios for water services in rural areas PDG Revising the DWA guidelines on municipal tariffs for No. 2209 water services Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Rural water supply challenges continue to prevent South No. 2356 Africa from achieving basic service provision to all. While many of the challenges are technical (topography, In their capacity as the policy leader for Water Services geography, technology), the dominant obstacle to Authorities and Providers (WSAs and WSPs) in South successful rural water service delivery is finding an Africa, the South African Department of Water Affairs institutional model(s) that complements local government (DWA, now the Department of Water and Sanitation, as Water Services Authorities and can (i) overcome these Department of Water and Sanitation) have issued technical challenges, (ii) manage scarce resources in guidelines for financial and water services managers an efficient manner, and (iii) provide a continuous and involved in setting retail water and sanitation tariffs for sustainable service. This project seeks to review the standardised piped water service packages; the most available institutional management options for rural water recent of which were issued in 2011 (DWA, 2011). The services, as well as introduce possible alternative and guidelines favour a homogeneity in water service delivery innovative management solutions. While many of these package (a similar quality of piped water service for rich models have been debated and assessed before, there and poor), retail tariff setting to recover the on-going has been limited success with these models in South capital and operating costs, a distinction between potable Africa. The study also seeks to go beyond regulatory and water provision and waste water management (sanitation) technical aspects, and cover a spectrum of socio-political services, and retail tariff structures comprised of one or dynamics, economics, and culture, as well as investigate a two parts, customised to several different categories of wider range of potential institutional partners (Water User user demand. One part of the tariff structure is related to Associations, mines, etc.). This is particularly relevant usage and another to access (and is fixed). The guidelines 136 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

recommend that the part of tariffs related to usage should Programme 2: Institutional and management issues – Water rise in incremental steps as household demand does, that services is, an increasing (and therefore also non-linear) block tariff (IBT) structure. Not only is a water service tariff structure Constraints on providing sewerage in South African the key element in raising revenue to offset the costs informal settlements: A study of social and institutional incurred in provision, it also is a key element in allocating management concerns water services provided, and influences a wide range of University of Cape Town; City of Cape Town choices and decisions, many of which are closely linked No. 2120 to local and regional economic development. South African water tariffs are not set endogenously through the This study presents evidence, based on ethnographic interaction of demand and supply, so automatically taking research focused on the provision of janitorial services into account a whole range market influences, but within in three informal settlements (two in Cape Town and one a constitutionally mandated monopoly market setting. As in Overstrand). The specific aims of the study were to a result setting water service tariffs has largely become a interrogate the introduction and/or provision of janitorial municipal discretion. It is a discretion that requires some services in public flush toilet facilities in three Western negotiation, but also permits a wide range of options, Cape informal settlements, which meant documenting, e.g., choosing a water service provider (or composite analysing and understanding imperatives for and of firms that will supply), choosing what water service obstacles to providing and managing public flush toilets packages will be offered and choosing the revenue-raising in informal settlements. Key findings from the research mechanisms that will be employed to recover costs. It indicated that all role-players involved in using and/ is also a discretion that can benefit by more informed or providing informal settlement municipally-provided guidance. This research will provide a context and sanitation services: framework for this discretion to be exercised. • Experience health and safety risks which led to their being fearful and which affected their access (i.e. Estimated cost: R1 600 000 having the right to enter, get near, or make use of Expected term: 2014-2017 something) to toilets/sites • Experience difficulty reliably coordinating the various interests/processes associated with cleaning/ managing sanitation services WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 137

