WRC Knowledge Review 2015_16

The effect of age on the friction of large-diameter a means to determine the correlation between age and potable water cement mortar-lined pipelines friction in potable water cement mortar lined pipelines University of KwaZulu-Natal (Howard College Campus) which transport either chlorine- or chloramines-treated No. 2372 water. This study will provide support for decision makers to decide pipe sizes to deliver the required quantity Most of Umgeni Water’s large diameter potable water of treated water to end users. Appropriate pipe size pipelines are constructed from steel with a cement considerably reduces the cost of a pipeline during the mortar lining. Potable water which passes through these planning and construction phase. Analysis of the factors pipelines is, in some instances, treated with chlorine that influence the pipe roughness will be used to select and in others with chloramine. In undertaking designs of suitable water supply/treatment practices which directly new pipelines an estimate of the pipeline friction factor and/or indirectly minimize head losses for reducing is used to determine the pressure along pipe routes running costs. This analysis also provides knowledge through the development of hydraulic grade lines. This about pipeline maintenance that has economic impact. information is further used to determine appropriate pipeline wall thicknesses and pumping heads. The friction Estimated cost: R354 000 factor used, therefore, has a direct influence on the cost Expected term: 2014-2016 of the infrastructure that will be implemented. Studies have been undertaken internationally as well as in South Updating WRC water demand management software Africa to predict how friction of pipelines changes with for latest operating systems age. There seems, however, to be limited information WRP Consulting Engineers (Pty) Ltd relating to friction in cement mortar lined potable water No. 2373 pipelines and how this changes with age. Studies show that biofilm growth on the pipe wall also affects the friction Since the early 1990s, the WRC has been providing factor. Some researchers have shown a linear relationship support to municipalities throughout South Africa to between pipe age and roughness. Other studies address leakage and wastage from reticulation systems. contradict this because the biofilm processes such as South Africa was one of the first countries outside of attachment, growth and detachment are non-linear. The the UK to embrace the Burst and Background Estimate rate at which biofilm grows/detaches are dependent on (BABE) methodology which was initially developed by the concentrations of chlorine and chloramines, thickness, a number of experts from various UK water companies. flow velocity and other factors. Studies also demonstrate The BENCHLEAK model developed in South Africa was that if the biomass is algae, then the disinfectant plays a created to ensure that South African water utilities had very small role in controlling it. So, it is important in this free access to software which would encourage the use study to do a detailed analysis of the relationship with of the standard IWA water balance. Once again this was disinfectant, biomass growth, and water and pipe age. the first model of its type and led to the development of Accounting for sustainability in pipeline design requires many similar models which were used throughout the WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 149

world. The BENCHLEAK model also helped to promote THRUST 3: SUSTAINABLE MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER the concept of the Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI) AND SANITATION throughout southern Africa and in turn led to a large-scale study of ILI values for almost 100 systems countrywide. Programme 1: Emerging treatment technologies – Preparing BABE models developed through the WRC include for the future the original BENCHLEAK water balance model which was initially developed as a simple Excel spreadsheet Mass balance modelling over wastewater treatment and has now been superseded by the AquaLite Model. plants III The SANFLOW model used to analyse minimum night University of Cape Town; University of KwaZulu-Natal flows was one of the WRC’s most popular downloads No. 1822 due to its ease of use and simple design. The various models continue to operate properly on some Windows The series of projects aims to develop a plant-wide operating systems but not on some of the later systems. wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) model used to It is proposed that the software is re-designed where accurately predict the outcome of the various biological, necessary to accommodate the latest Windows operating physical and chemical processes taking place in a WWTP. systems; the possibility of creating an iPad version These tools can result in more economical wastewater should also be investigated. The aims are therefore to plant design and operation and improved effluent quality. upgrade the existing models to ensure that they are Significant advances have been made towards developing fully operational on all current platforms and operating steady state mass balance-based integrated WWTP systems. In addition, it is proposed to convert SANFLOW, models which link primary sedimentation, nitrification- PRESMAC and AquaLite to run on an iPad and create an denitrification activated sludge and aerobic or anaerobic app so that they can be downloaded worldwide. digestion of primary and waste activated sludges (K5/1338 and K5/1620). This project aims to determine the Estimated cost: R520 000 kinetics of P release from biological P-removal systems Expected term: 2014-2015 and determine the extent to which mineral precipitation takes place. The P release in anaerobic digestion will be compared to that observed in aerobic digestion. Certain aspects such as the mineral precipitation in aerobic digestion, the un-biodegradable fraction of primary sludge and the un-biodegradable fraction of the waste activated 150 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

sludge from nitrification-denitrification systems will be dissolved substances and pathogens from stormwater confirmed. The research will determine whether the outlets, and is complementary to initiatives such as litter presence of primary sludge will assist in the hydrolysis of traps, or source control measures. Natural wetlands waste activated in anaerobic digestion. remove pollutants and improve surface water quality greatly while constructed wetlands have long been Estimated cost: R998 950 used as polishing processes downstream of municipal Expected term: 2008-2010 wastewater treatment. Three generations of constructed wetlands consist of the surface flow wetland, subsurface Urban effluent treatment in a rhizofiltration system flow wetland, and vertically integrated wetland that shares Durban University of Technology; Stellenbosch University; characteristics with trickling filters and slow sand filtration. University of Cape Town An important difference between the constructed wetlands No. 2004 as used downstream of wastewater treatment works and downstream of urban effluent discharges is the variability Urban effluent includes stormwater, drainage from of flow: treated effluent runs at a steady flow rate with informal settlements and townships, sewer overflows, recurring daily peaks, while an urban effluent discharge illegal industrial effluent connections to stormwater would see highly variable flow rates and composition, systems, and so on. Stormwater should ideally be treated followed by periods of low or no flow. This study will at the source and this is the rationale behind permeable include design of an experimental rhizofiltration system, asphalt roads, swales and buffers. Whereas in the past where the wetland plant root zone provides oxygen and the objective of urban drainage was to remove rainwater a biofilm habitat for treatment, where the filter material from settlements as quickly as possible, the philosophy are selected to accommodate high flow rates, and which has changed towards retention and drainage as slowly is hydraulically flexible to operate as different kinds of as possible. Where stormwater transport is inevitable, wetlands according to the above classification. The the aim is also to remove and contain pollutants where research work would be the performance evaluation of the flow originates, at source, through vegetated and such a system under different conditions. sand filters. This project proposes that passive treatment systems would be able to remove (or trap) pathogens Estimated cost: R2 400 000 from urban effluent, together with other pollutants such Expected term: 2010-2012 as nutrients, hydrocarbons, dissolved metals and toxic substances. The objective of this research is removal of WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 151

Exploring knowledge on natural processes for novel K5/2002 demonstrated the capacity of different soils approaches to constructed wetland design and to retain these nutrients from the effluent. Integrating performance for wastewater using biomimicry agriculture in the planning and design of low-cost Golder Associates sanitation technologies could provide safe and sustainable No. 2096 mechanisms for disposing of such effluent by retaining the nutrients for crop production and releasing water This study will look to exploit knowledge on natural into hydrological systems. There is no information or any wetlands, their processes and biodiversity to better guidelines that could inform town planners and policy engineer/design constructed wetlands to meet the makers in designing new social housing developments challenges of current and emerging pollutants and that can integrate agriculture in the design of low-cost pathogens. The study should also look to explore the sanitation technologies. This project aims to build on potential of using constructed wetlands to support previous work by the Soil Science department at UKZN sustainable livelihoods. The first phase of this project is to generate information on recycling of nutrients from innovation-focused and will explore, through the process DEWATS technology, which will inform policy makers of biomimicry, novel approaches that can be used to and town planners in the design of new social housing improve constructed wetland design and implementation. developments that integrate agriculture. The potential exists for this process to deliver innovative solutions for wastewater (both industrial, domestic) Estimated cost: R1 880 000 treatment, transformation and filtration. Expected term: 2013-2016 Estimated cost: R3 000 000 Understanding the mechanistic interactions of Expected term: 2011-2016 engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) with biological treatment systems during wastewater treatment – Integrating agriculture in designing low-cost sanitation a case of metal and metal oxide ENMs technologies in social housing schemes: a case study CSIR (Pretoria) of Kwadinabakubo, eThekwini Municipality No. 2374 University of KwaZulu-Natal (Pietermaritzburg) No. 2220 To protect human health and promote environmental integrity, research towards understanding ENM The disposal of effluent generated from low-cost interactions with WWTP biological treatment systems sanitation technologies such as the decentralized is crucial. Such knowledge will be useful in developing wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) still poses treatment technologies suitable for ENM removal from challenges to the environment. Such effluent has been wastewater systems. This study is a continuation of shown to contain high concentrations of essential a previous WRC project titled ‘Fate and behaviour of nutrients necessary for crop production. WRC Project engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in wastewater treatment 152 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

systems (K3/2122/3)’. Whilst the previous project mainly throughout the project cycle focused on the general fate and behaviour of ENMs • Provide a baseline assessment of the selected in wastewater, this work seeks to generate data and catchment/s with relevant implementation partner/s knowledge that elucidates the nature of interactions • Set specific WSUD objectives for the selected between the ENMs and the biological treatment system as catchment with realistic design and performance well as understanding plausible elimination mechanisms objectives – including a comparative analysis between for ENMs in WWTPs. The results will constitute critical conventional design and WSUD objectives knowledge necessary in the development of wastewater • Screen and evaluate the feasibility of the WSUD treatment technologies to deal with contaminants with options within current best planning and management nanoscale dimensions, so as to protect South African practices, including the selection of appropriate ecosystems. This study will investigate the metal and technology options to meet design, cost and metal oxide ENMs behaviour in wastewater to evaluate performance objectives their removal over long-term exposure to wastewater, • Where possible, develop suitable templates for the dissolution behaviour, and bio-sorption behaviour on non- various activities and recommend development of new viable and viable aerobic biomass. tools or guidelines where gaps in knowledge exist • Present options to key stakeholders and evaluate Estimated cost: R1 200 000 the feasibility of the options and the barriers to Expected term: 2014-2015 implementation and document opportunities for future potential demonstration partnerships A feasibility study to evaluate the potential of using • Link knowledge and partnerships to the WRC WSD design principles to strengthen planning for Community of Practice Programme water-sensitive cities of the future City of Cape Town; University of the Western Cape Estimated cost: R2 000 000 No. 2412 Expected term: 2014-2017 Project aims: Development and management of a Water Sensitive • Conduct a scoping exercise to evaluate suitable Design Community of Practice programme sites for a feasibility assessment study. This exercise City of Cape Town; University of the Western Cape will also evaluate the vision, strategy, organisational No. 2413 structure (i.e. planning divisions), resources, budgets and implementation strength of the institutions that Project aims: may be involved in adopting WSUD • Scope potential and current water sensitive design • Engage and share the water-sensitive urban design (WSD) project opportunities concept, framework and guidelines with relevant • Establish project priorities and their potential to be stakeholders and ensure buy-in of stakeholders implemented as WSD research projects WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 153

• Develop and maintain ‘Learning Alliances’ seeded electrochemical precipitation (SEP) has the • Scope institutional challenges associated with potential to increase the yield and process efficiency of implementing WSD in the planning and implementing struvite recovery. The use of SEP has been investigated environment for the removal of calcium carbonate by Hasson and • Strengthen and broaden the WSD researcher base for co-workers. This technique has not yet been applied South Africa to struvite precipitation, thus providing the opportunity • Develop a WSD project database and website for a novel nutrient-recovery technique. The first aim • Facilitate and coordinate partnerships with relevant will be to investigate current nutrient- and energy- sector players to convert potential WSD projects to recovery technologies based on a systems approach to demonstration projects for consideration by the WRC technology sustainability assessment, which will focus • Consolidate WSD project information from additional specifically on situation analysis and technology review, research projects in which the analysis of nutrient flows, expected nutrient supply limitations and emerging organic food production Estimated cost: R2 500 000 will be examined. The second aim will be achieved Expected term: 2014-2019 by investigating the use of seeded electrochemical precipitation as a means to produce struvite crystals of Programme 2: Application of appropriate technologies a similar or better quality and size when compared to and tools conventional precipitation techniques. Nutrient and energy recovery from sewage: demo- Estimated cost: R1 426 987 researching an integrated approach Expected term: 2013-2016 University of Cape Town No. 2218 The Activated Sludge Bios – a real-time tool to evaluate activated sludge process performance Humans produce a significant amount of sewage, Durban University of Technology containing large quantities of nutrients (phosphates, No. 2376 nitrates and micro-nutrients). For example, humans typically excrete 1.6 to 1.7 g phosphorus per day, most of The activated sludge (AS) process is an internationally which (approximately 60%) is found in urine. Considering acclaimed method for wastewater treatment, due to its that natural phosphorus reserves are on the decline environmental friendliness and economic feasibility. This and are expected to be depleted by 2033, the use of biologically driven process could only be realised through sewage waste has the potential to be a major source of the advent of engineered systems, which are designed to new phosphorus. An alternative technology that utilises exploit naturally occurring biological activities. In these 154 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