• Have diverse and thus different expectations of what An investigation into the social, institutional and constitutes a free basic sanitation service, and of what economic implications of reusing reclaimed should comprise the associated responsibilities of wastewater for domestic application in South Africa users and of various kinds of service providers Cape Peninsula University of Technology • Influence municipal policy through practice No. 2208 • Experience lack of guidance from national policymakers when providing services for informal This study is situated in the context of the social and settlements environmental problems South Africa will be facing over the next five years. With the effects of climate change and In addition: depletion of the current water resources, alternative water • Municipal incapacity and inflexible institutional supply such as reuse is becoming common. Experience processes that impede effective service delivery at Windhoek demonstrates that a direct wastewater • Residents’ alternative sanitation practices negate the reclamation system can be a practical, responsible way aims of the state’s Free Basic Sanitation strategy of augmenting potable water supplies in arid regions, but • Officials tended to set-up, in preference, centrally- requires comprehensive planning, training and ongoing administered and standardized systems, whilst janitors commitment for its continued success. National and and residents preferred to have initiatives that were local policies should support reuse of wastewater, taking tailored especially to their particular situations the constraints of the region as well as the potential • Municipal authorities and contracted workers (e.g. threats of wastewater reuse into consideration. Active service providers and janitors) are held legally participation through educational programmes is needed accountable/responsible for delegated tasks, whereas to encourage planners and engineers to design systems resident users cannot be legally bound to fulfill O&M that cater for reuse or that can at any time be changed responsibilities. to a reuse scheme. Despite people’s acknowledgement • ‘Public’ janitorial services are generally more effective/ of the water scarcity of their countries, it is found that the reliable than ‘community’ systems in informal general public in most communities has little knowledge settlements because: of its water and wastewater treatment and distribution - Officials and residents had similar expectations systems. To gain public acceptance of direct reuse of of who could access the facilities and who is reclaimed wastewater, experts (including engineers, responsible for the services scientists and physicians) should agree that reclaimed - Despite being under-resourced, municipalities wastewater is safe to use from a public health standpoint. seemed better equipped than residents to manage In addition to this, the list of promoting factors such as cleaning services water shortage, gradual introduction of water reuse, and agreement amongst experts should be brought forward. Cost: R1 000 000 Current literature, with the exception of work on Australia, Term: 2012-2014 seems to be almost silent on community awareness 138 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

and/or engagement on the issue of using wastewater this state of affairs at the insufficient budgets available for reclamation. This need to engage communities is a for water treatment. Although many other problems principle enshrined within the South African Constitution hamper effective wastewater treatment, including an and is reiterated in the water service regulation strategy, absence of ring-fencing of income from wastewater which emphasises the need for a citizens’ voice. The lack rates, the most basic point of departure for a sustainable of understanding or underestimation of this need cannot wastewater treatment sector, is to get the price right, be more vividly illustrated than by the numerous service i.e., the wastewater charge. The wastewater charge is delivery protests riddling South Africa, stemming from not only informed by the costs of wastewater treatment. community experiences and perceptions of unsatisfactory, Municipalities are also aware that excessive municipal inefficient service delivery, with drinking water quality rates may serve as disincentives to investment. Thus being no exception. The results of this project will arises an interesting competitive phenomenon between assist the government and its various services with municipalities (especially metros). Much excellent work an understanding of the implications of using treating has been conducted in South Africa on informing water- wastewater effluent for drinking and its consequences related tariffs, yet, in spite of this, municipalities still seem from social, economic and institutional perspectives. to face barriers in implementing these tariffs. This is to the detriment of an effective wastewater treatment sector in Estimated cost: R1 180 000 South Africa. The aims of this research are to investigate Expected term: 2013-2016 these barriers, to recommend corrective actions, and to raise awareness among municipalities around the An investigation into the barriers to implementation development and implementation of effective wastewater of effective wastewater charges by municipalities in treatment tariffs. South Africa Prime Africa Consultants (previously CIC International) Estimated cost: R600 000 No. 2210 Expected term: 2013-2016 There is a lack of understanding, at a municipal level, of the core principles underlying the setting of wastewater treatment charges (some municipalities also refer to these charges in their bylaws as sanitation tariffs). Wastewater treatment charge structures currently used by many municipalities are outdated and are, with a few exceptions, minimally related to the realities on the ground. Green Drop results over the past few years have shown that most municipalities treat water ineffectively, and anecdotal evidence lays some of the blame for WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 139