systems, notable interactions are apparent between Programme 3: Stormwater and sewerage systems functional microbial organisms, process configurations and overall operational control, all of which ultimately affect the absolute performance and efficiency of the A functional description of urban effluent treatment in AS process. For effective management and optimization a rhizofiltration system of the activated sludge process, it is imperative to have Stellenbosch University a thorough understanding of the possible interactions No. 2378 between the functional microbial organisms and process operations. To date, very little research has been The design of the rhizofiltration system potentially offers a conducted on correlating the dynamics of all functional sustainable, energy-efficient solution to prevent pollution microbial populations with the works operational in South African rivers. Once proven to be successful at a conditions and process configurations, worldwide. From pilot scale, the results may influence policy and decision previous observations, it was clearly noted that a gap makers on water boards and in local governments to exists in the promulgation of knowledge between various suggest the construction of full-scale rhizofiltration groups in the wastewater community, which subsequently systems at strategic locations. Also, the design is such negates a thorough, holistic evaluation of works process that once proved to be successful at a pilot scale, the performances and thus consistencies. The invaluable construction and upkeep of full-scale rhizofiltration information and data generated in the previous project systems can be conducted by unschooled workers could therefore be used as a basis to expand the current from informal settlements along river banks. These research and to create an easily accessible information communities could therefore be empowered to reduce source. This study will focus on evaluating a greater pollution in their rivers. It is envisaged that the project number of works including both domestic and industrial will ultimately lead to the development of a conceptual WWTW. The overall aim is therefore to develop an model that can be used to guide experimental work and interactive web-based tool. This new tool is envisaged eventually the design of full-scale rhizofiltration systems, to incorporate the current troubleshooting guide and as well as better understanding of microbial, physical and complement it with an interactive, online information chemical interactions within a rhizofiltration system. hub that establishes a self-sustaining network between wastewater engineers, microbiologists, works operators Estimated cost: R749 200 and the wastewater community at large. Expected term: 2014-2015 Estimated cost: R1 600 000 Expected term: 2014-2015 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 155

Sanitation technology assessment and evaluation • Test the effectiveness of pasteurisation to generate a Partners in Development (Pty) Ltd pathogen-free effluent suitable for use as a fertiliser for No. 2414 horticulture and crop plants Project aims: Estimated cost: R1 180 000 • Develop a sanitation technology assessment & Expected term: 2013-2015 evaluation tool • Produce a collection of informative sanitation Towards integrated sanitation and organic waste technology dossiers management – improving faecal sludge management • Produce a dialogue report to inform future sanitation on municipal level by upgrading local wastewater policy treatment plant with value-added processes (example: • Host knowledge dissemination workshops to present Tlokwe Local Municipality) the assessment tool to key stakeholders North-West University (Potchefstroom) No. 2307 Estimated cost: R1 315 600 Expected term: 2014-2015 The proposed study aims to apply some of the lessons from the iPit study and apply it to peri-urban settlements Programme 4: Wastewater sludge and faecal sludge in Tklowe. In particular, the project teams intends to use management anaerobic technology to treat faecal sludge with and without additional organic substrates and by upgrading Development of the Anaerobic Digestion and the current digester at the local wastewater plant to treat Pasteurisation Treatment (ADAPT) concept for the safe faecal sludge – the current digester is being operated disposal and beneficiation of faecal sludge without a lid with no biogas harvesting. Laboratory-scale Rhodes University studies will also be conducted using faecal sludge as the No. 2306 main feedstock and the performance evaluated at different loading rates for process optimisation. The project team Project aims: will draw upon previous experiences in the iPit project to • Establish the functional components of an ADAPT optimise digester performance for faecal sludge (SRT – 20 unit (anaerobic digester and pasteuriser) at a sewage h). The iPit toilet design will not be field tested in this study works to demonstrate the practicality of this system but could be at later stage should the proposed project to treat faecal sludge and generate a pathogen-free be up-scaled. The Tlokwe Municipality is eager to improve effluent the performance of the local wastewater treatment • Understand the biological processes that take place in plant. Their outstanding achievements within the Green the anaerobic digester and how it affects the operation Drop assessment and long-standing collaboration with of the ADAPT unit NWU prove their commitment to continuously advance 156 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

technology and skills at their facilities. Therefore this the flawed assumption can be found in many of the project aims to implement a best-practice example at campaigns and reports produced by organisations Tlokwe WWTP, making the treatment plant a valuable promoting improved sanitation that the provision of toilets asset to the community: a resource source instead of a can be more or less equated with the eradication of open waste disposal plant. This will result in direct economic defecation. Literature investigating open defecation as a and environmental and health benefits. The plant’s preference over using a toilet is scanty. The few reports energy-efficiency will increase and methane emissions that do explore this are not specific to the South African will be reduced, sources for water pollution contained and context and cultural factors which drive the practice an additional renewable energy resource (biogas) will be do not always carry from one context to another. This utilized. study will investigate the extent to which open defecation continues to occur after the provision of sanitation and Estimated cost: R1 050 000 document the knowledge, beliefs, motivations, behaviours Expected term: 2013-2015 and attitudes around it in order to obtain the information needed to inform sanitation, health, education and Investigating the practice of open defecation post housing interventions. sanitation provision and the practice and implications of ingesting soil which may be contaminated Estimated cost: R750 000 Partners in Development (Pty) Ltd Expected term: 2014-2015 No. 2379 Programme 5: Sanitation technology and innovations The assumption that open defecation ends where toilets begin is faulty. The provision of toilets – as basic Piloting and testing the pour flush latrine technology sanitation – is a top priority on national and international for its applicability in South Africa agendas, and the reason for this is that without toilets Partners in Development people defecate in the open and the faecal contamination No. 1887 of the environment that results is responsible for tragic and preventable death and disease. While the diarrhoeal Recent research studies concluded by the WRC have diseases responsible for a high number of deaths among raised many concerns about the long-term sustainability young children and vulnerable persons receive the most of dry sanitation technologies. The studies have attention, open defecation is also a virtually sure route found that the technology has led to unintended for the spread of helminthic infections which interfere consequences due to misuse by users, as well as the with growth and cognitive development and impede lack of understanding of the science of dry sanitation educational and vocational aspirations. However, while systems. A combination of these factors and the stringent the focus on the provision of toilets to all is an important design requirements are proving it difficult to access pits strategy in the fight to eradicate open defecation, WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 157

for pit emptying. This is further compounded by user to demonstrate, on the strength of lessons learned, a behaviour which is resulting in the intrusion of solid waste, large scale pour-flush sanitation pilot and to share the plastics and other undesirables into the pits, resulting experiences from this pilot with appropriate audiences. in difficulties around pit emptying and the rapid filling Thus the objective of this study is to implement 275 pour- of pits. This coupled with the fact that there is no easy flush units in a rural community. mechanical or physical modus operandi for servicing full pits. All of these issues are raising many new challenges Estimated cost: R1 475 175 which jeopardise the sustainability and the target set Expected term: 2012-2013 by government for coverage of sanitation. Amongst the suite of technologies, pour-flush latrines, which are used Energy generation using low-head hydro widely as a basic sanitation norm in South East Asian technologies countries, have the potential to resolve many of these University of Pretoria issues. However, very little promotion and application No. 2219 has been done in South Africa. This research study aims to create an understanding of the technical, social and Energy is the lifeblood of worldwide economic and social environmental challenges associated with its application. development. When considering the current status of global energy shortages, the emphasis to reduce CO 2 Estimated cost: R1 000 000 emissions, development of alternative energy generation Expected term: 2009-2011 methods and growing energy consumption, it is clear that there is a need to change the way energy is created Demonstration and scaled-up implementation of pour- and used. Energy experts say South Africa has moderate flush sanitation in South Africa hydroelectric potential, and that the establishment of Partners in Development small hydroelectric projects around the country could No. 2203 help provide a sustainable future energy supply. The US Department of Energy estimates that there are 6 000 to While many South Africans aspire to full waterborne 8 000 potential sites in South Africa suitable for small sanitation, this is not an achievable goal given the many hydro-utilisation below 100 megawatts, with the provinces demands on limited resources. The alternative has been of KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape offering the best limited to VIP’s. However, these are not without their prospects. This project therefore aims to: shortcomings including health and safety, environmental • Review the feasibility of generating energy in low-head and operational issues. In 2009 the WRC commissioned systems a project to develop and test a prototype for pour-flush • Develop guidelines to identify locations where low- sanitation in South Africa. This was done successfully head hydropower generation systems can be installed and 20 units have now been in operation for between • Develop an assessment model including a cost– 7 and 22 months. Funding was received from Irish Aid benefit tool 158 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Demonstrate the technology by means of pilot-plant THRUST 4: SUSTAINABLE AND INTEGRATED installations, testing different turbine technologies INDUSTRIAL WATER MANAGEMENT • Provision of educational material to illustrate and describe the process. Programme 1: Emerging challenges and solutions for the 21 st century Estimated cost: R500 000 Expected term: 2013-2015 Evaluation of forward osmosis technology for the Towards wastewater biorefineries: integrated treatment of concentrated brines bioreactor and process design for combined water University of KwaZulu-Natal (Durban); Sasol treatment and resource productivity No. 2101 University of Cape Town No. 2380 The aim of this project was to evaluate the feasibility of using FO for the concentration of high ionic strength This project is focused on development of sustainable wastewaters within Sasol, as a way of reducing costs process solutions for water-sensitive systems in which associated with disposal of brines generated from water treatment is coupled to value creation – for desalination technologies. The use of FO was based improved bioresource productivity and a reduced on the technology’s cost effectiveness. Unlike pressure environmental footprint. The project drives towards the and thermal driven processes, FO requires minimal integration of production of the clean-water product and external energy input, mainly for liquid circulation. Other that of the C, N and P-based products, by conversion advantages include low fouling tendency, minimal pre- of the organic fractions and salts from the wastewater treatment of the feed, reduced cake layer formation which treated. Specifically this integrated biorefinery system simplifies membrane cleaning, potentially high water requires effective design of its reactor components recovery and low pressure operation which simplifies to ensure simple and energy-efficient processes. To design and equipment used. The specific objectives of the achieve this requires a cross-cutting and interdisciplinary study included: approach. Further it requires the research approach to • Evaluating the advantages, limitations and feasibility of be sensitive to the ‘big picture’ informed by industrial using the forward osmosis technology to concentrate metabolism, while delivering the detailed technical various high ionic strength wastewaters within Sasol knowledge of individual unit operations, requiring an • Assessing the fouling characteristics of FO on various integrated team approach. The project has potential to high ionic strength industrial streams which are contribute towards the empowerment of communities. characteristic of having high fouling and/or scaling potential Estimated cost: R600 000 Expected term: 2014-2015 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 159

The study was divided into preliminary and synthetic different bioconversion processes, from lignocellulose studies. The study provided fundamental understanding conversion, treatment of resilient phenolic waste of the application of FO for the concentration of high ionic streams to the production of valuable fine chemicals, strength wastewaters within Sasol as well as identifying such as antioxidants the limitations associated with such applications, • Final cleaning of remaining waste streams through particularly the need for an ideal draw solution and anaerobic digestion (can be combined with municipal appropriate membrane. waste treatment) Estimated cost: R354 000 Estimated cost: R750 000 Expected term: 2011-2014 Expected term: 2013-2016 Integrated bioremediation and beneficiation of bio- Programme 3: Quantification, prediction and minimisation of based waste streams water use and waste production Rhodes University No. 2225 Using membrane distillation crystallization for the treatment of industrial wastewater An integrated approach (ReBenFruWaste) for the University of Cape Town remediation of fruit waste streams with high organic No. 2223 loadings with simultaneous beneficiation through the production of valuable products is proposed. The The sustainable treatment of acid mine drainage and integrated approach will be evaluated on existing food industrial wastewaters is necessary if sustainable growth waste streams, but could lay the foundation for the and responsible management of water is to be achieved treatment and beneficiation of biorefinery waste streams in South Africa. Membrane distillation crystallization offers when bioeconomies come to fruition. This project has four a sustainable wastewater treatment process because it main aims: can utilise excess heat from processes, and produce pure • Analysis of existing food waste streams (fruit and water as well as salt(s) products, thus converting waste olive mill waste streams) for sugar, lipid, phenolic and material into something of value. Membrane distillation lignocellulosic content crystallization is also an attractive wastewater treatment • Bench-scale fermentations to evaluate (i) conversion technique because it requires low operating temperatures of high sugar streams to ethanol (renewable fuel) and (40-60°C); the hydrostatic pressure encountered in (ii) utilization of high streams with high lipid, phenolic the process is lower than in reverse osmosis and less and lignocellulosic content as feedstock for high-value expensive material such as plastics can be used in enzyme production by Aspergillus niger strains the process. Another major advantage of MDC to the • Characterization of enzyme production and bench- application of AMD is that the process is able to operate scale demonstration of enzyme applications in in very acidic or basic streams and thus the AMD 160 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