Adaptive climate change technologies and approaches for current research (inclusive of all WRC studies) for local governments: water sector response that could provide future solutions for the gaps in the Development Bank of Southern Africa; Department of sector, and to meet climate-change projected needs Environmental Affairs and Tourism; SALGA; Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs; University Estimated cost: R1 500 000 of Cape Town; CSIR; University of Pretoria; Hydrosoft Expected term: 2013-2016 Institute; Department of Water and Sanitation No. 2283 Loss aversion and water conservation University of Cape Town Project aims: No. 2357 • To develop a water sector guide of the most relevant adaptation technologies and approaches to climate As a water-scarce country, South Africa must apply change over the short-, medium- and long-term for its available water resources in the most efficient and local governments in South Africa equitable manner possible. In its Water for Growth and • Identify which local municipalities will need to consider Development Plan, identifying water scarcity in major adaptation technologies and approaches to climate urban centres, the Department of Water and Sanitation change has highlighted the importance of water conservation • Develop a set of criteria to classify adaptive and demand management and, specifically, ‘nurturing technologies and approaches attitudinal and behavioural changes towards the value of • Identify which water distribution and wastewater water’ Through low-cost and non-pecuniary measures, options are appropriate as adaptive technologies or this project aims to make the ‘value of water’ salient approaches to climate change at a local government, (explicit) to residential consumers, thereby shifting community and household level behaviour towards greater water efficiency. To do so, • Map these technologies for near-, medium- and long- this study proposes to use insights from behavioural term planning and preparation for climate change for economics to incentivize a reduction in residential water the different types of local municipalities (rural, urban consumption. The study will examine whether the and metros) behavioural insight that people are loss averse can be • Ascertain the institutional and capacity requirements exploited by simple gain/loss framing variations. The of local government to roll out a climate change behavioural literature shows that individuals are very adaptation strategy susceptible to framing and that changing the way we • Define the practical implementation steps and frame options and outcomes can affect individuals’ planning horizons that will be required decisions. An outcome of the project will be a clearer • Provide a comprehensive review and way forward understanding of what type of framing most effectively 140 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

facilitates a behavioural shift towards more efficient water economies and, therefore, achievements in access to usage and whether it is helpful to make the link between water and sanitation, it is plausible that this growth may metrics like ‘litres used and not used’ and ‘financial cost have exacerbated service delivery backlogs and probably and saving’ very explicit. Given that these are low-cost reversed some of the gains made towards progressive interventions, the results from this proposed experiment realization of the access right to water and sanitation. (for example how to frame messages to consumers) Challenges such as these underscore the need for in- can be incorporated in existing and future information- depth review, empirical and action research to develop provision and environmental-awareness campaigns. clear understanding of the ways in which tenure and tenancy affect access to water and sanitation services, Estimated cost: R642 537 particularly for the urban poor, informal tenants and Expected term: 2014-2017 informal settlement dwellers, whose needs for improved services tend to be greater than those of other groups Programme 3: Innovative management arrangements – Rural of people living in urban areas. Some of the pertinent water supply research questions are: How is the mix of land tenure and tenancy arrangements within and/or outside the ambit Dealing with land tenure and tenancy challenges in of the formal land registry system characterised, and water and sanitation services delivery in South Africa: what is its effect on access to and provision of water and Policy options and opportunities sanitation services. To what extent do current pro-poor University of the Western Cape service provision strategies take differences in tenure and No. 2358 tenancy profiles into account? How do tenure security and tenancy arrangements affect patterns of access Amid rapid urbanization in South Africa, the challenges to and investments in water and sanitation services? of tenure and tenancy seem to detract from the efficacy What are the appropriate service models for different of on-going efforts to improve access to urban water and tenure and tenancy profiles? What is the role of formal sanitation services for the urban poor and marginalized. and informal service providers in this regard, and how The proportion of people without sustainable access to can stakeholders, such as the state, non-governmental safe drinking water and basic sanitation, a significant organizations (NGOs), civil society organisations (CSOs) proportion of people living under complex mixes of and the private sector, support this? In the context of formal and informal tenure arrangements in low- and rapid urbanization, clear understanding of complexities middle-income areas, continue to cope with water associated with the mix of formal and informal tenure insecurity or express dissatisfaction about water and and tenancy challenges will contribute to enhancing sanitation service. Although there is a paucity of reliable institutional preparedness and mechanisms to improve data on the burgeoning of populations in urban informal access to water and sanitation by the urban poor, WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 141