streams would not need to be pre-treated or neutralized This project reviews ‘Natsurv 4: Water and Wastewater beforehand. This project therefore aims to investigate Management in the Dairy Industry’ and documents water the applicability of MDC for the treatment of industrial and wastewater management within the dairy industry as wastewater, with a specific focus on the treatment of mine part of the first stage of revisions of the Natsurv Series 1 wastewater. The project also aims to contribute to the field to 16. by investigating concentration polarisation and its effect on the process, while at the same time developing better Estimated cost: R700 000 crystallizer control strategies. Ultimately, this project could Expected term: 2013-2015 offer a more energy-efficient and sustainable industrial wastewater treatment process that reduces wastewater Long-term forecasts of water usage for electricity production. generation: South Africa 2030 Quantitative Evidence Research cc Estimated cost: R1 400 000 No. 2383 Expected term: 2013-2016 Water and energy are key resources required for social Revision of Natsurv 4: Water and Wastewater and economic wellbeing and both are increasingly scarce. Management in the Dairy Industry (Edition 2) Extracting, delivering and disposing of water requires University of KwaZulu-Natal (Pietermaritzburg) energy and extracting and refining fuels and producing No. 2226 electricity requires water. This water–energy nexus is becoming increasingly important due to increasing energy In the 1980s the Water Research Commission and demands and decreasing freshwater supplies. While it is Department of Water Affairs embarked on a series of estimated that power plants account for approximately national surveys for 16 industries. The Natsurv reports half the global industrial water withdrawal, limited studies of the different industries have been well used by the have investigated the water–energy nexus in South Africa. sector. However, South Africa and its industrial sectors The aspect of water usage becomes critical when taking have grown, or in some cases shrunk, considerably into account the state of water scarcity. The objective since the 1980s. Thus, the landscape has changed. New of this project is to fill this knowledge gap and identify technologies and systems have been adopted by some current water requirements for electricity production of the industries and some of the information contained currently, and, based on future electricity demand in the national surveys can be considered out of date. projections, to develop conditional forecasts for the Through the UN CEO mandate, water stewardship demand on water supplies. This work will be important for discussions, water allocation and equity dialogues, we are water and energy policy development. also seeing a growing awareness around water use, water security and waste production. Thus, this is considered Estimated cost: R306 000 an opportune time to review the water and wastewater Expected term: 2014-2015 management practices of the different industrial sectors. WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 161

Revision of Natsurv 5: Water and Wastewater • Evaluate and document the generic industry processes Management in the Sorghum and Beer Industry • Determine the water consumption and specific water (Edition 2) intake (local and global targets and benchmarks) CSIR • Determine the wastewater generation and typical No. 2384 pollutant loads • Determine local electricity, water and effluent prices The Natsurv reports of the different industries have been and by-laws within which these industries function well used by the sector. However, South African industrial • Critically evaluate the water (inclusive of wastewater) sectors have either grown or in some cases shrunk management processes adopted and provide considerably since the first editions were published, in the recommendations 1980s. New technologies and systems have been adopted • Evaluate the industry adoption of the following by some of the industries and some of the information concepts: cleaner production, water pinch, energy contained in the national surveys can be considered out pinch, life cycle assessments, water footprints, and of date. This project will review Natsurv 5: Water and ISO 14 000 to name a few Wastewater Management in the Malt Brewing Industry, • Provide recommendations for best practice since industrial production of sorghum beer has increased over the last 20 years, and, malting sorghum for traditional Estimated cost: R750 000 beer brewing has developed significantly into a large-scale Expected term: 2014-2016 commercial industry. Revision of Natsurv 8: Water and Wastewater Estimated cost: R700 000 Management in the Laundry Industry (Edition 2) Expected term: 2014-2015 Cape Peninsula University of Technology No. 2405 Revision of Natsurv 6: Water and Wastewater Management in the Edible Oil Industry (Edition 2) Project aims: Chris Swartz Water Utilisation Engineers • To review and document water and wastewater No. 2404 management within the laundry industry • Provide a general overview of the laundry industry in Project aims: South Africa, its changes since 1980 and its projected • To review and document water and wastewater change management within the edible oil industry as part of • Evaluate and document the generic industry processes the first stage of revisions of the Natsurv series 1 to 16 • Determine the water consumption and specific water • Provide a general overview of the edible oil industry in intake (local and global targets; benchmarks). South Africa, its changes since 1980 and its projected • Determine the wastewater generation and typical change pollutant loads 162 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Determine local electricity, water and effluent prices • Determine local electricity, water, and effluent prices and by-laws within which these industries function and by-laws within which these industries function and • Critically evaluate the water (inclusive of wastewater) critically evaluate if the trends and indicators are in line management processes adopted and provide with water conservation demand management and recommendations environmental imperatives. • Evaluate the industry adoption of the following • Critically evaluate the specific industry water (including concepts: cleaner production, water pinch, energy wastewater) management processes adopted and pinch, life-cycle assessments, water footprints, and recommend fundamental principles and guidelines ISO 14 000, to name a few that are important for the water users. • Provide recommendations for best practice • Evaluate the industry adoption of the following concepts: cleaner production, water pinch, energy Estimated cost: R700 000 pinch, life cycle assessments, water footprints, Expected term: 2014-2016 wastewater treatment and reuse, best available technology and ISO 14 000, to name a few. Provide Revision of Natsurv 12: Water and Wastewater and outline the manner in which industries may Management in the Pulp and Paper Industry (Edition 2) prevent, minimize and mitigate possible water Prodomos Technologies (Pty) Ltd pollution. No. 2421 • Provide recommendations on the best practice for this industry with the aim of developing a comprehensive Project aims: guide to the industrial sector to meet the Department • Provide a detailed overview of the pulp and paper of Water and Sanitation’s regulatory requirements. industry in South Africa, its changes since 1980 and its projected change(s). Representative samples of the Estimated cost: R850 000 respective industries will be used as case studies. Expected term: 2014-2016 • Critically evaluate and document the ‘generic’ industrial processes of the pulp and paper industry in Revision of Natsurv 17: Water and Wastewater terms of current practice, best practice and cleaner Management in the Steel Industry (edition 1) production. Prodomos Technologies (Pty) Ltd • Determine the water consumption and specific water No. 2422 consumption (local and global indicators, targets; benchmarks, diurnal trends) and recommend targets Project aims: for use, reuse, recycling and technology adoption. • Provide a detailed overview of the steel industry in • Determine wastewater generation, and typical South Africa, its changes since 1980 and its projected pollutant loads (diurnal trends) and best practice change(s). Representative samples of the respective technology adoption. industries will be used as case studies. WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 163

• Critically evaluate and document the ‘generic’ Programme 5: Water efficiency, cleaner production, industrial processes in terms of current practice, best beneficiation and treatment of industrial effluents practice and cleaner production. • Determine the water consumption and specific water Micro-nutrient requirements for anaerobic digestion consumption (local and global indicators, targets; of concentrated industrial effluents: Development of benchmarks, diurnal trends) and recommend targets a speciation/precipitation model to optimise micro- for use, reuse, recycling and technology adoption. nutrient dose for methane production from industrial • Determine wastewater generation, and typical waste streams pollutant loads (diurnal trends) and best practice University of KwaZulu-Natal (Howard College Campus) technology adoption. No. 2228 • Determine local electricity, water, and effluent prices and by-laws within which these industries function and Anaerobic digestion of industrial effluents is used to critical evaluate if the trends and indicators are in line convert organic material at concentrations that are too with water conservation demand management and low for economic recovery to methane gas. Balanced environmental imperatives. anaerobic digestion requires inorganic micronutrients • Critically evaluate the specific industry water (including to proceed. In many industries, including hydrocarbon wastewater) management processes adopted and and certain chemical industries, effluent streams may recommend fundamental principles and guidelines contain a number of the micronutrients required for that are important for the water users. balanced growth, but there may be several micro- (and • Evaluate the industry adoption of the following macro-) nutrients that are not present in the stream. concepts: cleaner production, water pinch, energy To date, research in the field has been predominantly pinch, life cycle assessments, water footprints, experimental and empirical; there are no studies which wastewater treatment and reuse, best available provide guidelines for predicting the micronutrient technology and ISO 14 000, to name a few. Provide requirements for a particular application beyond the and outline the manner in which industries may general micronutrient-to-COD ratios. Therefore, this prevent, minimize and mitigate possible water study will test the hypothesis that a model describing the pollution partitioning of micronutrients between soluble, precipitate • Provide recommendations on the best practice for this and potentially bound and adsorbed phases can be used industry with the aim of developing a comprehensive to determine the amount of the micronutrient available for guide to the industrial sector to meet the Department anaerobic digestion, and can therefore be used to predict of Water and Sanitation’s regulatory requirements. the microbial response to different micronutrient dosing strategies. Estimated cost: R850 000 Expected term: 2014-2016 Estimated cost: R400 000 Expected term: 2013-2016 164 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Phase 2: Recovery and beneficiation of nutrients wastewater treatment, immobilized in robust industrial- and water from brewery effluent by means of unique scale systems, are emerging technologies currently combination of algal assimilation, constructed receiving international attention. The aim of this project wetlands, hydroponics and aquaculture is to assess some of the emerging nanotechnologies for University of Cape Town; Rhodes University wastewater treatment to contribute to water and energy No. 2284 savings in the textile industry for sustainable economic development in Southern Africa. Project aims: • Develop a better understanding of (i) the changes Estimated cost: R1 250 000 that take place in HRAP algal community structure Expected term: 2014-2016 at different times of year and/or at different flow rates, and (ii) the underlying mechanisms responsible The use of modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes for some of the results obtained in the HRAP for the selective extraction of Cr(VI) and mercury from during Project K5/2008, such as the mechanism/s industrial effluents responsible for majority of the ammonia and University of Johannesburg phosphate removal. No. 2387 • Develop technology to convert brewery effluent grown algal biomass into fish biomass without mechanically Hexavalent chromium) and mercury (both inorganic and harvesting the algae and allowing filter-feeding fish to organic forms) are two priority pollutants, and although bioconvert algal biomass into fish biomass treatment methods such as ion exchange, chemical precipitation and reverse osmosis have been used, Estimated cost: R850 000 adsorption has been identified as a key process in Expected term: 2013-2016 metal ion removal due to its efficiency. Adsorption by activated carbons has been popular for both pollutants. Nanoparticles for the treatment of industrial scale However, activated carbon suffers from disadvantages, effluents – particularly the removal of organic such as lack of selectivity for a specific pollutant. Carbon nanotubes are a new form of nanomaterials which have contaminants from textile effluents using nano-TiO 2 Cape Peninsula University of Technology been gaining increasing recognition for their applications No. 2386 in environmental remediation, due to their superior adsorption capabilities to conventional adsorbents like Textile production is a water-intensive and potentially activated carbon. This project therefore aims to investigate highly-polluting activity, and the treatment of textile the use of carbon nanotubes as selective sorbents for the industry wastewaters is a topic of considerable research. two metals of interest. The emphasis is on multi-walled At the same time, engineered nanomaterials for carbon nanotubes, since these are cheaper, more easy to WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 165

synthesise and more readily available than single-walled THRUST 5: MINE WATER TREATMENT AND carbon nanotubes. MANAGEMENT Estimated cost: R1 000 000 Programme 1: Water use and waste production Expected term: 2014-2017 An industrial ecology approach to sulphide-containing Anaerobic and photocatalytic treatment of textile mineral wastes to minimise ARD formation: and distillery wastewater in integrated fluidized bed characterising potential for ARD, design for disposal reactors and extraction of products with value Vaal University of Technology University of Cape Town No. 2388 No. 2231 The treatment of many industrial wastes requires the Project aims: application of robust and costly techniques, which is • Develop a method for characterizing the long-term a major deterrent. It is for this reason that biological ARD generation potential that takes into account methods have proved to be very attractive to both the likely impact of microbial colonization and the industries and local authorities. However, these systems, relative time frame of acidification and neutralization, used as stand-alone techniques, are not efficient in building on the proposed concept of the biokinetic test treating some high-strength industrial wastewater. (Hesketh et al., 2010) Generally, biological wastewater treatment, especially • Provide an expanded techno-economic assessment anaerobic digestion (AD), has been the technique of and holistic environmental assessment of the sulphide choice for many years due to its simplicity and low cost, separation step for removal of risk of ARD formation but AD is challenged by the presence of xenobiotic • Develop appropriate uses for the benign tailings and recalcitrant compounds. Process efficiency and generated in line with the principles of industrial robustness may be improved by integration with another ecology based on maximizing resource productivity process, such as ion exchange, membrane processes, or and minimizing waste burden advanced oxidation processes. This study will investigate • Develop appropriate uses for the sulphide-rich the development of a combined bioreactor/photoreactor tailings resulting from the separations in line with the and its applicability to common South African industrial principles of industrial ecology based on maximizing wastewaters. resource productivity and minimizing waste burden Estimated cost: R1 200 000 Estimated cost: R2 565 000 Expected term: 2014-2017 Expected term: 2013-2017 166 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