marginalized and vulnerable living in low- and middle- water service outputs reported were less than what was income areas. Ultimately, the impacts of this should be really being delivered, for instance, that large chunks of social integration, as opposed to fragmentation, as well as the service were, in fact, not operational for substantial better quality of life, dignity, affirmation, enhanced social periods and that this inflated efficiency ratings. In order capacity and well-being. to address this concern and preserve the integrity of the results, some form of data audit is required. All of the Estimated cost: R1 890 000 current performance ratings applied or proposed are Expected term: 2014-2017 supply-side ones. The demand-side ratings are missing in South African municipal water service performance Programme 4: Regulation of water services assessment. This shortcoming can be addressed through a consumer satisfaction rating, capable of assessing different components/attributes of the service and likely Extending performance monitoring and analysis in South Africa to be relatively immune to strategic bias and political and Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University bureaucratic manipulation. No. 2359 Estimated cost: R850 000 Expected term: 2014-2016 There is much that has been achieved in the monitoring of municipal service performance through Blue Drop and Green Drop ratings. It is also being demonstrated in WRC Project K5/2118 (ongoing) that relative efficiency THRUST 2: WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT can also readily be monitored and cost-efficiency indices TECHNOLOGY calculated by applying stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) Programme 1: Drinking water treatment technology and data envelopment analysis (DEA). The initial findings of relative efficiency analysis for a significant sample of Establishing the current practice and prospective South African municipalities were presented for the first management strategies for water treatment residues time at a WRC-SALGA National Seminar. At this seminar handling, disposal and reuse in South Africa a number of challenges were raised about the relative Umgeni Water efficiency monitoring. This proposal motivates addressing No. 2361 selected challenges as well as adding in to overall performance assessment a measure for rating consumer The increasing demand for potable water has led to satisfaction. Many have expressed concerns with all forms increased sludge production, which has led to WTRs of performance monitoring in South Africa on the grounds becoming of increasing environmental and financial that the data is unreliable. Specifically with respect to concern. Historically, there have been numerous WTR relative efficiency benchmarking the concern is that the management practices utilised internationally including 142 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

disposal through discharge to sanitary sewers, streams or and cellulose acetate) has been extensively explored. similar bodies of water, landfill (onsite or off-site) and land Most of the studies involved exploring mixed matrices application (agriculture, forestry and land reclamation), (composites) of the polymers that contained nanomaterials which is the practice most utilised in South Africa. These (e.g. carbon nanotubes, silver nanoparticles, iron- management methods have recently been questioned nickel nanoparticles, etc), which sought to improve the due to possible risks to both public health and aquatic mechanical strength, hydrophilicity, anti-fouling properties life. With continuous WTR production it has become and pollutant rejection capacities of the nanocomposites. apparent that there is a need for the development of new In this proposed study, an integrated nanofiltration and improved WTR utilization and disposal technologies membrane/composite system that has the complementary that will be sustainable in the long term. Thus the aim strength of ceramics and polymeric membranes, i.e., a of this study is to investigate alternate options for WTR membrane material with the high thermal, chemical, and recycling/reuse under South African conditions as well mechanical stability observed with ceramic membranes, as to determine the changes needed to optimise and while retaining the ease of manufacturing, high packing secure recycling opportunities. This study will provide density, and favourable economics of polymer-based guidance on the cost and economy of scale applicable to membranes, will be synthesized. Such systems can play a specific WTR management practices as well as suitability crucial role in purifying water in rural settlements in South for recycling/reuse. It will also provide recommended Africa, wherein hundreds of thousands of households actions and changes needed to optimise and secure WTR still rely on river and borehole water for drinking and recycling opportunities. The most cost-effective method cooking purposes. The proposed integrated (mixed of management for the different WTRs will be suggested, matrix) membrane/composite nanofiltration system will potentially saving water treatment plants costs and be synthesized by applying the 12 principles of green bringing down the production cost of potable water. chemistry and engineering. Estimated cost: R1 000 000 Estimated cost: R915 000 Expected term: 2014-2016 Expected term: 2014-2017 Green synthesis and demonstration of a low-pressure Development and testing of novel metal-modified low-fouling mixed matrix nanofiltration system for natural clay-based adsorbents for groundwater drinking water treatment defluoridation University of Johannesburg University of Venda No. 2362 No. 2363 The fabrication of novel nanoporous polymers and Groundwater is the most appropriate and widely used membranes from polymer nanostructures (e.g. source of drinking water for many rural communities cyclodextrins, polysulfone, polyvinylidene fluoride, in South Africa. However, the presence of fluoride WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 143

concentrations above the recommended limits for drinking their inherent lipophilic nature and potential to harm water requires defluoridation. A number of methods for human health. Human exposure to PPCPs/EDCs equally removing fluoride from groundwater have been developed, has been shown to result in testicular, breast and including chemical precipitation, membrane processes, ovarian cancers, low sperm count and retarded fertility. adsorption and ion exchange. Of all these technologies Electrohydraulic plasma discharge is a novel water- developed so far, adsorption has been considered as cleaning technology which has recently gained research the most efficient and applicable technology for fluoride interest, mainly due to its high efficiency, high speed, and removal from ground and surface water in rural areas. zero or less chemicals needed. This technology involves In this study, the development and testing of new or chemical-free degradation and mineralization of emerging modified adsorbents using locally-available adsorbents micro-pollutants and microbes which is essential to with improved fluoride uptake properties, to meet the maintaining public health. Recent studies supported stringent legislative requirements of 1.5 mg/L of fluoride by the WRC at UWC have proved the concept of the in drinking water, is explored. The use of locally-available advanced oxidation process coupled with a photocatalyst adsorbents for evaluation and application as adsorbents and several patents have been filed. Hence, the aim of for point-of-use water defluoridation systems for rural this study is to further develop the understanding and areas is a sustainable solution. The potential application application of this new emerging technology to tackle the of bentonite clay and diatomaceous earth modified with problem of PPCPs/EDCs in our aquatic environment and selected high charge density cations such as Fe , Al water systems, in order to preserve the natural aquatic 3+ 3+ and Mn , introduced as metal cations, metal hydroxides/ environment and maintain sound human health. The 2+ oxy-hydroxides or metal oxides will be tested. present study investigates outstanding issues with regards to the novel integration of the plasmonic photocatalyst Estimated cost: R690 000 into the advanced oxidation system. Combining plasmon- Expected term: 2014-2017 enhanced photocatalytic material such as semiconductor TiO 2 with electrohydraulic discharge reactor in an Degradation of emerging micropollutants by combined advanced oxidation system, as is proposed in this study, advanced oxidation with immobilized plasmon titanium would enhance the photocatalytic oxidation efficiency of dioxide nanocomposites in an electrohydraulic PPCPs/EDCs/antiscalants because the reaction would discharge reactor be accelerated by both the high-energy plasma species University of the Western Cape and the UV emission as well as the plasmon-enhanced No. 2364 photocatalyst. The pharmaceuticals and hormones which are generally Estimated cost: R787 400 produced to accelerate physiological responses in Expected term: 2014-2017 humans are now regarded as a potential threat due to 144 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Functionalized electrospun and cast nanocomposites significance of this study will be the ease of use of the for the removal of organic matter and bacteria from multi-layered nanocomposites as well as the disinfection surface water of water without addition of harmful chemicals such as University of Johannesburg chlorine or labile aluminium. No. 2365 Estimated cost: R650 000 Water pollution is a persistent global problem that Expected term: 2014-2017 emanates from increased anthropogenic effects. Polluted water usually contains bacteria, viruses, protozoa, Programme 2: Water treatment for rural communities minerals, organic matter and many pollutants in quantities beyond the acceptable limits of water quality standards, Application of high-throughput green liver systems for therefore requiring treatment before use. Water may sustainable water purification using endemic aquatic be treated using different approaches, depending on macrophytes the quality of the raw water which enters the plant. Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Traditionally, adsorbents are used; however, the majority No. 2367 of these suffer drawbacks such as poor pollutant binding capacity as well as weak mechanical strength. This study investigates the development and use of a In addition, some of these sorbent materials are prone low-technology, low-maintenance and low-cost biological to degradation by chlorine. This study is aimed at the system based on the ‘green liver system’ for the development and evaluation of the potential of fabricated treatment of xenobiotics in raw waters, either at source filters for removing organics, metals and micro-organisms or prior to abstraction. The green liver system is not a from contaminated water. The proposed filters will have new concept; it has been successfully implemented in functional multi-layers of electrospun fibers impregnated China and Brazil. In this study selected endemic aquatic with nanoparticle catalysts to form nanocomposite macrophytes will be evaluated, in various combinations filters or membranes. The nanocomposites will be cast and ratios, in a sequential exposure model, for their ability onto membranes to produce strong support materials to bioaccumulate and/or biotransform environmental with tailor-made porosity to ensure no passage of water toxins and xenobiotics, and selected as components of contaminants. This is necessary as the small contaminant the green liver consortium. The optimized model system moieties that normally resist conventional treatment can will be further evaluated for tolerance to physicochemical be effectively removed because of the functional groups and flow rate variation, and pollutant load. The proposed that act as binding sites for contaminants. Owing to system should also be suitable for purification of an their small diameters, high surface area to volume ratio impoundment in situ. The use of this system has several and low porosity, these nanocomposite filters are very advantages: it prevents damage to the biological efficient in removing most of the water contaminants. The component from grazing or other land use, the biological WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 145

consortium can be purpose designed for the particular chemical contaminants have previously been detected pollutants, and the addition of a fuel pellet production in rainwater tanks. Thus in this study it envisaged that component encourages harvesting and maintenance the design, construction and monitoring of a sustainable of the green liver system. Such benefits do not exist domestic rainwater harvesting multi-tank station, with in traditional ponding or wetland systems. The limited on-site treatment systems (based on the results obtained successes of wetland systems is largely due to the very from the pilot scale deliverable for the WRC research large footprint, limited flow, inability to easily manipulate project K5 2124 3) will not only alleviate stress placed on populations for specific desired xenobiotics, and the the standpipe municipal systems, but will also produce eventual bioaccumulation of the xenobiotics within the water for domestic and potable purposes, based on system. the level of treatment provided per respective tank. Furthermore, a pamphlet (Xhosa, English and Afrikaans) Estimated cost: R450 000 containing general information on domestic rainwater Expected term: 2014-2017 harvesting, the identified primary uses per tank and advice on water storage will be developed for the users. Design, construction and monitoring of a sustainable Community members will also be trained on major and domestic rainwater harvesting multi- tank treatment continuous maintenance and repair of the DRWH tanks station at a central location in Enkanini informal and treatment systems using a compiled manual. The settlement, Stellenbosch operational sustainability and the capacity of the tanks to Stellenbosch University service numerous households’ daily water needs will also No. 2368 be monitored. The provision of a continuous and sustainable water Estimated cost: R900 000 source to rural and informal communities is a priority Expected term: 2014-2017 identified by the Department of Water and Sanitation (Department of Water and Sanitation). Domestic rainwater Programme 3: Drinking water quality harvesting (DRWH) can be promoted as a core adaptation strategy and has been earmarked as a short-term Extending EDC Toolbox I to include thyroid and intervention to provide water, especially to dispersed androgenic bioassays settlement areas. Numerous DRWH tanks have been University of Pretoria; Griffith University implemented by the Department of Water and Sanitation, No. 2303 in eight provinces, as an alternative water supply and for food production. However, a previous WRC study Project aims: has shown that possible health risks associated with • To participate in the Global Water Research Coalition the consumption of harvested rainwater can hamper the EDC Toolbox large-scale implementation of DRWH, as microbial and 146 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Inter-laboratory study to establish the suitability and of direct potable reuse systems in South Africa for the application of the thyroid and androgenic bioassays removal of contaminants that may have negative health for the detection of EDC activity in water samples impacts will provide a good basis for the development of South African guidelines for implementation of barriers, Estimated cost: R430 000 monitoring programmes and assessment programmes to Expected term: 2014-2016 eliminate or minimise risks and which can improve public acceptance of reclaimed water. Emerging contaminants in wastewater treated for direct potable re-use: the human health risk priorities Estimated cost: R1 500 000 in South Africa Expected term: 2014-2017 Chris Swartz Water Utilisation Engineers