The BioSURE Process: a sustainable, long term being disposed of in landfill sites at high cost. Considering treatment option for acid mine drainage treatment the quantity of primary sewage sludge generated by VitaOne8 (Pty) Ltd ERWAT and Johannesburg Water’s wastewater treatment No. 2232 plants that can practically be used, a significant volume of AMD can be treated in the Witwatersrand. Co-treatment The BioSURE Process was identified as one of few with industrial waste and recovering costs for treatment treatment options suitable for the treatment of AMD of industrial waste will reduce the overall treatment cost in the Witwatersrand and elsewhere. However, it has of AMD. It is therefore important that more aspects been rejected by Aurecon, in their feasibility study for should be considered than only the need to treat AMD. the Witwatersrand, as a viable option for the long-term These aspects include the requirements to treat and treatment of AMD, the reason cited being a lack of full dispose of sewage sludge and the urgent need to provide or demonstration-scale operating data. The full-scale additional capacity to process biodegradable organic operation undertaken by the East Rand Water Care solids. This project is required in order to improve the Company (ERWAT) has in fact demonstrated that the BioSURE Process and to properly document its operating BioSURE Process can be used as a cost-effective philosophy and limits to applicability, in order to make it treatment technology for AMD. The process is attractive truly available for implementation. It is planned to: because it makes use of primary sewage sludge or other • Compare the performance of the biological sulphate- sources of organic wastes as substrate and produces reducing reactors using primary sewage sludge and a good quality effluent. Since it converts permanent carbohydrates such as silage and combinations hardness into temporary hardness, conventional cold-lime thereof softening processes can be used to desalinate the water • Test the performance of the process using a feed of while valuable by-products may be recovered. The effluent high acidity, low pH AMD quality after desalination is suitable for consumption in • Investigate the removal of hydrogen sulphide using a various industries as a substitute for high-quality potable process to regenerate iron hydroxide with a biological water. ERWAT, in its role as a service provider, is very iron-oxidising process integrated with the recovery of well positioned with its access to sources of primary valuable magnesium sulphate using a eutectic freeze sewage sludge and biodegradable organic waste. As unit an operating company and with the past experience • Investigate the integration of the effluent treatment of operating a 10ML/day plant, it can play a significant process with the so-called SANI process for COD and role in the treatment of AMD. A survey of the industries nitrogen removal indicated that there are reliable and consistent sources of waste, other than primary sewage sludge, from various Estimated cost: R1 557 600 industries to treat approximately 20-30 ML/day of AMD Expected term: 2013-2015 in the Central and Eastern Basins. This waste is currently WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 167

Prevention of acid rock drainage (ARD) formation from Programme 3: Minimising waste production fine coal and tailings fractions by sulphide removal: the role of bioflotation reagents University of Cape Town Treatment of mine water using a combination of coal No. 2389 fly ash and flocculants in a jetloop reactor system University of the Western Cape No. 2129 UCT has developed an approach to attaining benign tailings and waste materials for disposal from sulphur- containing fine coal fractions, base metal and gold The generation of contaminated high-sulphate mine- tailings, either at the point of generation or through water and waste coal fly ash are undesired by-products the re-processing of waste deposits. The separation in coal mining and coal-fired power stations, respectively. is based on flotation with the potential for improved Mine-water is contaminated by contact with oxygen and resource productivity in addition to acid rock drainage pyrite-bearing rock, or leaches from mine tailings due to (ARD) prevention. There is a growing body of literature infiltrating rain. Mine-water produced in coal mines could on the use of biological agents as flotation reagents. In be acidic, neutral or alkaline depending on the geology this project, we will investigate the use of bioflotation for of the mines. Acidic mine-water, often termed acid mine both the recovery of coal from coal fines and the recovery drainage (AMD) is produced when rock that contains more of pyrite from both coal fines and base metal tailings acid-producing minerals than acid-neutralizing minerals fractions. Our aim is that, should successful flotation was disturbed during mining. Prior work has been done processes be defined, the flotation reagents would be on the fly ash neutralization process and stability of solid such that they could be manufactured cost effectively residues formed during neutralization, as is recorded on site using waste organic resources in the vicinity of under the ‘general information’ section. This study will the site of application, thereby removing the transport optimize the jetloop reactor system which will make this requirements. Secondly, such reagents would need to system using fly ash for remediation viable in an industrial meet the specifications of being non-toxic and completely environment, and thus a serious contender for low cost biodegradable. mine-water treatment and recovery. Estimated cost: R1 033 000 Estimated cost: R1 247 513 Expected term: 2014-2018 Expected term: 2012-2015 168 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Continuous eutectic freeze crystallization one kilogram of water (333 kJ) than to evaporate one University of Cape Town (2 300 kJ). Energy savings of 85% have been reported No. 2229 when comparing EFC to evaporative crystallisation. An extensive experimental programme focussing on the use While treating coal mining–impacted waters using of EFC has been undertaken over the past 6 years and reverse osmosis, facilities such as the Emalahleni Water proven the concept of EFC as a feasible treatment for Reclamation Plant and the Optimum Water Reclamation multi-component hypersaline brines. Firstly, it was shown Plant produce large volumes of hypersaline brines. that thermodynamic modelling can accurately predict the These brines are disposed of in evaporation ponds, and identities of the recovered salts, as well as their recovery thus are lost to the usable water pool. With increasing temperatures. Secondly, it was shown that EFC can be use of desalination, and hence brine production, the used for the treatment of hypersaline brines and inorganic loss of water is predicted to increase exponentially. The effluents produced by major South African industries. total combined brine production rates for the coal and Thirdly, it was shown that EFC can be used to recover gold mining industries in South Africa are projected to multiple salts from multicomponent brines. Lastly, it was be ±17 000 m /day in the next 20 years from current shown that EFC can produce almost pure salts and ice. 3 values of ±3 000 m /day. Conventional treatment However, all of the work so far has been done in batch 3 methods, such as concentration in evaporation ponds, mode, an essential mode for testing proof of concept and have many disadvantages including extensive land use initial feasibility. Although the batch mode has provided and low productivity. In addition, evaporation ponds crucial information, it has not been sufficient to showcase recover neither the water nor the salt. Eutectic freeze the potential of the technology. The next challenge is to crystallisation (EFC) is able to reduce the volume of develop EFC to the point that it can be used in continuous brines by as much as 97% and concurrently produce mode. In this project, important knowledge about pure salts as well as potable water. For example, pure operational considerations for continuous EFC, including calcium sulphate, pure sodium sulphate and potable residence time, degree of undercooling, crystalliser solids water, in the form of ice, can be produced. Eutectic freeze content and operating limits, will be generated. This crystallisation works on the principle that when brine knowledge is crucial for making the transition between is cooled to the eutectic temperature, both ice and salt batch and continuous, as well as to be able to design an crystallise out of solution. The ice, being less dense than EFC plant on both a pilot and industrial scale. This is the water, will float, and the salt, because it is denser than essential focus of this project. water, will sink, thus effecting gravity separation. There is a major misconception that any freezing process is Estimated cost: R2 276 600 expensive but, thermodynamically, it is cheaper to freeze Expected term: 2013-2018 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 169

Improving evaporation rates of mining wastewaters The synthesis of highly selective immobilized ligands University of the Western Cape for extraction of toxic metal ions from waste water No. 2390 University of the Western Cape No. 2391 Coal-mining activities generate wastewater, and the minimization of wastewater, through its reuse, or safe It was reported by Madzivire et al. (2012) that the re-entry into the hydrological cycle, is a critical part of concentration of radionuclides in Rand Uranium mine- water management and integral in tackling water scarcity water was above the target water quality range (TWQR) issues. The resulting wastewater brines are complex for potable water set by the Department of Water and liquid mixtures of different salts with a composition that Sanitation by a factor of 12. Generally, discharges of varies depending on the water process system used to radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium and produce the final saline effluent. As a result of the large strontium to surface and groundwater originate from quantities produced and due to its chemical composition, anthropogenic sources. Although there are a number there is a need to properly and safely dispose of the of conventional extraction methods that remove brine solution. Evaporation ponds evolved years ago, radionuclides from water using ligands, in most cases and they are still considered the most effective brine the ligands are destroyed and the metal ions cannot management option due to several advantages which be recovered for re-use. This means new ligands must include easy construction, low maintenance and little be produced for each treatment cycle, and the spent operator attention. Predicting the evaporation rate of ligands carrying the radioactive ions must be disposed of the pond is critical in effective management of the brine responsibly. The purpose of this project is to develop a disposal holding area. This is a concern with increasing method which will enable the recovery of both the ligands salinity due to the large amount of dissolved salts in the and the metal ions so that both can be reused. ponds, as this results in a decreased rate of evaporation. The consequence of this is the need to build additional Estimated cost: R765 362 ponds, which requires large areas of land. The objective of Expected term: 2014-2018 this study, therefore, is to investigate methods to improve the evaporation rate of brine in ponds using chemical and halophilic biological colouring agents to increase the absorption of insolation. Estimated cost: R1 795 960 Expected term: 2014-2018 170 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

An integrated bioprocess for AMD remediation and Application of next generation sequencing and renewable energy generation metagenomic analysis to characterise mixed microbial University of Cape Town communities involved in sulphur metabolism No. 2392 University of Cape Town No. 2393 Acid rock drainage (ARD) remains one of the biggest environmental threats facing South Africa and is already Acid rock drainage (ARD) remains one of the biggest having a negative impact on the quality of several environmental threats facing South Africa. Biological important water resources. There are two main sources desalination of ARD has been implemented to some of ARD in South Africa: firstly the rebound of groundwater extent, but due to a lack of a detailed understanding through underground workings, which typically has a of the micro-organisms responsible for the process high volume, low pH, high metal and sulphate load and (mainly due to inadequate methods for identifying and tends to be restricted to a single discharge point, and is quantifying the microbial ecology within the process suited to active treatment. The second source of ARD unit), it has been applied as a ‘grey box’. The advent of is diffuse, such as spoil heaps, waste rock dumps and culture-independent molecular biology techniques has open pits, whose waters vary substantially in volume and facilitated a more complete assessment of the microbial composition, and are more amenable to passive or semi- ecology, and the most recent advances in metagenomics, passive treatment. This research will result in a design combined with either transcriptomics or proteomics have for an integrated, sustainable biological process with opened the way for deep, genomically-resolved analyses the ability to treat low to medium volume ARD streams. of the metabolic potential of microbial consortia. Genome The potential for energy recovery, both as biogas and resolution enables a far more complete view of metabolic electricity, will be assessed. capacity and functional roles, as well as evolutionary processes, than is possible using datasets with minimal or Estimated cost: R2 372 862 no assembly and provides the foundation for community Expected term: 2014-2019 proteomic and transcriptomic measurements. Genome reconstruction-based metagenomics analyses will be applied here to biological ARD desalination. Important information on the metabolic potential of component species and the interactions between community members will be derived. Estimated cost: R1 754 440 Expected term: 2014-2018 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 171

Biogeochemical cycle of mercury in natural and THRUST 6: WATERSMART FUND manmade wetland ecosystems affected by gold mining and industrial activities in the Witwatersrand An investigation of the treatment efficacy of permeable Basin – modelling and remediation pavements with a view to harvesting stormwater for University of the Witwatersrand use in South Africa No. 2394 City of Cape Town No. 2409 Wetlands are essential habitats in the environment since they fulfil a variety of ecological functions. One of the Project aims: major characteristics of wetlands is their ability to act • Undertake an investigation of the treatment efficacy of as chemical sinks. Due to this, they tend to accumulate permeable pavements in South Africa with a view to pollutants that are introduced into the environment such harvesting stormwater for use as lead, copper, zinc, chromium and mercury. The nature, • Assess the design and maintenance of existing the level and the impact of mercury in the environment has permeable pavements and make recommendations for not been extensively studied in South Africa, particularly improvements where necessary in areas that have been significantly affected by mining • Fine-tune the assessment methodology for South activities. The reports are mainly from coal combustion African conditions to test the treatment efficacy and chlor-alkali plants. No seasonal changes and of other stormwater management technologies / bioaccessibility have been reported. There is therefore a sustainable drainage system (SuDS) technologies in need to carry out a detailed assessment and evaluation of the future the impact of mercury in Gauteng, an area very densely • Develop a database for collecting performance data populated and with intensive water use. for different SuDS technologies operating under varying conditions Estimated cost: R950 000 Expected term: 2014-2018 Estimated cost: R500 000 Expected term: 2014-2016 172 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

NEW PROJECTS THRUST 1: WATER SERVICES – INSTITUTIONAL AND for ways to accelerate access to improved water and MANAGEMENT ISSUES sanitation services beyond the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets. Many countries do not have the Programme 1: Cost-recovery in water services capacity to meet the need for improved water supplies and sanitation services from public resources alone. This Exploring opportunities for domestic-local investment is also the case in South Africa, where the fiscus is the in water and sanitation services – challenges and main source of funding and there is great dependency on constraints it to close the backlogs quickly. These challenges present African Centre for a Green Economy (Africege); University an opportunity for domestic enterprises in these growing of Cape Town; University of the Western Cape; Cape markets. The domestic investment sector is increasingly Peninsula University of Technology; Crossflow Consulting being viewed as a central part of the solution. Effective (Pty) Ltd scale-up of access through the domestic investment No. 2484 sector requires an understanding of the market potential, the state of entrepreneurs’ operations, and factors Significant effort by the South African government has that shape their business environment and investment gone into mobilizing resources to meet service delivery decisions. This study will examine the investment sector’s targets. Most of the resources directed to funding water support to piped water services and sanitation services. and sanitation infrastructure have come from Government It will cover aspects of policy, legislation, constraints capital grants for new infrastructure and operating grants and challenges, as well as models to facilitate or enable to support service delivery to poor households and for free participation. The outcomes of this project relate directly basic water. Despite the substantial investments, major to the Government’s mandate to deliver basic services to backlogs in service delivery still remain in many parts its citizenry, in an efficient, inclusive and effective manner, of the country, especially in rural and township areas. as defined in various policy documents including the This has been compounded by other socio-economic Water Services Act and the National Development Plan challenges and has given rise to the prevalence of service (NDP). delivery protests throughout the country, with major implications for the productivity of the South African Estimated cost: R800 000 economy. Many developing country governments and Expected term: 2015-2017 the international development community are looking WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 173

Developing innovative approaches to national Programme 2: Institutional and management issues – Water services allocations and transfers to local government Palmer Development Group No. 2487 Review of urban sanitation in South Africa – challenges and constraints Palmer Development Group Recently new innovative systems of grants have been No. 2486 experienced in a number of countries, some of these targeting the performance of local government. SALGA, CoGTA, the Presidency and Treasury are currently busy Almost half of South Africa’s population lives in urban areas and their need for safe sanitation and wastewater with the review of national allocation and transfers to local management services is growing rapidly. Beginning in government and in the process are trying to establish the 2000, the central government embarked on a series of effectiveness of the current processes. It is envisaged that initiatives to reform water supply and sanitation sector this initiative will lead or require the development of new policies. These reforms were aligned with decentralization approaches and processes, based on local circumstances which devolved responsibility for sanitation to the local and international best practices. This study will build government. Despite these initiatives, urban sanitation on this progress and establish new mechanisms and continues to perform inadequately and faces critical solutions. issues that need to be urgently addressed. There is a tendency for many planners and designers to wait for Estimated cost: R652 800 large sums of investment, driven by issues of compliance Expected term: 2015-2017 and political pressure, and thus to respond with conventional solutions. Often these are not affordable to Assessing the impact of a mobile application in the users or the municipalities. A radical new approach is monitoring water consumption and leak detection at required, incorporating elements of the water–energy–food household level nexus together with water-sensitive urban design. It is University of Cape Town; City of Cape Town hoped that the review will develop a strategic framework No. 2485 to help guide national urban sanitation programmes and their implementation in growing urban areas. This study In recent years, demand-side management of water has aims to provide a review of urban sanitation in South gained much research interest, mainly because of steadily Africa. increasing populations that have driven an increase in demand for our limited freshwater resources. There is a growing recognition that water resource managers Estimated cost: R594 839 Expected term: 2015-2017 must shift their focus from production and supply to finding ways of reducing user demand. In order for water 174 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

conservation participation to increase in homes the water THRUST 2: WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT users must have easy access to information. Many water TECHNOLOGY users lack knowledge to manage their water demand and are therefore often unable to engage in a discourse Programme 1: Drinking water treatment technology with the municipality. Metering is an incentive to engage consumers in water demand management by improving Solar energy for desalination and water purification their knowledge about their water consumption. However, University of Pretoria it is currently under-utilised in this respect and future No. 2467 research could explore innovative methods to allow consumers to access information about their daily water Project aims: use. This project intends to assess the impact of a mobile • To extend the prior lab testing of the three methods application (called ‘Drop Drop’) that is designed to allow (solar distillation coupled to both a graphitic foam households to monitor their water consumption by reading target and a carbon black suspension, as well as their meter and to assist them in leak detection. The a solar evaporator), to small pilot scale, in order to application also provides invoice prediction and a simple identify possible large scale implementation issues communication tool to contact the relevant departments and assess feasibility in the municipality. The hypothesis is that providing • To compare all three methods and determine which is water users with real-time information about their water the most efficient and cost effective for desalination/ use increases their ability to monitor consumption and brackish water recovery manage their water demand. The investigation will • To determine which of the three methods will result in increase the knowledge base on how personalized water the design with the lowest maintenance and operator supply information can change consumer perceptions of input water usage and increase the level of knowledge as well as trust in the billing system. Part of the project will also Estimated cost: R500 000 be to assess how we can develop mobile applications Expected term: 2015-2017 that are immediately usable without extensive training or documentation. Estimated cost: R500 000 Expected term: 2015-2017 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 175

treatment and mainly in medical applications. Thus there Programme 3: Drinking water quality is a great need for further research on these materials in order to broaden their application. Therefore, this Nano-membranes hyperbranched polymer integrated project will look at crafting a system that is composed of system for water remediation hyperbranched polymers attached to macromolecules University of Johannesburg; Stellenbosch University such as carbon nanotubes (for mechanical strength) No. 2488 doped with catalysts such as bimetallic nanoparticles (Fe/Ag, Pd/Fe) or enzymes (lignin peroxidise, manganese Organic compounds such as chlorinated compounds peroxidise and laccase) for the effective removal of and phenolic compounds (pesticides) are widespread, organic contaminants. mobile, and highly toxic and persistent in the environment. Due to improper disposal and slow degradation rates Estimated cost: R600 000 this has resulted in the accumulation of chlorinated and Expected term: 2015-2018 phenolic organic compounds in the environment. Thus their removal in the environment using treatment methods Development and evaluation of a Donnan dialysis such as catalytic degradation has become a priority for process for the recovery and reuse of aluminium from water treatment industries. Hyperbranched polymers potable water treatment residuals such as hyperbranched polyethyleneimine (HPEI) have a Stellenbosch University; Durban University of Technology; high number of internal amine functional groups, which Cape Town Municipality; Umgeni Water can act as ligands to complex metal ions such as Cu, No. 2470 Fe, Ag and Ni for nanoparticle synthesis. Secondly, nanocavities in the HPEI structure act as hosts/templates Aluminium salts, particularly aluminium sulphate (alum) for the preparation of narrow and stable nanoparticles. are widely used as a coagulant in large-scale potable Moreover the nanocavities can act as catalytic and water treatment, both internationally as well in South adsorption sites for the degradation and removal of Africa. The precipitated solids from these processes are organic pollutants. The hyperbranched structure of the further dewatered in a filter, yielding an aluminium-rich hyperbranched polyethyleneimine also provides a shell to sludge and a water stream that contains a significant prevent aggregation of the nanoparticles. Lastly, the highly concentration of dissolved Al. At present, the sludge branched peripheral amine functional groups of the HPEI invariably ends up on a land-fill/waste-disposal site, and with the bimetallic nanoparticles can be grafted with other the destination of the dissolved Al is a river or the sea. molecules such as cyclodextrins, carbon nanotubes and It would seem obvious that there would be significant membranes to prepare a new generation of multifunctional benefits to the costs of water treatment plants, the material for advanced water treatment applications. preservation and optimal use of natural resources, and Literature studies confirm that materials composed of the protection of our environment if Al could be recycled hyperbranched polymers have rarely been utilised in water 176 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

and reused. However, whilst there have been concerted leaving the treatment plant is typically of high quality efforts to do so over many years, the recycle and reuse of but conditions within the distribution system often lead Al have proven to be extremely difficult. Donnan dialysis to deterioration in water quality. Amongst the quality (DD) is a relatively new technology in the water treatment determinants, the microbial quality of the water is field. DD uses a cation-exchange membrane, i.e., a typically impacted the most. It is now widely accepted membrane that will allow only positively-charged ions that such studies have focused on only a limited part of to pass through but blocks the passage of negatively- the microbial community, and that both the dominant charged and un-charged species. In preliminary work members and some important pathogens may not on this topic it was demonstrated that DD was capable have been detected. The recent developments in high- of selectively recovering Al, without contamination by throughput sequencing, e.g. 454/Roche or Illumina, organics, from a local WTR. From an engineering point of and microarray technologies for community analyses, view the next stage in the development and evaluation of e.g. PhyloChip, during the past few years have opened this very promising technology would be to determine the the door to investigate microbial communities at both important operating variables that affect the performance species-level resolution and also quantitatively. The of Al recovery, determine how these can be optimized, and proposed study aims to address the following questions hence develop a ‘regime map’ of the feasible operating based on data collected for a South African network: regime. From this a ‘modular’ DD cell can be developed, i.e., a cell which can be replicated and stacked in parallel • What is the variation in the microbial community to process the large volumes that would be required from present in a distribution system primarily supplied by a real recycling process. treated surface water and can the variation be linked to seasonal factors? Estimated cost: R1 000 000 • Is the same correlation between the microbial Expected term: 2015-2018 community in the bulk water and the sand filter community observed in a large distribution network Programme 4: Water distribution and distribution systems where different types of disinfection are practised at different times? • How homogenous is the microbial community Diversity and dynamics of the microbial population associated with drinking water distribution networks associated with sand filters? and their impact on drinking water quality • Are the bacteria involved in nitrification already present University of Pretoria; Rand Water; University of Glasgow in the bulk water directly after treatment and what No. 2469 factors promote their growth within the system? It is anticipated that answers to these questions will Water utilities face major challenges in supplying and maintaining safe drinking water to communities. Water provide the necessary foundation for the development WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 177

of a predictive framework and early warning system to how they evolve over time, as well as the water quality. To manage the microbial quality of drinking water supplied to ensure successful implementation of Ecomachine design consumers. and also to inform further designs, a research programme for monitoring and evaluating these Ecomachines is Estimated cost: R900 000 required. In this regard, three design solutions based Expected term: 2015-2018 on an ecological treatment system will be implemented, monitored and evaluated. The monitoring and evaluation of floral and faunal responses and succession over time, THRUST 3: SUSTAINABLE MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER as well as the impact on water quality will therefore be AND SANITATION conducted. Programme 1: Emerging treatment technologies – Preparing Estimated cost: R500 000 for the future Expected term: 2015-2017 Biomimicry wastewater treatment technology – monitoring & evaluation Programme 2: Application of appropriate technologies and tools Isidima Design & Development (Pty) Ltd No. 2479 Best practices in sustainable water and wastewater management: a road map to Green Drop and Blue The biomimicry approach is based on learning from nature and then emulating nature’s forms, processes and Drop for small to medium sized municipalities in SA systems to solve challenges and create truly sustainable Water Group Holdings (Pty) Ltd; Sarah Slabbert Associates design solutions. Biomimicry South Africa has partnered No. 2420 with John Todd Ecological Design, Informal South, Greenhouse and Maluti Waters to develop innovative Project aims: ecological technologies (Ecomachines) for treatment of • To research and report best practice sustainable water wastewater streams in informal settlements. To date, two and wastewater management in small- to medium- rounds of design work addressing the issue of highly sized municipalities and produce a fourth WIN-SA concentrated greywater flowing out of two informal lesson series comprising the following two case settlements in the Western Cape region has been studies: completed. However, the application of these systems in - Case study 1: Wrapped up! - W₂RAP interventions informal settlements as innovative prototypes for treating that paid off wastewater (and managing stormwater) requires careful - Case study 2: Risk-based planning delivers safe monitoring of the different components of the systems and drinking water – a Blue Drop case study 178 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

• To establish the level of implementation (and impact and/or prevent filamentous bulking and/or foaming in AS thereof) of Risk Assessment Plans in municipalities WWTPs. that have completed W2RAP and WSPs Estimated cost: R1 600 000 Estimated cost: R500 000 Expected term: 2015-2018 Expected term: 2014-2015 In-line rheometry for continuous and efficient polymer National survey of filamentous bacterial populations dosing control to optimise sludge dewatering in activated sludge: identification and correlation with Cape Peninsula University of Technology; City of Cape process parameters, wastewater treatment plant Town configuration, and geographical location No. 2472 Cape Peninsula University of Technology; Durban University of Technology; City of Cape Town; ERWAT Urbanization is putting enormous pressure on No. 2471 infrastructure including water treatment plants (WTP) and wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). Optimising Most municipalities in South Africa, including the City of existing plants is one way of prolonging the life span Cape Town, treat AS reactors as ‘black-boxes’ and rely of such installations. Many WWT plants have sludge on chemical indicators of system health. Performance dewatering installations where treated wastewater sludge problems are thus usually addressed in a reactive rather is dewatered for final disposal using land applications. than a proactive manner. Microscopic floc analysis The objective is to produce a filter cake with the highest and filament identification are simple, cost-effective total solids content and to achieve this the plant needs procedures that can add value to the physicochemical to be controlled optimally. One of the most expensive tests currently performed at laboratories affiliated to inputs in these plants is the polymers used as flocculants. WWTWs. Improvement in the performance of WWTPs will Polymer is typically dosed at a rate of about 4 kg poly per assist municipalities to achieve Green Drop status, in turn dry ton solids, and at a polymer cost of about R50/kg, the protecting the environment and minimizing human health annual chemical cost for a large wastewater treatment risks associated with exposure to inadequately treated plant can total millions of rands. However, controlling effluent. The filament populations in AS will be identified the optimum dosing cannot currently be done in the and correlated with WWTP location, and a large range of process in real-time, although it has been shown that huge physicochemical parameters. These results will be used to savings can be made by optimizing the dosing rates using validate an existing statistical model and will feed into the rheology. In this regard, the Flow Process and Rheology BIOS tool which is currently under development at DUT. Centre and their Swedish Partners at SIK, the Swedish This project will contribute by providing a tool to assist Institute for Food and Biotechnology, Gothenburg, municipal engineers and process controllers to alleviate Sweden, have developed an Ultrasound Velocity Profiling WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 179

(UVP) system which, together with a pressure drop (PD) the environment depend on the design and operational measurement, can continuously measure the rheological characteristics of these treatment systems and on properties of viscous fluids in-line and in real-time. Out the properties of the chemicals themselves. It is also of this partnership, the Flow-Viz technology has already important to note that insufficient measurements made been tested at a WWTP in 2012 and 2014, and results at various stages within the wastewater treatment plants have indicated that it’s possible to measure the viscous prevent adequate analyses on how each unit process properties of sludges. If this technology were successfully contributes to degradation. Identifying the performance applied in controlling polymer dosing it could have a of each wastewater treatment process in removing EDCs significant cost saving and improve the efficiency of will therefore assist in optimizing the existing treatment sludge dewatering. This could also be extended to technology by developing accurate relationships between other process control aspects of other WWTP and WTP operational parameters and removal of these compounds. processes. There is also a need to consider a mass balance approach that takes into account all forms of the compound in Estimated cost: R860 000 both liquid and solid phases. Little is known about the Expected term: 2015-2017 issues of potential concern in performing mass balances in the South Africa context. The project will mainly focus Endocrine disrupting compound removal by on three types of wastewater processes that include wastewater treatment plants activated sludge processes, trickling filters and an Tshwane University of Technology; University of Pretoria oxidation pond system. A comparison study of these (Medical) processes will reveal the most effective systems or/and No. 2474 the best performing stage in removing EDCs and how to optimise each stage, thereby addressing several key data Worldwide reuse of surface water for potable water gaps in the removal of EDCs in various WWTPs. production is increasing and a significant share of this is from wastewater effluent. Being a water-scarce country, Estimated cost: R550 000 treated wastewater effluents have been playing a decisive Expected term: 2015-2017 role in refilling the demand of water in South Africa and approximately 14% of the potential water source is treated The contribution of WRC research to sustainable wastewater effluent. In this regard, increasing attention municipal wastewater and sanitation services has been focused on endocrine disrupting compounds Sarah Slabbert Associates (EDCs) as pollutants in municipal wastewater. Studies No. 2476 have shown that these compounds can have a negative impact on the environment, and that in many cases At a workshop in March 2014, the Water Research they are not efficiently removed in wastewater treatment Commission (WRC) and the International Water plants. Moreover, their destruction and transport out into Management Institute (IWMI) grappled with the challenges 180 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

of how to enhance the uptake and impact of its research Programme 4: Wastewater sludge and faecal sludge products (reports, articles, brief, guidelines, etc.). Making management the findings of research projects available is unfortunately no guarantee that the target audience is aware of their Energy and resource recovery from wastewater sludge existence, or that they will be taken up or used to sustain – a review of appropriate emerging and established good wastewater and technologies for the South African industry sanitation services. On the one hand, a recent study’s TruSense Consulting Services; Stellenbosch University; analysis of the WRC’s statistics of online users of ERWAT knowledge products over the past 5 years has found No. 2475 that municipalities do not feature among the top five user categories. On the other hand, the same study cited very Sludge management forms a huge part of wastewater positive examples of municipal officials’ uptake of WRC operations. Whereas in the past sludge was viewed as research, which also implied impact: It therefore remains a nuisance waste to be disposed of at significant cost, challenge for the WRC to understand in more depth: there is now a general consensus in the wastewater • What do municipal officials working in wastewater and industry that sludge is a potential source of valuable sanitation services at different levels perceive to be resources and alternative green energy. Moreover, sludge their knowledge needs? management and the shortage of electricity are also • What methods do they use to search for knowledge and both known challenges in South Africa. Sustainable how do they apply the knowledge that they have found? management of sludge and recovery of energy and other • Are municipal officials aware of the WRC and its resources from sludge fall within the Water–Energy– research products? Food Nexus programme. While there has been growing • Do any of the WRC research products cross the interest in implementing sludge-to-energy technologies, pathways of their knowledge needs, knowledge municipalities have lacked comprehensive information to searches and knowledge use? If yes, which products, enable them to make informed long-term decisions on and how have they been used? which technologies to adopt. The current study therefore • Are there any success stories of uptake of WRC compares established technologies by evaluating biogas research that also illustrate a positive impact on production in relation to other innovative emerging sustainable wastewater and sanitation services? technologies resulting in a product that can be used either • How can the WRC further contribute to better as solid biofuel or as soil conditioner, thereby contributing wastewater and sanitation services and assist to the South African industry through provision of municipalities to become more sustainable in this sustainable development solutions, new products and regard? services for economic development, and human capital development. The project will therefore address the gaps Estimated cost: R400 000 in knowledge on sludge-to-energy technologies identified Expected term: 2015-2017 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 181

in previous studies and also provide valuable information Guiding principles in the design and operation of a on both established and innovative emerging technologies full-scale wastewater sludge digestion plant with that South African municipalities can use to formulate enhanced CHP generation long-term sludge management strategies. Water Group Holdings (Pty) Ltd; City of Johannesburg; Johannesburg Water Estimated cost: R950 000 No. 2478 Expected term: 2015-2016 The aim of the project is to provide a practical guide to Characterizing municipal wastewater sludge for water services authorities (WSA), water services providers sustainable beneficial agricultural use (WSP), process managers and process designers who University of Pretoria; ERWAT wish to implement integrated sludge treatment processes No. 2477 in compliance with the 2006 sludge guidelines. The guide will focus in particular on the associated risk of Project aims: poor technology selection and non-beneficial use of • To investigate the effect of sludge drying time and funds. While compliance with the sludge guidelines is drying thickness on sludge: (a) nitrogen content, (b) the main objective, the project will include value-added organic matter composition, and (c) fertilizer value elements associated with a typical CHP plant, such as the • To investigate the effect of liquid sludge application improved generation of biogas, the enhancement of on- based on crop water requirement vs. crop nitrogen site electrical power generation and the control of struvite requirement on crop growth and environmental crystallisation after sludge digestion. While the project will pollution not include any innovative processes, it will make critical • To investigate the nitrogen fertilizer value of linkages between the WRC Sludge Guidelines, appropriate composted sludge, belt-pressed and lime-treated technology, and well-integrated sludge treatment design sludge, aerobically-digested sludge and sludge from and operation. the Ladepa process in order to parameterize the database model Estimated cost: R550 000 Expected term: 2015-2017 Estimated cost: R1 500 000 Expected term: 2015-2018 182 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

nexus. The project has potential to contribute towards the Programme 5: Sanitation technology and innovations empowerment of communities, through managing waste to produce not only energy, as is the case currently, but Eastern Cape school sanitation – pour flush pilot also clean water and valuable bioproducts. Maluti GSM No. 2444 Estimated cost: R1 454 486 Expected term: 2015-2018 The objective of this project is to install pour-flush sanitation facilities in two schools within the Chris Hani District Municipal area of the Eastern Cape. THRUST 4: SUSTAINABLE AND INTEGRATED INDUSTRIAL WATER MANAGEMENT Estimated cost: R372 100 Expected term: 2015 Programme 2: Integrated management The development of wastewater anaerobic digestion Revision of Natsurv 13: Water and Wastewater for greater energy, water and nutrient recovery Management in the Textile Industry (Edition 2) University of Cape Town Cape Peninsula University of Technology; MKBros No. 2473 Development and Services No. 2489 This project is focused on the development of an intensified AD process in which water treatment is In 1993, the NATSURV 13 document stated that the integrated through the nexus of energy-water-nutrient, annual water intake of the textile industry in SA was producing biogas, purified water and high-value 30 x 106 m , with 70–80% of this intake later discharged 3 bioproducts from waste resources while recycling as industrial effluents. In a country where water quality nutrients. Value can be created by intensifying the and availability issues are increasing, it is important volumetric biogas production through decoupling COD to determine whether these figures are still accurate depletion from methane production, allowing further and determine how they have changed in the past two downstream processes for clean water production as well decades. Furthermore, wastewater management and as nutrient recovery (C, N, P) and bioproduct formation. wastewater treatment technologies have developed in The big-picture objective of this project is to utilise rural, strides in the past two decades, and it will be important to industrial and municipal wastewaters which are currently note if these management policies and technologies have treated with AD more fully, to integrate the process more been incorporated in the textile industry. The document successfully into actualising the energy-water-nutrients will include a survey of the state and extent of the textile WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 183

industry in South Africa, and will contain ‘best practice’ can contribute holistically towards reducing water usage knowledge which will ultimately have a positive impact on and, especially, effluent generation, and to improving the the environment and a potential impact on the economy if quality of the effluent streams that are discharged from the implemented by the industry. tanneries. Estimated cost: R900 000 Estimated cost: R900 000 Expected term: 2015-2017 Expected term: 2015-2017 Revision of Natsurv 10: Water and Wastewater Revision of Natsurv 11: Water and Wastewater Management in the Tannng and Leather Finishing Management in the Sugar Industry (Edition 2) Industry (Edition 2) Cape Peninsula University of Technology; MKBros Chris Swartz Water Utilisation Engineers; Tannery Development and Services Environmental Consultancy Services; International School No. 2504 of Tanning Technology; Cape Peninsula University of Technology The sugar industry in South Africa is mostly concentrated No. 2490 in KwaZulu-Natal. In 1985, sugar production was approximately 2 million tonnes per year (NATSURV 11, Tanneries produce wastewater streams that contain high 1990). In 2008/09, the SA sugar industry was producing pollutant loadings that have a very negative impact on 2.3 million tonnes of sugar per year, about 40% of which the environment if not treated effectively and satisfactorily was exported. South Africa is one of the world’s leading before discharge to public streams or municipal sewer producers of cost-competitive, high-quality sugar and this systems. Ineffective treatment or process operation industry makes a significant contribution to the national may also lead to serious odour problems from these economy. One of the aims of this project is to determine industries, while some of the chemicals used in the the current scope and extent of the sugar industry in tanning processes may be toxic to humans and to the South Africa, how the landscape of the industry has environment. High salt loadings in the effluent streams changed since 1990 and what projected changes lie from curing of hide also present considerable problems ahead. The document will include a survey of the state for municipalities and the environment. Any improvement and extent of the sugar industry in South Africa, and will in water management and minimisation of pollutant loads contain ‘best practice’ knowledge which will ultimately in the waste streams will be invaluable in addressing have a positive impact on the environment and a potential water demand management and pollution control in our impact on the economy if implemented by the industry. water-scarce country. The product of this project, the NATSURV 10 document, will not only be a valuable tool for Estimated cost: R900 000 the various tanneries and leather-finishing industries in the Expected term: 2015-2017 country, but will also sensitise the industry as to how they 184 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Revision of Natsurv 9: Water and Wastewater • Critically evaluate and document the ‘generic’ Management in the Poultry Industry (Edition 2) industrial processes of pulp and paper industry in VitaOne8 (Pty) Ltd terms of current practice, best practice and cleaner No. 2505 production. • Determine the water consumption and specific water The Natsurv reports for different industries have been consumption (local and global indicators, targets; well used since they were developed by the sector in the benchmarks, diurnal trends) and recommend targets 1980s. However, South Africa and its industrial sectors for use, reuse, recycling and technology adoption. have either grown or in some cases shrunk considerably • Determine wastewater generation, and typical since the 1980s. Thus, the landscape has changed. New pollutant loads (diurnal trends) and best practice technologies and systems have been adopted by some of technology adoption. the industries, and therefore certain information contained • Determine local electricity, water, and effluent prices in the national surveys needs to be updated. The project and by-laws within which these industries function and output will be a revised Natsurv 9 report which reviews critical evaluate if the trends and indicators are in line and documents water and wastewater management with water conservation demand management and processes in the poultry sector, with the goal of defining environmental imperatives. industrial best practices and identifying appropriate • Critically evaluate the specific industry water (including technologies for water and wastewater treatment. wastewater) management processes adopted and recommend fundamental principles and guidelines Estimated cost: R900 000 that are important for the water users. Expected term: 2015-2017 • Evaluate the industry adoption of the following concepts: cleaner production, water pinch, energy Programme 3: Quantification, prediction and minimisation of pinch, life cycle assessments, water footprints, water use and waste production wastewater treatment and reuse, best available technology and ISO 14 000, to name but a few. Revision of Natsurv 12: Water and Wastewater • Provide and outline the manner in which industries Management in the Pulp and Paper Industry (Edition 2) may prevent, minimize and mitigate possible water Water Group Holdings (Pty) Ltd; Prodomos Technologies pollution. (Pty) Ltd • Provide recommendations on the best practice for this No. 2421 industry with the aim of developing a comprehensive guide to the industrial sector to meet the Department • Provide a detailed overview of the pulp and paper of Water and Sanitation’s regulatory requirements. industry in South Africa, its changes since 1980 and its projected change(s). Representative samples of the Estimated cost: R850 000 respective industries will be used as case studies Expected term: 2015-2017 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 185

Revision of Natsurv 17: Water and Wastewater technology and ISO 14 000, to name but a few. Management in the Steel Industry (Edition 1) • Provide and outline the manner in which industries Water Group Holdings (Pty) Ltd; Prodomos Technologies may prevent, minimize and mitigate possible water (Pty) Ltd pollution. No. 2422 • Provide recommendations on the best practice for this industry with the aim of developing a comprehensive • Provide a detailed overview of the steel industry in guide to the industrial sector to meet the Department South Africa, its changes since 1980 and its projected of Water and Sanitation’s regulatory requirements. change(s). Representative samples of the respective industries will be used as case studies. Estimated cost: R850 000 • Critically evaluate and document the ‘generic’ Expected term: 2015-2017 industrial processes of pulp and paper industry in terms of current practice, best practice and cleaner Programme 5: Water efficiency, cleaner production, production. beneficiation and treatment of industrial effluents • Determine the water consumption and specific water consumption (local and global indicators, targets; Shale water treatment benchmarks, diurnal trends) and recommend targets University of the Western Cape (SAIAMC); Wageningen for use, reuse, recycling and technology adoption. University • Determine wastewater generation, and typical No. 2502 pollutant loads (diurnal trends) and best practice technology adoption. While greatly increasing nations’ wealth and creating • Determine local electricity, water, and effluent prices thousands of new jobs, exploration of shale and and by-laws within which these industries function and unconventional natural gas production methods can critical evaluate if the trends and indicators are in line have potentially serious negative environmental effects. with water conservation demand management and One of the most serious public sector concerns in this environmental imperatives. regard is associated with groundwater contamination. It • Critically evaluate the specific industry water (including is of paramount importance for any commercial operator wastewater) management processes adopted and to have at hand effective water treatment technologies recommend fundamental principles and guidelines to alleviate the plethora of risks associated with the that are important for the water users. potentially disastrous contamination of the environment. • Evaluate the industry adoption of the following Due to the unique geological situation in South Africa, concepts: cleaner production, water pinch, energy locally produced shale water needs a tailored purification pinch, life cycle assessments, water footprints, approach with the development of technology for selective wastewater treatment and reuse, best available removal of specific species. As the knowledge to be 186 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

created over the course of this project is focused on South a model wastewater treatment process. The study will African shale water, it is expected to be of great value to establish the extent to which metallic- and metal-oxide South Africa in particular. The project aim is to develop nanoparticles are either removed or released during cost-effective water treatment systems tailored for the wastewater treatment, or persist in the treated water. shale water market. New electrodes, absorbent integrated electrode manufacturing technology (with absorbents Estimated cost: R900 000 based on local minerals), and hybrid purification systems Expected term: 2015-2017 will be developed and demonstrated using a locally developed renewable energy system. THRUST 5: MINE WATER TREATMENT AND Estimated cost: R2 421 875 MANAGEMENT Expected term: 2015-2019 Programme 4: Mining in the 21 century st Fate and behaviour of nano-TiO 2 nanoparticles in simulated textile wastewater Paques pilot and demonstration plant University of Johannesburg; Cape Peninsula University of Project Assignments SA (Pty) Ltd; Paques bv Technology; University of Johannesburg No. 2480 No. 2503 This project forms part of a programme focused on The use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) to treat investigations into developing technologies and methods dyeing effluents creates secondary pollution in the form of to decrease/minimise the generation of waste products metal oxide nanoparticles. Following increasing use and in the mining sector, either through cleaner production, applications of nanotechnology, wastewater treatment by-product generation, life cycle analysis or through plants (WWTPs) have been identified as a major point applying other risk assessment methodologies. The source for ENMs entering aquatic systems. Little is known programme incorporates novel mining methods and about the removal efficiency and adverse effects of ENMs mining-impacted water prevention and treatment in WWTPs. For instance, ENMs in WWTPs may adversely strategies. Waste minimisation at the national, regional, impact on microbial consortia useful for the treatment (catchment), complex or single site scale is considered. process. Studies have been initiated only recently in The DWS investigation into the feasibility of various determining potential removal mechanisms for ENMs options for the long-term management of mine water in during wastewater treatment as well as their fate and the Witwatersrand has identified the Paques process as a behaviour in terms of uptake and bioaccumulation. This treatment method which has potential for mitigation of the project will investigate the fate and behaviour of doped mine water situation in this region. However, the process and undoped TiO 2 and bimetallic oxide nanoparticles in has not been trialled at demonstration scale in South WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 187

Africa. This project will design, construct and operate a Ettringite process pilot and demonstration plant public Paques process pilot and demonstration plant, at a Miwatek site in the Witwatersrand region. No. 2482 Estimated cost: R2 800 000 This project forms part of a programme focused on Expected term: 2015-2018 investigations into developing technologies and methods to decrease/minimise the generation of waste products in Electro-coagulation pilot and demonstration plant the mining sector, either through cleaner production, by- Tecroveer product generation, life-cycle analysis or through applying No. 2481 other risk assessment methodologies. The programme incorporates novel mining methods and mining-impacted This project forms part of a programme focused on water prevention and treatment strategies. Waste investigations into developing technologies and methods minimisation at the national, regional, (catchment), to decrease/minimise the generation of waste products complex or single-site scale is considered. The DWS in the mining sector, either through cleaner production, investigation into the feasibility of various options by-product generation, life cycle analysis or through for the long-term management of mine water on the applying other risk assessment methodologies. The Witwatersrand has identified the ettringite process as a programme incorporates novel mining methods and treatment method which has potential for mitigation of the mining-impacted water prevention and treatment mine water situation in this region. However, the process strategies. Waste minimisation at the national, regional, has not been trialled at demonstration scale in South (catchment), complex or single-site scale is considered. Africa. This project will design, construct and operate a The DWS investigation into the feasibility of various public Ettringite process pilot and demonstration plant, at options for the long-term management of mine a site in the Witwatersrand region. water in the Witwatersrand has identified the electro- coagulation process as a treatment method which has Estimated cost: R2 800 000 potential for mitigation of the mine water situation in Expected term: 2015 this region. However, the process has not been trialled at demonstration scale in South Africa. This project will design, construct and operate a public electro-coagulation process pilot and demonstration plant, at a site in the Witwatersrand region. Estimated cost: R2 800 000 Expected term: 2015-2018 188 KSA 3: WATER USE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Alternative reverse osmosis pilot and demonstration CONTACT PERSONS plant Miwatek THRUST 1: WATER SERVICES – INSTITUTIONAL No. 2483 AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES Mr JN Bhagwan This project forms part of a programme focused on E-mail: [email protected] investigations into developing technologies and methods Tel: +2712 330 9042 to decrease/minimise the generation of waste products THRUST 2: WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT in the mining sector, either through cleaner production, TECHNOLOGY by-product generation, life-cycle analysis or through Dr Nonhlanhla Kalebaila applying other risk assessment methodologies. The E-mail: [email protected] programme incorporates novel mining methods and Tel: +27 12 330 9011 mining-impacted water prevention and treatment strategies. Waste minimisation at the national, regional, THRUST 3: SUSTAINABLE MUNICIPAL (catchment), complex or single-site scale is considered. WASTEWATER AND SANITATION The DWS investigation into the feasibility of various Municipal wastewater: Dr John Zvimba options for the long-term management of mine water on E-mail: [email protected] the Witwatersrand has identified the alternative reverse Municipal sanitation: Dr Sudhir Pillay osmosis process as a treatment method which has E-mail: [email protected] potential for mitigation of the mine water situation in THRUST 4: SUSTAINABLE AND INTEGRATED this region. However, the process has not been trialled INDUSTRIAL WATER MANAGEMENT at demonstration scale in South Africa. This project will Dr Jo Burgess design, construct and operate a public alternative reverse E-mail: [email protected] osmosis process pilot and demonstration plant, at a site in Tel: +2712 330 9039 the Witwatersrand region. THRUST 5: MINE WATER TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT Estimated cost: R2 800 000 Dr Jo Burgess Expected term: 2015-2016 E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +2712 330 9039 THRUST 6: WATERSMART FUND Mr JN Bhagwan E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +2712 330 9042 WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 189

KSA 4: WATER UTILISATION IN AGRICULTURE SCOPE The strategic focus of KSA 4 is on increasing the system a career in water research, while on-farm and participatory of knowledge for efficient use of water for production of action research leads to empowerment of individuals and food, forage, fibre, and fuel crops; improving food security, groups in rural communities. reducing poverty and increasing the wealth of people dependent on water-based agriculture; and ensuring This KSA strives to achieve a balance between projects sustainable water resource use. The requirements of in irrigated and rain-fed agriculture, agro-forestry and present and future generations of subsistence, emergent aquaculture, to promote farmer involvement in poor rural and commercial farmers are addressed through creation communities through participatory action research, and to and application of water-efficient production technologies, take research projects further toward practical application practices, models and information systems within the of results with technology transfer activities. Building on following five interrelated sub-sectors of agriculture: the baseline of completed projects, the priority themes approved for research commencing in 2015/16 were • Irrigated agriculture as follows: Determining the water footprint of selected • Rain-fed agriculture fibre and fuel crops; water use of strategic biofuel crops; • Woodlands and forestry water use of agro-forestry systems for food, forage • Grasslands and livestock watering and/or fuel production; evaluation of the water use and • Aquaculture and fisheries nutritional productivity of food crops in the diet of the rural poor; contribution of inland freshwater fisheries to The challenge for applied research is contributing to rural livelihoods; up-scaling of rainwater harvesting and finding sustainable solutions for water use in agriculture, conservation (RWH&C) to croplands and rangelands with priority given to innovative new products which for food production and renewable fuel generation; support economic development and inform decision- modelling of irrigation farming profitability with curtailment making for private business and public policies. In the of authorised water use; management guidelines for process of undertaking these research projects, the control of salinization with precision farming; seamless composition of research teams endeavours to increase near-forecasting of rainfall for effective agricultural water representivity of Black and female researchers; post- management; and non-point source (NPS) pollution graduate students are trained to improve the expertise of management from field to catchment scale. human capital and encourage young scientists to choose 190 KSA 4: WATER UTILISATION IN AGRICULTURE

OBJECTIVES THRUSTS AND PROGRAMMES The strategic objectives of KSA 4 are as follows: THRUST 1: WATER UTILISATION FOR FOOD, FORAGE • To increase the biological, technical and economic AND FIBRE PRODUCTION efficiency and productivity of water use Scope: The direction and driving force for research • To reduce poverty through water-based agricultural activities and outputs are determined by the strategic activities focus to improve the knowledge of the processes of production of field, horticultural and industrial crops. Programme 1: Water-efficient production Scope: Water productivity can be increased by producing more with the same use of water or by producing methods in relation to the same with less use of water. This requires understanding of water dynamics in the soil-water-plant- soils, crops and technology atmosphere continuum, the equipment which is used and the method of production which is followed. in rain-fed and irrigated Research on all these aspects can contribute to higher water use efficiency in agriculture. agriculture Scope: Various processes and factors, which are site-specific, have an influence on the quality of water Programme 2: for crop, livestock and fish production. Significant shortcomings exist in assessment of the fitness-for-use of Fitness-for-use of water for surface and underground water sources and identifying water-related production problems. The emphasis crop production, livestock in this programme is on the efficient use of water and management of water quality for irrigation of crops, watering and aquaculture livestock watering and aquaculture in rivers, ponds and dams. WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 191

THRUST 2: WATER UTILISATION FOR FUEL-WOOD AND TIMBER PRODUCTION Scope: The direction and driving force for research activities and outputs are determined by the strategic focus to improve the knowledge of the processes of production of trees in woodlands, plantation forestry and trees planted in combination with food and forage crops. Scope: In catchment areas where trees are a prominent feature of land use, runoff and deep percolation Programme 1: Water-efficient production of water can be reduced. Management of these so-called streamflow reduction activities necessitates an methods and systems in understanding of the water use by trees and the competitive or complementary relationship of water use by agro-forestry, woodlands trees and water use by staple food and forage crops. Due to research specialisation, separate attention is and forestry plantations given in this programme to increase the efficiency of water use by trees in woodlands and plantations for fuel- wood and timber production. THRUST 3: WATER UTILISATION FOR POVERTY REDUCTION AND WEALTH CREATION IN AGRICULTURE Scope: The direction and driving force for research activities and outputs are determined by the strategic focus to improve the knowledge of the management processes undertaken by people who are using water. Scope: Poverty, hunger and malnutrition amongst rural people are widely recognised as major problems. These members of rural communities, consisting mainly of women, children and the elderly, are also Programme 1: Sustainable water-based disadvantaged or marginalised for various social, economic and political reasons. A wide-ranging programme agricultural activities in is required to support the sustainable development of rangeland livestock, rain-fed and irrigated crop rural communities production. Efficient use of water through a combination of agricultural activities can contribute to improving living conditions. Empowerment of rural people can further be promoted through participatory action research which improves knowledge, farming skills and leadership capabilities. Scope: Commercial farming is a major user of water resources and faces a particular challenge to ensure that this share of water is used effectively and efficiently. There is invariably a close link between efficient use Programme 2: and allocation of water and whole-farming profitability. Water management on farms is also time-dependent Integrated water and based on incomplete knowledge of changes in the weather, prices and technology. Under these management for profitable circumstances modelling is a powerful tool to provide decision-support and management advice. The focus farming systems in this programme is therefore on developing procedures, methods and models to provide advice to farmers on best management practices and the optimal combination of crop and livestock enterprises within the constraints of water, land and capital resources. 192 KSA 4: WATER UTILISATION IN AGRICULTURE

THRUST 4: WATER RESOURCE PROTECTION, RESTORATION AND RECLAMATION IN AGRICULTURE Scope: The direction and driving force for research activities and outputs are determined by the strategic focus to improve the knowledge of the natural processes and people-induced impacts of resource use Scope: With cultivation and irrigation, larger quantities of salts present in the soil and lower strata could be Programme 1: Sustainable water resource mobilised. Increasing salinity levels and higher water tables threaten the sustainable use of soil and water. use on irrigation schemes Knowledge and tools to manage the quantity and quality of water resources for agricultural production are and within river catchments therefore required. The focus of research is on developing methods and models to manage water distribution and prevent water resource degradation. Scope: Agricultural decisions to use land and to conserve rainfall, or to withdraw water from rivers, dams Programme 2: and boreholes, have wide-ranging impacts on the natural environment. Intensification of crop and livestock Impact assessment and production processes can potentially contribute to higher levels of chemical residues of fertilisers, pesticides environmental management and herbicides in surface and groundwater. Precautions must be taken as part of the agricultural production of agricultural production process to protect the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This requires an understanding of the negative impacts of agriculture and guidelines for an assessment and mitigation of those impacts. WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 193

RESEARCH PORTFOLIO FOR 2015/16 COMPLETED PROJECTS THRUST 1: WATER UTILISATION FOR FOOD, FORAGE and preferably under rainfed conditions. In 2006, the AND FIBRE PRODUCTION task team that developed the biofuels strategy urged the government to determine the impacts of biofuel feedstock Programme 1: Water-efficient production methods in production on both water quality and water quantity. The relation to soils, crops and technology in rain-fed and WRC responded to this request and funded a two-year irrigated agriculture (2007-2009) scoping study on the water use of biofuel feedstocks. The main aims of the scoping study were to Water use of cropping systems adapted to bio- (i) identify suitable feedstock for the production of biofuel, climatic regions in South Africa and suitable for biofuel (ii) map areas climatically suited to feedstock cultivation, production (iii) determine the available knowledge on feedstock University of KwaZulu-Natal (School of Bioresources water use, (iv) model the water requirements of selected Engineering and Environmental Hydrology); University of feedstock, and (v) identify existing knowledge gaps. The Pretoria; CSIR scoping study report concluded that both sugarcane and No. 1874 sweet sorghum show potential to use more water than the natural vegetation they may replace, whilst other South Africa is following the international trend of liquid crops (e.g. sugarbeet, canola, soybean and sunflower) do biofuel production, as noted in the South African Biofuels not. However, the scoping study highlighted that for the Industrial Strategy of 2007. This strategy highlighted emerging feedstocks (e.g. sugarbeet and sweet sorghum), the benefits of biofuel production in terms of alleviating parameter values were gleaned from the international poverty in rural areas, promoting rural economic literature. The literature also provided conflicting water development and stimulating agricultural production. A use figures for certain feedstocks (in particular sweet 2% blend of biofuels in the national liquid fuel supply, sorghum) and it was found that knowledge is surprisingly equivalent to an annual production of approximately limited for certain crops (e.g. canola). The scoping study 400 million litres of biofuel, was proposed by the former recommended a need to better understand the water Department of Minerals and Energy (DME). To ensure use and yield of biofuel feedstocks. In addition, a more sustainable biofuel production, South Africa plans to detailed mapping approach was required to identify grow feedstock on currently under-utilised arable land 194 KSA 4: WATER UTILISATION IN AGRICULTURE

feedstock growth areas that considered additional site Microbial analysis of irrigation water showed that the factors (not just rainfall and temperature). Based on E. coli levels in the irrigation water (5 rivers, 10 dams) at these recommendations, the WRC initiated and funded a the 14 sites tested exceeded the DWAF (1996) guidelines six-year (i.e. more comprehensive) follow-up study. This of ≤ 1–1 000 CFU/100 mL for crops to be eaten raw. six-year solicited project began in April 2009 and was led Irrigation canal water used at two of the sites tested by several partners. The aims of the follow-up study were complied with the DWAF (1996) guidelines for crops to broadly similar to those of the scoping study, except for be eaten raw. However, although the E. coli counts of the the need to estimate crop yield and bio-fuel yield. primary irrigation source (rivers, dams) were unacceptably high, a reduction in numbers was observed for dam water Cost: R7 400 000 (incl. leverage) and a further reduction was observed for the water from Term: 2009-2015 the micro-irrigation pipes, drip-irrigation and overhead irrigation pivots. Salmonella was isolated from up to 22% Programme 2: Fitness-for-use of water for crop production, of the water samples from a selected site. No Escherichia livestock watering and aquaculture coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes were isolated from any of the irrigation water samples from the sites An investigation into the link between water quality tested. The current national guideline for fresh produce and microbiological safety of fruit and vegetables from provides guidance values only for the ready-to-eat stage the farming to the processing stages of production of the chain. The microbial levels on crop surfaces were and marketing generally higher in the field compared to the product at University of Pretoria (Microbiology and Plant Pathology); the end of the supply chain. E. coli and diarrhoeagenic University of KwaZulu-Natal (Howard College) E. coli, as well as viruses (NoV GI, NoV GII, and HAV), No. 1875 were isolated from fresh produce at certain stages along the supply chain, but not from the beginning to the end The general aim of this project was to investigate the links of the chain. The fresh produce with the highest microbial between water quality and microbial food safety of fresh contamination was leafy vegetables (lettuce and spinach). minimally processed and frozen vegetables and fruit. Generally the percentage of pathogens present on WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 195

vegetable products was higher when compared to fruit range of bio-climatic conditions in South Africa. This samples. This is an important finding since it confirms aim was addressed by initially organising a stakeholder the previous reports that fruit in general is by its very workshop and subsequent short-listing and selection nature and production system a lower risk product than of priority indigenous tree species and forest types for vegetables. This is mainly due to production practices measurement in the project. Detailed measurements were where the crop is grown in closer proximity to the ground thereafter taken of tree/forest water-use, above-ground and the potential to be in direct contact with irrigation stem biomass increments, weather variables, soil water water for extended periods of time is thus greater. fluctuations and tree/forest attributes. The data facilitated the calculation of water use efficiency (WUE) for the Cost: R6 219 200 (incl. leverage) respective indigenous tree species and forest types, as Term: 2009-2015 well as an understanding of the driving variables (weather, water availability, tree/forest attributes). Parameterisation and testing of the MAESPA and Penman-Monteith THRUST 2: WATER UTILISATION FOR FUEL-WOOD AND (‘Big-Leaf’-type) models at a selection of these sites, TIMBER PRODUCTION investigated their ability to replicate the field observations of tree and forest water-use. Economic and financial Programme 1: Water-efficient production methods and systems assessments were conducted on informal indigenous in agro-forestry, woodlands and forestry plantations tree product markets, as well as more formal/recognised indigenous wood markets. Information on potential Water use and economic value of the biomass products, supply and demand processes, trading and of indigenous trees under natural and plantation values associated with those markets was documented. conditions Consideration was finally given to the necessary data CSIR (Natural Resources and the Environment); Forestlore and information required to assess WUE and site-species Consulting; Peter Dye Consulting; University of KwaZulu- optimality, taking into account the economic/financial Natal (Pietermaritzburg) value of preferred indigenous tree species. Based on No. 1876 experience gained from field measurements it took into account practicalities associated with obtaining the The general aim of this project was to measure and model requisite data, compared to a modelling approach. the water use and growth of indigenous trees in different types of tree systems, and to quantify the economic Cost: R6 799 100 (incl. leverage) benefits and costs of the biomass production under a Term: 2009-2015 196 KSA 4: WATER UTILISATION IN AGRICULTURE

THRUST 3: WATER UTILISATION FOR POVERTY and household level that impact on the empowerment of REDUCTION AND WEALTH CREATION IN women and attainment of sustainable food production, AGRICULTURE including better understanding of institutional and organizational impediments affecting the decision- Programme 1: Sustainable water-based agricultural activities making powers of women. Better understanding of the in rural communities impact land reform and rural development policies have on women is of specific importance. Furthermore, this Empowerment of women through water use security, research will improve the understanding of co-operative land use security and knowledge generation for governance and inter-governmental relations at national, improved household food security and sustainable provincial and local level, regarding interaction with rural livelihoods in selected areas of, amongst others, affected people in rural areas and the related household Limpopo Province food security. In particular, the socially-embedded University of KwaZulu-Natal (Agriculture Sciences and practices in traditional areas which are affecting the Agribusiness); University of Limpopo security of women with reference to household food No. 2082 production and improving livelihoods require attention. The three irrigation schemes studied are situated in Lack of water and land use security refers to physical, Steelpoortdrift (Sekhukhune District); Mashushu (Capricon legal and tenure insecurity while lack of food security District) and Rambuda (Vhembe District). The main implies insufficient physical, economic and social access objectives of the project were to get a comprehensive by all people at all times to enough food for an active understanding of constraints, challenges, opportunities and healthy life. Empowerment of women through and interventions required for empowerment of women secure access to water and land, as well as by obtaining to promote household food security and rural livelihoods knowledge and developing skills, must receive priority through increased water productivity and land access as attention. This will provide the necessary incentives to they relate to crop cultivation. take ownership of the process of productive use of water to achieve food security and improve rural livelihoods. Cost: R3 000 000 Findings from this research project will contribute to Term: 2011-2015 bridging the divide between the abovementioned current reality and government policy intentions. This will deepen the understanding of social dynamics at the community WRC KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 2015/16 197

Empowerment of women through water use security, national development, agricultural, and water policies and land use security and knowledge generation for strategies focus on the need for a stronger, more vibrant improved household food security and sustainable smallholder agriculture sector with ambitious goals for rural livelihoods in selected areas of, amongst others, intensive crop production activity. the Eastern Cape Province Umhlaba Consulting Group (Pty) Ltd; University of Fort Cost: R3 000 000 Hare; Rhodes University Term: 2011-2015 No. 2083 High levels of poverty and deep inequality remain major THRUST 4: WATER RESOURCE PROTECTION AND challenges in post-apartheid South Africa and Blacks RECLAMATION IN AGRICULTURE living in the rural areas of the country are the most severely affected by these. In 2011, it was estimated Programme 1: Sustainable water resource use on irrigation that 23 million people (45.5% of the population) were schemes and within river catchments living in poverty, 26% were food insecure, and 13.4% suffered from persistent hunger. Poverty was closely Methodology to monitor the status of water logging associated with lack of education and was higher for and salt-affected soils on selected irrigation schemes both women and youth. The Eastern Cape was ranked as in South Africa the second-poorest province in the country, with 69.5% ARC (Institute for Soil, Climate and Water); Stellenbosch of residents assessed as poor, and an unemployment University rate of more than 40%, which is far higher than the No. 1880 national figure of 25%. Social grants provided the main source of income for 37.9% of the households. In rural In this project various data sources and methodologies areas, where opportunities for wage labour employment for the identification of areas prone to salt accumulation are low, rain-fed agriculture is the third most important and waterlogging were investigated. This included land means of livelihood, after remittances and wage labour cover mapping, bare soil analysis (i.e. direct approach), from low-skilled jobs, though only contributes some multi-temporal crop condition monitoring (i.e. indirect 10% to household survival. It is well-established that approach), terrain analysis, within-field anomaly a poorly-functioning rural economy with undeveloped detection, and decision tree analysis. The occurrence of infrastructure, weak market linkages and poor agricultural salt accumulation and waterlogging in generally small support services isolates rural households from the patches in South African irrigation schemes poses unique mainstream economy and from critically important challenges and will require a robust modelling strategy. agricultural value-chains. Weak and conflicted land It is important to note that no model based on remotely- institutions add uncertainty and also limit transactional sensed data will ever replace in-field monitoring. The opportunities. Despite these systemic challenges, current purpose of this study was to develop a method to detect 198 KSA 4: WATER UTILISATION IN AGRICULTURE