No. 2369 Programme 4: Water distribution and distribution systems The use of treated wastewater for direct potable State-of-the-art in advanced metering technology and applications can play an integral role in meeting future application water demands. However, the possible presence University of Cape Town of emerging contaminants in reclaimed municipal No. 2370 wastewater is of critical concern because of potential adverse impacts to human health. Specific health effects The water meter industry has seen substantial criteria in the evaluation of water recycling for human developments in the last two decades, with many new consumption include (i) primary health concerns of capabilities added to water meters. These advanced wastewater reuse that are the long-term health outcomes water meters (also called intelligent or smart meters) can of ingesting chemical contaminants found in recycled be used for much more than just consumption metering. water, (ii) health risks of using recycled water as a potable Advanced meters have several significant advantages, water supply compared to similar risk for conventional such as saving costs by eliminating conventional meter water supplies, and (iii) the need for extensive toxicity reading, billing and debt management systems; providing monitoring programmes. Much research has been simultaneous readings for multiple users allowing more done in Southern Africa and overseas on water reuse. accurate water balance calculations to be done; assisting However, to date there are no guidelines on reuse for the poor users to manage their free basic allowance; and South African water sector. This project will therefore be enhancing water demand management and water loss limited to identifying emerging contaminants of concern control. However, advanced metering systems also have in reclaimed potable water, their sources, pathways and important disadvantages, such as a higher failure rates receptors, potential risk from exposure to these chemicals, (due to electronics, batteries and more components) than performance of water reclamation treatment systems and conventional meters; higher supply and maintenance risks for potable water reuse in South Africa. Assessment WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 147

costs; susceptibility to tampering and vandalism; and internal pipe surface. A question that hasn’t received concern regarding rights of access to water. It is also much research attention is under what conditions a leak a new industry with many teething problems that will will become visible above the ground. Water distribution still have to be addressed. The aim of this project will pipes are typically buried below meters of graded sandy be to determine the state-of-the art in developments soils that may facilitate water draining away from the and application of advanced water metering to allow surface. In a recent experimental study it was found that municipalities to understand the available technology even jets directed vertically upward did not penetrate and how best to utilise it. The project is focused on about 30 cm of an ideal soil, while sustaining a pressure how to use advanced water metering in a sustainable of 25 m in the pipe. The work showed that a fluidised way for providing communities with water supply within zone of soil and water is created on the outside of a leak the bounds of cost of service provision and limited that is responsible for dissipating the vast majority of water resources. A major aim of the project is to assist the energy of the water jet, thus substantially limiting the municipalities with information on decision making leak’s ability to reach the soil surface. Another implication regarding advanced water metering. of the fluidised zone is that the high velocities of the soil particles may cause scouring of the outer pipe surface, Estimated cost: R1 280 000 especially in pipe materials that don’t have much abrasion Expected term: 2014-2017 resistance, such as PVC. Evidence of such scouring has emerged from failed pipe samples taken from the field, The impact of leak–soil interaction on leak showing that the pipe material is removed by the soil development and detection in water distribution action, eventually increasing the size of the leak. This may systems cause even small leaks in PVC pipes to eventually become University of Cape Town major problems; however, very little research has been No. 2371 done on this phenomenon. Thus this study will develop an understanding of the fluidisation phenomenon outside Leakage from water distribution systems is a worldwide leaks in water distribution pipes, and its implications for problem, which is likely to intensify as systems age and the development and discoverability of leaks. While the available water resources are stretched to their limits. longer-term goal of this work is to develop a theoretical Leaks form in all pipe materials, and thus municipalities model for the fluidisation phenomenon based on the must have processes to identify and repair new leaks fundamentals of fluid mechanics, the aim of this project as they form. The simplest way to find a leak is when will be to investigate the direct impact on leakage in water it is observed or reported after becoming visible above distribution systems. ground. Other leak detection methods include the monitoring of district metering area flow patterns, analysis Estimated cost: R700 000 of the noise emitted by leaks and inspection of the Expected term: 2014-2016 148 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT