PES Solar 2 2021

TALKING POINT Will Beuttell The answer is ‘albedo’, reflected solar critical improvements or changes that have energy; our ability to measure that reflected allowed BPV to become financially viable. What has changed to make it suddenly so energy, and the ability of solar arrays to Now, PERC modules can achieve excellent popular? And how can a planner, engineer, convert it into electricity. Bifacial PV modules additional photon capture within a module. researcher, or investor, determine whether harness solar energy from both the front and or not to choose BPV over tried and tested rear side of the PV panel; albedo, being the PERC cells yield higher efficiencies than mono-facial PV? energy usually reflected from the ground or previous designs but with increased ‘Light surrounding environment. Induced Degradation’ (LID). As shown in illustration B. N-Type vs. P-Type (b), N-type Existing BPV technology generates an cells offer improvements by reducing average energy production gain of between ‘Potentially Induced Degradation’ (PID) and 3% to 10% from the rear side. However, with LID. By switching to PERC and N-type cells, accurate albedo field measurements, close efficiencies can increase while attention to the installation and location simultaneously decreasing or removing conditions, a gain of 30% is achievable, critical degradation factors. Improvements delivering more power in the same amount in PERC and N-type production processes of space. now allow a smoother transition from mono to bifacial module production for rapid The reasons behind the seemingly sudden scaling to meet this growing demand. popularity of BPV differ from region to region, but one unifying factor is the growing Falling production costs coupled with affordability of bifacial modules. One Increased durability, longevity, and the WoodMac study found that the production improving efficiency of cell structures mean cost differential between bifacial and mono lower initial outlays, faster ROI, and facial modules is now as low as half a US cent. increased profitability—all important steps on the path to decarbonisation. ‘Passivated Emitted Rear Contact’ (PERC) designs, as well as a change from ‘P-type’ to Just a few years ago, in 2019, Bifacial module ‘N-type’ semiconductors, are two of the prices were still 56% higher than mono-facial WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 51

TALKING POINT A. Albedo Solar Radiation Illustration technology that increases module efficiency. HJT cells combine crystalline silicon with modules. Costs may be falling, but the choice materials used in the industry, different amorphous silicon to increase power over a between mono and bifacial still isn’t clear cut technologies are being explored with various wider range of spectral conditions. Each in every situation. That’s why accurate field backside materials and constructions. design option and material should be analysed measurements are crucial; from site Heterojunction Technology (HJT) is another and performance metrics calculated. research, through design, construction, ongoing management, monitoring and B. N-Type vs P-Type Photovoltaic performance is dependent on maintenance, accurate data is key to decision specific ranges of spectral irradiance. For making at every stage. indoor testing, EKO spectroradiometers such as the MS-711 provide accurate irradiance EKO Instruments is unique in the PV industry measurement data within a spectral range of as the only company offering a complete 300nm to 1100nm (UV-Visible-NIR). Spectral product line of research-grade and industrial measurements are critical in studying new equipment. Researchers can source most if materials and manufacturing methods as well not all of the sensors they need to study as validating the technology in the field. indoor bifacial PV module performance and Having spectral measurements reduces long-term outdoor performance from one uncertainty and questions of how much solar provider. Each end of this research spectrum energy could be converted. represents critical input data for predicting module performance over its lifetime. Made in Japan, designed for accuracy, and built for durability, spectroradiometers like Modelling of PV performance has the MS-711, deployed in an albedo dramatically improved over the past decade; configuration, can record National Institute however, BPV technology cannot simply be of Standards and Technology (NIST) assessed in the same way as mono-facial traceable and ASTM G138 compliant modules. The reflectance of radiation from measurements of downwelling and upwelling the sky and ground onto the rear side of BPV irradiance. By measuring both the incoming modules is quite complex. Many front and rear spectral irradiance, the user presuppositions, even those based on can perfectly understand their module accurate and reliable measurements of direct performance across changing seasons and in radiation for a given location, will almost all atmospheric regimes. While certainly lead to miscalculation. Unrealised spectroradiometers are ideal, they can be potential, even outright failure, is possible if too expensive for certain applications. High simple transposition or incorrect relative quality, spectrally flat pyranometers, like our assumptions are made. class and industry-leading S-Series, offer an alternative. With the fast-response and As part of the initial research phase for a bifacial project, it is necessary to understand the performance potential of different bifacial modules. Besides the other semiconducting 52 PES SOLAR

TALKING POINT spectrally-flat Class A MS-80S, for example, users can compare the relative differences of broadband albedo. As mentioned earlier, BPV technology takes advantage of the surface spectral albedo, but albedo can vary dramatically from location to location; though it can broadly be categorised into three levels: low to high based on the surface. Vegetation generally has a low albedo, desert and soil, medium, while snow has high potential albedo. These factors can alter bifacial gains by a factor of 2; therefore, an accurate understanding of the local albedo conditions cannot be underestimated as part of the overall calculation and decision-making process. For years, performance monitoring of PV sites required continuous measurements of the solar broadband irradiance; instruments were deployed in Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) and Plane of Array (POA) irradiance orientations. Now the added parameter of upward or reflected irradiance (RI) must be monitored. While spectral measurements are superior, broadband thermopile measurements are the industry standard for measuring irradiance in any orientation. As mentioned previously, EKO S-Series pyranometers can be mounted in a traditional albedo measurement configuration, one sensor measuring the downward irradiance and another measuring MS-711 Albedo Configuration Example C. PERC Cell WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 53

TALKING POINT MS-80S Albedo Configuration upward irradiance. Both levelled horizontally Ventilator. Compatible with all S-Series EMC electronic surge filtering, a 5-year with the surface. pyranometers, the albedo kit allows users to warranty, a suite of internal temperature, EKO Albedometers are based on a modular create their own configuration of sensors. humidity, tilt and roll angle sensors, and ISO design, comprising two MS or S-Series 17025 accredited calibration; ensuring optimal pyranometers combined with our ‘Albedo Each S-Series pyranometer also includes our performance with reduced maintenance. kit’, plus glare screen. They are also able to unique 4-channel analog and digital interface, integrate the optional MV-01 Heater & providing compatibility with 99% of data Alternatively, the compact, low-cost, loggers and SCADA systems, Level A EMI/ high-quality ISO9060:2018 non-spectrally ML-02 Albedo Configuration flat Class C ML-02 Silicon albedometer is an optimal solution for measuring the irradiance distribution at different points of a PV array. In summary, many challenges still face the solar energy market. Whether a site chooses to use bifacial or traditional PV, resource assessment and power performance monitoring are still necessary for ensuring the highest financial return. These challenges should not be considered barriers to adoption but instead as opportunities to fill in the knowledge gaps and to push the technology further. Data will empower our future decisions. With much on the line financially, now and in the future, high- quality and reliable measurements have never been of greater significance. EKO measuring solutions can be the key to successful bifacial, data-driven decision making, helping our industry to grow through greater efficiency, higher yield, and more rapid ROI. www.eko-eu.com 54 PES SOLAR

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TALKING POINT Words: P ascal Lareu, Technical Support lead EMEA at APsystems Appropriate PV module over ratio can increase in power generation 56 PES SOLAR

TALKING POINT What is PV module/inverter DC-AC over ratio? In a typical design of a photovoltaic system, the capacity of the PV modules (total DC power) exceeds the capacity of the inverter (AC power): this is called the DC-AC over ratio. This approach of over ratio is increasingly widely used. Reasonable over ratio design can optimize the utilization of inverters, reduce the cost of equipment on the AC side, and maximize overall benefits. Why do we need the DC-AC over ratio? Even in areas with abundant solar energy resources, there are not always sufficient The STC power of the PV module is the light conditions throughout the day, and the maximum output power under test lab irradiance varies greatly from morning to conditions: solar radiation intensity at night. See Figure 2. 1000W/M2, temperature at 25°C, spectrum AM1.5. However, the actual environment is complex and changeable, and the output power of modules is always affected. Due to many factors (see further details below), some losses will inevitably occur, so that the output power of the module is always less than its rated STC power. The factors likely to affect the output power of modules are as follows: 1. Solar Resource Sunlight is the basis of photovoltaic power generation. The sunlight conditions vary greatly in different regions. The rated STC power output of the module will only be realized under specific conditions of an irradiance intensity of 1000W/M2, temperature of 25°C, and a spectrum of AM1.5 Once the irradiance is below 1000W M2, the output power of the PV module will be less than its rated STC power. See Figure 1. Figure 1: Under different irradiance I-V (Power) curve Figure 2: hourly Irradiation Current and voltage curve / Power and voltage curve under different irradiance 350W WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 57

TALKING POINT Figure 3: I-V curve Figure 4: temperature-power Moreover, when the temperature of the Figure 5: PV module attenuation module increases, the voltage drop of the Figure 6: azimuth - PV module power module decreases, while the current change is minimal; therefore, the power of the module will decrease when the temperature rises. See Figure 3 - Figure 4. 2. PV module attenuation Based on NREL-SAM’s outdoor attenuation analysis of more than 2000 PV modules worldwide, the attenuation rate of the module after the second year will change linearly. The 25-year attenuation rate is between 8% and 14% (Figure 5). In fact, the power generation capacity of the modules keeps declining every year as it degrades, and the rated power output cannot be maintained. 3. The azimuth of the PV module The irradiance received by different azimuth angles can vary your production. When the azimuth is 0° due south (facing the equator - the best orientation), the irradiance received by the surface of the photovoltaic module is optimal. As the azimuth becomes larger (in degrees). The actual output power of modules will also drop significantly. See Figure 6. 4. Other factors Soil, salt residue, e.g. oceans, foreign objects, shadows on the surface of photovoltaic modules can cause an internal mismatch of modules. Along with degradation of the PV modules, there can be wear and tear in DC cables, connectors, and a reduction of inverter power consumption, which will reduce the output power of modules. From the analysis of the above influencing factors, under the traditional 1:1 capacity ratio design, the maximum power generation of the photovoltaic system is lower than its installed capacity, and a certain ratio of component over-configuration can 58 PES SOLAR

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make up for the capacity loss of the inverter Inverter capacity factorFigure 7 DC: AC Inverter capacity factor and improve the utilization rate of the converter. Figure 7 illustrates the capacity Figure 8: Hermosillo 20° tilt 180° azimuth factor of the inverter, and how to increase with higher DC: AC ratio1. About the author: Pascal Lareu is Technical Support lead PV module over ratio power generation EMEA at APsystems. simulation He joined APsystems 1 year ago bringing a lot of experience from both PV industry In order to more intuitively prove that the and IT from previous roles. over ratio of modules can bring higher power His domain responsibilities include generation, we choose Mexico Hermosillo customer services, training and field (29.09°, -110.98°) region, use NREL-SAM application engineer for large accounts software to simulate the clipping and total based in Belgium and the Netherlands. power generation in the first year under Pascal is based in Belgium speaks various DC: AC ratios. Model setting: module French, Dutch and English. selection efficiency module model (Temperature Coefficient: -0.4%/°C Pmp) Pascal Lareu Meteorological data use TMY3; system loss total loss is 1.5% (assumed); this model uses the APsystemsQS1; this model is suitable for any region. Figure 8 shows the simulation results of different DC: AC ratios in the Hermosillo area of Mexico. It can be seen from the figure that as the DC: AC ratio increases, the system power generation increases continuously, and the increased power generation is always greater than the power loss due to clipping. This figure is a simulation under the conditions of the optimal inclination of the module and the true south direction and does not consider the attenuation of the module. In fact, the clipping loss rate will be lower. Summary The main purpose of this article is to demonstrate the value of the module over ratio. By analyzing the relationship between the following factors, it is clear that the actual output power of modules is less than its rated power. In order to improve the utilization rate of the inverter, using over ratio is considered as a best practice. By using the NREL-SAM example simulation, the data proves that increasing the DC to AC ratio will bring higher power generation. Although there might be a clipping loss, the increased power generation of the system is still higher than the loss caused by clipping. The optimal DC to AC ratio requires comprehensive consideration of system power generation benefits, system construction costs, operation and maintenance costs, and asset conversion (Including module attenuation, etc.), etc., to find a balance between increased input costs and system power generation revenue. A reasonable DC to AC ratio can increase system revenue, reduce system cost per kilowatt-hour, and maximize overall revenue. 1 The inverter utilization rate is called the capacity factor, which is defined as the ratio between actual and maximum power generation: when the inverter has been running at full output, its capacity factor is 1.0. 60 PES SOLAR

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TALKING POINT Reaching cost-efficient climate neutrality: the essential reboot of the European PV Industry Climate neutrality by 2050. That is the stated goal. But how does Europe achieve it? The European Photovoltaic (PV) sector has 2004 German Energiewende law. From late in and, thus, it waned. One might say the faced an era of rapid and complex change the decade and onwards, China’s PV-industry European PV-industry’s near-demise was over the past two decades. If we flashback to accelerated, again on the back of regulations due to an inability to meet the challenge of the early 2000s, some argued that European that stimulated significant local demand, the rapid price reductions that drove annual PV manufacturing growth would be coupled with regulation-mandated access to global PV-installations to quadruple from continuous and dominant. growth capital and a considerable knack for 2011 to 2020. large-scale industrial establishments and That did not happen. large-scale industrial operations. Currently, Europe, the USA and India find themselves without significant domestic European PV-manufacturing did lead the The European PV-industry was unable to PV-manufacturing. At the same time, annual industry in the 2000s, underpinned by stay competitive and exploit new markets PV-installations are in the multi-gigawatt subsidized regional demand driven by the 62 PES SOLAR

TALKING POINT scale (Europe and the USA each have through building integrated solar, large ~17% (or more) every year until 2024. The IEA domestic annual installation volumes equal to scale solar projects and applied solar itself foresees 391 GW of PV installed in or larger than the entire world market in 2010). solutions like off-grid cooling. To succeed, Europe in its World Energy Outlook 2020’s Concern has arisen, regarding the complete industry leaders will need to be more future Sustainable Development Scenario. But the dependency of importation and the global orientated, collaborative, creative and market could request even higher figures. If concentration of production capacity. become deeper thinkers. the market continues such a growth trend, solar PV could easily overtake the 400 GW Throughout it all there have been stalwarts It should be noted that the European PV mark well before 2030. that are holding out despite sub-scale industry will be a complement to (not a production capacities. There are also new replacement for) existing capacity in other To harness these changes the ‘European entrants with exciting new technologies. regions. At the same time, we need to Solar Reboot’ is based on several success embrace the paradigm of world class speed factors which are clearly interdependent. Since 2018, a robust conversation has been and scale if we are to re-establish credible growing to effectively reboot and recreate a European manufacturing. Localising Manufacture to facilitate Secure strong European PV ecosystem from Access to Solar PV value chain polysilicon, ingots, wafers, cells, modules, The solar PV market has grown substantially, PV- production equipment, consumables and annual PV additions will keep growing by Solar Power Europe’s ‘Global Market Outlook for Solar Power 2021-2025 Report’ WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 63

TALKING POINT Figure 1. Current world view of the linear solar PV value chain highlighted again how solar is now playing a Source: mckinsey.com/business- where the utilization of the entire value chain critical part of the global energy mix with functions/sustainability can be cost competitive with other every third power plant installation coming manufacturing locations because of process from solar. There is momentum to Often the current view of the Solar PV value and production efficiencies (e.g. lower redevelop PV manufacturing in Europe, due chain is linear (see Figure 1). The transition shipping / supply chain costs), improved in part to the important growth of the from a linear to a circular economy will automation and access to sourcing feedstock domestic market in the short to medium require a strategic joint effort by from areas with no social transgressions. term. Localising PV manufacture in Europe stakeholders across the European solar secures access to supply across the Solar value chain. The key gap in the Solar Value Chain: the PV value chain. need to develop the entire ecosystem Perhaps a starting point in our EU Solar PV Leading through technology know-how. Reboot is to contribute European R&D The speed and scale in the PV-industry is know-how to this transition by developing breathtaking and has been so for over 15 Transporting solar modules to Europe competencies in circular design. years. Most of that growth has been centred halfway around the globe accounts for about in China. 10% of their cost. By utilising leading Circular design in the European Solar PV European manufacturing in local markets, we industry places it in a unique cost position If the European Solar Reboot looks to can establish a lower carbon footprint at a lower financial cost. We are already seeing this become a reality as newer high-tech European production facilities are preparing to scale up across France, Spain, Germany, and Norway. As the Europe Solar Value Chain builds its economies of scale, alongside Europe’s R&D excellence, the anticipated improvements will influence the efficiency at each lifecycle stage contributing significantly to stronger solar performance and competitiveness. However, to achieve this vision, all segments of the PV value chain need to participate in the European Solar Industry Reboot. The Circular Economy and the strategic advantage of WEEE A circular economy aims to ‘design out’ waste altogether. Products are designed and optimised for a cycle of disassembly and reuse. The European regulations in place requiring solar panel producers to collect and recycle the panels they sell, provide the Solar Value Chain a unique strategic advantage. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive has stimulated the development and growth of solar recycling plants. With 96% of the materials from a panel being extracted, right within the EU, provides the unique opportunity to re-use these local materials across the Solar PV value chain as feedstock. McKinsey has suggested the circular economy in Europe could generate a net economic benefit of €1.8 trillion by 2030. 64 PES SOLAR

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TALKING POINT self-sufficiency through innovation and NCR Manufacture: Designing for Circularity identifying the true ESG impact of PV manufacturing, both the upstream and Inputs Outputs downstream processes will need scrutinizing. Novel energy control systems Improve energy efficiency, lower costs A key component of solar panels is the monocrystalline silicon wafer. Natural cooling water source Warm water > fish farm Recently noted by SolarPower Europe, the Responsibly sourced polysilicon Ingots to brick – waste reuse manufacturing gap in the value chain - processing polysilicon to ingots, bricks and Process gasses Closed loop recycle to reduce waste wafers (currently 99% of which is produced in China) needs to be addressed. Figure 2. Norwegian Crystals in its development of ultra-low carbon mono-silicon ingots (ULCF-Si™) continues to design for circularity Norway has one of the lowest power prices in Europe and it produces electricity with the carbon footprint, the intention is to grow. monocrystalline bricks, NCR already lowest carbon intensity. produces industry-leading, certified low The goal is, to establish a competitive carbon ingots and wafers. With access to hydro energy, naturally cooled production capacity in Glomfjord of 10 GWp water, space to expand and extensive per year. At this capacity, NCR will enable NCR is actively building relationships with experience in monocrystalline wafer annual power generation equal to 200 million European equipment makers and process manufacturing, NCR is only a small step away barrels of oil or 350 TWh – nearly three times and materials suppliers to develop from increasing Europe’s ingot capacity. Norway’s electricity production. Avoided technology adaptations suitable for a Currently at 0.5 GWp/y production of ultra-low CO2-emissions every year would amount to European PV-manufacturing chain. around seven times the Norwegian emissions. Norwegian Crystals’ vision is to be the leading European producer of Lowering the European Carbon Footprint by monocrystalline silicon for solar power and is working together: committed to being part of the exciting momentum to re boot the European Solar The world is rapidly moving to embrace low PV industry. carbon footprint manufacturing. The European Solar Value Chain has come Low-Carbon footprint requirements have through the last two decades of ‘survival.’ increasingly become the norm for In this challenging global landscape, this will importation of goods in countries across the not be enough. We need to become resilient, globe. In the solar PV sector France, the and rebound, with an attitude to Netherlands, and Korea have already re-establish our relevance. Europe’s R&D established specific low-carbon incentives. know-how and ability to scale up rapidly enable us to co-create. According to the Ultra-Low-Carbon Solar Alliance, the use of materials with lower To grow from disruption and enrich the entire embodied carbon in PV panels can reduce the European Solar Value Chain will need carbon footprint of solar systems by investment in both downstream and 50 percent, regardless of where the panels upstream sectors. are produced. Time to thrive and strive for greatness. With its trademarked Ultra Low Carbon Footprint Silicon (ULCF-Si™) www.crystals.no 66 PES SOLAR

Not all wind mitigation strategies are created equal. Join FTC Solar, RWDI, and EPS as they discuss the different wind-related problems that can occur with single-axis PV trackers and how FTC Solar has developed a unique solution to minimize those risks in our upcoming webinar - September 15th at 11am E.S.T. ftcsolar.com/windwebinar

THINK TANK Modernizing control system for absolute cavity radiometer Words: D r. Ajay Singh, Application Scientist, Renewable Energy, Campbell Scientific Libbie Anderson, Marketing Assistant, Renewable Energy, Campbell Scientific Accurate measurements of broadband solar irradiance require radiometers with proper design and performance characteristics, correct installation, and documented operation and maintenance procedures, including regular calibration. With any measuring tool, calibrations must be traceable to a recognized reference standard. For direct normal irradiance (DNI) measurements of broadband solar radiation, the World Radiometric Reference (WRR) is the internationally recognized measurement standard. 68 PES SOLAR

THINK TANK The WRR was established by the World Dr. Ajay Singh Libbie Anderson Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1977 and has been maintained by the Physikalisch- The University of Oregon Solar Radiation our sensors,’ said Josh Peterson, a member Meteorologisches Observatorium Davos, Monitoring Lab (UO SRML) is a regional solar of the project team. World Radiation Center (PMOD/WRC) in radiation data center directed by Frank Switzerland. The center maintains a group of Vignola, who is a well-known figure in the When a crucial component of the UO five cavities as part of world primary solar radiation monitoring field. Since the SRML’s previous control system failed and reference standard. beginning of its operation in 1975, the UO could not be replaced, the lab called upon SRML has become one of the premier Campbell Scientific for a solution. The ACR model HF manufactured by The monitoring networks in the country. The lab Eppley Laboratory has been one such provides high-quality solar-resource data for Based on the lab’s needs, Campbell Scientific reference standard-level device since 1978. planning, designing, deployment, and supplied a CR1000X as the new controller for operation of solar electric facilities in the the ACR. The CR1000X is a flagship data Field pyranometers and pyrheliometers must Pacific Northwest, United States. logger that provides measurements and be calibrated against more accurate control for environmental applications pyrheliometers with clear WRR traceability. The UO SRML measures various components The most accurate pyrheliometers are of solar irradiance at 14 different stations in ‘The CR1000X and other components of the electrically self-calibrating absolute cavity Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, and Utah. The system are working great,’ said Peterson. radiometers (ACR). These are typically not dataset is made available for future solar deployed in the field as they are an order of electric generation. To ensure the accuracy For daily deployment, Peterson says the magnitude more expensive than regular of the dataset, the sensors are periodically team mounts the sensor to the two-axis pyrheliometers and are often used without calibrated against an Eppley ACR. tracker, connects all the wires, starts the any optical windows. computer, and then starts the program. At ‘The ACR is critical in calibrating the rest of the end of the day, the files are exported to ACRs require a controller unit to make the computer and the data is then analyzed. periodic self-calibrations and solar radiation measurements. Signals produced are very In an original controller, manual user entry was small and high-accuracy levels are desired. needed about every 30 minutes for the Traditionally, high end laboratory equipment controller to keep measuring. In comparison, is used for this application. Campbell the CR1000X is fully automated and requires Scientific’s newer data loggers, the CR6 and minimal operator input. CR1000X, have the desired accuracy levels and are field deployable. ‘From my point of view, I don’t want the logger component to get in the way of me As a result, an ACR controller was designed doing science,’ Peterson said. ‘The data and built in 2016 that was first tested at logger works great as a workhorse behind the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s scenes so that I can concentrate on what I (NREL) Solar Radiation Research Laboratory need to do that day.’ (SRRL) in Golden, Colorado in the United States, and later at the World Radiation Center Peterson said there are many challenges in (PMOD/WRC) in Switzerland. Since then, maintaining a solar network, making it crucial several of these controllers were built using to the high accuracy of the network for the CR1000X dataloggers. These controllers are CR1000X to be a compatible control system routinely included in international and national for the ACR. pyrheliometer comparisons. ‘We take data every minute of every day for 14 monitoring stations and we operate around five sensors at each station,’ said Peterson. ‘Having a good system in place to process this volume of data is critical.’ A few features Peterson said are important for an ACR controller to have include ‘voltage measurement with the minimum required WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 69

THINK TANK uncertainty and high resolution, a reliable ‘The ability of Campbell Scientific data ‘People prefer systems they do not have to clock, quick measurements, and the system loggers to not only gather and store the check and that will notify them if there is a must be able to process the data in a timely data, but to process the data in real time, problem,’ said Vignola. ‘I believe Campbell fashion.’ In this application, the CR1000X is a helps make these new ideas develop,’ systems can do this and have done it for full measurement and control system. remarked Vignola. other industries.’ Lab director, Frank Vignola, described how Overall, Vignola sees the science community [email protected] they used to digitize data strip charts, and wanting bigger and faster data while getting they even built their own data loggers using numbers they can plug into formulas for [email protected] 8085 chips. useful results. www.campbellsci.com/pes21a2. ‘Those days are long gone,’ said Vignola. ‘The Campbell Scientific data loggers have been a tremendous help, not only providing reliable access to our sensors in the field, but in enhancing the completeness of the dataset.’ Another change has been the convenience of today’s solar radiation sensors, which has increased the volume of data needed for real- time data resolution, according to Peterson, who has been in the field for a decade. ‘Operators of solar photovoltaic (PV) facilities want to know what the resource is in real time, so we collect and publish the data to the web,’ Peterson said. ‘The sensors are getting better, faster, more accurate, and having less systematic errors.’ New expectations also include measuring the circumsolar radiation. Vignola said this is not an easy task, but the ‘Campbell Scientific data loggers enable some of these systems to provide useful data as the devices are still being developed.’ 70 PES SOLAR



TALKING POINT One-stop-shop solution for wiring PV plants PV projects are divided into specific phases before the plant is finally connected to the grid. The installation phase in particular is key for success. HIS is there from the start and optimizes the project along the value chain, as well as after the COP. Whether high quality single components, pre-assembled solar cables or individually developed string boxes: the cabling and switch system HIS CONNECT® has everything that plant operators, installers and service specialists need. 72 PES SOLAR

TALKING POINT What makes a PV plant economically at the component level, is manageable for increasingly important role in the realisation successful? these products, as the share of the total of large PV parks. costs is around 5%. However, it is precisely In addition to the costs of installation and these ‘C-components’ which matter and In large plants, high downtime costs arise in operation, the economic success of a PV which, incidentally, are often accorded much the event of a fault. High-quality and safe plant is determined by the yields. Suitable less importance than the others. The faults components not only reduce the economic components as well as professional planning or failure risks in these components is one of risks, but also ensure safe plant operation far and installation determine the long-term the factors that can significantly jeopardise beyond the financing phase. quality of a plant and thus ultimately ensure the profitability of the system. smooth operation and expected yields. In the This is one aspect which gains in importance event of a fault, large plant incur high How often do you encounter the problem? when one takes into account that the downtime costs up to and including the loss profitability of a plant is calculated over a term of insurance, yield losses in the case of poorly With the steadily growing size of solar parks, of at least 20 years. Of course, this also processed or low-quality components, and in the complexity and the stress on the power includes the possibility that a PV plant or PV some cases extremely high repair costs that components are also growing. The enormous park may change hands after a certain time. In far exceed the acquisition costs of the time pressure under which such systems are this case, a quality guarantee is also a decisive components themselves. often installed brings with it the increased criterion, as it increases the resale value. risk of faulty wiring due to a lack of care in the In general, it can be said that the largest part selection of the cabling components and the Not only do inferior components jeopardise of the total costs of a PV plant is accounted execution of the installation. the investment, but when the systems are for by the solar modules, inverters, resold, the entire installation is critically substructure and installation. The costs for Should any troubleshooting be required later, assessed from a technical point of view. As the electrical connection, electricity meters the calculated return on investment will be part of a proactive inspection, components and individual components account for a jeopardised at an early stage. It is therefore a which do not perform adequately are smaller share. The savings potential, purely logical consequence that so-called ‘pre- replaced, reducing the expected resale value. assembled solutions’ are playing an WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 73

TALKING POINT Pre-assembled cabling solutions should be given principal importance: • C oordinating with the customer early • B espoke/project-specific cabling and during the development and planning How do you help your customers to avoid connection concept phase these risks in advance? • Simple site management • Smooth commissioning • H igh-quality designs/components at the Due to the early involvement of our • Time saving development level employees in project planning, our customers benefit from our excellent The added value of our customers is the • proactive error prevention know-how and understanding of focus of our support. photovoltaics. A knowledge that has proven By optimising the value chain and outsourcing • Automated production processes itself in many varied applications and all activities that are not part of the core projects. The good price-performance ratio business, we create competitive advantages • higher system profitability, reduced LCOE of the components combined with the use of for our customers. By focusing on core a holistic connection system ensures the competencies and consistent customer Our experience and feedback from best conditions for a long-lasting and orientation, we ensure the success of the customers and projects are continuously yield-optimised system for our project project. This includes, among other things: incorporated into our products. We use this partners. Significant savings can be achieved wealth of experience for both new and during the coordination discussions in Plug’n’play cable harnesses further developments and are thus project planning. In the start-up phase not constantly at the cutting edge of only are the total costs decisive, but future functionality, safety and material properties. maintenance issues are also taken into This technology transfer enables our account in the consultation. customers to always receive the most up-to-date, durable and valuable product. What does a typical project meeting Thus, the risk of having to reinvest in the look like? obligatory system inspections (assessor) for resale or O&M maintenance is low. These In each project meeting, there are four main have a direct influence on the CapEx, OpEx, areas that we analyse and evaluate. Our LCOE and thus ultimately increase the return focus is on which modules have been on investment of such a PV system. selected, which inverter configuration will be used, which substructure is needed and what This is repeatedly shown by studies of the topographical features are on site. independent institutes, assessors and reinsurers worldwide, which not only deal with Once all the basics have been clarified, the the main components, but also focus on next step is to show the various cabling balance of system. Balance of system includes options based on the selected substructure all components of a photovoltaic system with system and circuit diagram. We then discuss the exception of photovoltaic modules and in detail the savings potential of pre- has the greatest influence on the losses in PV assembled cabling and the benefits for the systems in the event of a fault/failure. By customer, e.g. faster, safer installation and choosing our products, our customers secure minimisation of errors. The aim is to evaluate higher returns on their investment. the project over its entire lifetime, not just as an investment at the time of purchase. Where is the market heading? At the heart of a project, the following issues In a constantly changing energy and photovoltaic market, our products and services are used in the most diverse sectors. The coupling of sectors in the energy industry makes it necessary for us to offer even more specific and customised solutions 74 PES SOLAR

BUILD YOUR SUCCESS ON US WE OFFER YOU A SOLID BASE ON WHICH TO BUILD YOUR SUCCESS. www.his-solar.com Choose the European leader for solar wiring solutions

TALKING POINT for our customers. By using our flexibility and What advantages do your products offer for body of water using floating substructures know-how, we can respond optimally to floating PV systems? that are anchored to the ground or shore. rapidly evolving infrastructures and The PV system and inverter are connected to circumstances. In the following areas, we use Floating photovoltaics is a development the compact/transformer station on the our manufacturing expertise to support our which is steadily becoming established in shore via floating power lines. Floating PV industrial customers in their projects: Europe. The pioneers of this type of PV power plants offer the advantage of being system were the Asians, who have been using able to use additional areas for energy • Floating PV this technology for several years. Floating PV generation. In addition, the efficiency of the systems also offer great potential in Europe plants is greater, depending on the flotation • Battery-coupled PV systems and, according to Fraunhofer ISE, a potential system used, than with conventional of 44 GWP for Germany. We personally systems due to water cooling. • Repowering PV Systems estimate this figure to be much higher and the future possibilities to be even more HIS takes a holistic approach to its • Sector coupling electricity-heating- far-reaching. customers: everything from a single source. mobility, as a prosumer model From suitable cables with water-repellent These floating PV systems are installed on a properties and additional qualifications to IP • E-mobility testing of ‘cable-connector’ combinations and combiner boxes which, in other installations, are not adequately considered as a major fault source, we offer all the components that matter when setting up a PV and floating PV system. Even specially designed DC combiner boxes that are adapted to the environmental conditions of floating PV platforms, keyword splash water protection, are included in the product portfolio. www.his-solar.com About HIS Solar energy is one of the most sustainable energy sources known to mankind, which we try to harness for ourselves with the help of photovoltaics. At HIS, we have made it our mission to provide manufacturers and operators of photovoltaic systems and PV products with holistic cabling and interconnection solutions which enable them to achieve their goals and maintain their position in the market in the long term. Our motto ‘WE CONNECT SOLAR ENERGY’ means that we continuously develop installation-friendly, plug’n’play systems and sustainable solutions that also set standards in terms of economic efficiency. Better for the installer, better for the operator and better for the environment. We owe our best ideas to the intensive dialogues with our suppliers, our partners and above all our customers. By understanding their requirements as personal challenges against which we continually measure ourselves, we maintain the dynamism required to develop sustainable ideas in the PV environment. Dynamic is also the right keyword when it comes to the diverse products we have produced over the past twenty years. In addition to sustainability, our products are characterised in particular by quality, flexibility, variety and an unbeatable price/performance ratio. Engineering know-how 76 PES SOLAR

FREE TO ROAM ©2021 Howmet Aerospace Inc. All rights reserved. SEE US AT SOLOR POWER INTERNATIONAL BOOTH 1310 HUCK® RANGE FORCE™ BY MAKITA No hose to pull. No power source to fuel. Just untethered joining – even in hard-to-reach places – using a single finger to adjust from zero to 4,500 pounds. Range Force is powered by a standard Makita® 18V lithium battery, so you’re free to roam anywhere around the job site. Contact Howmet Fastening Systems today. We’re here to set you free. Uses nosepieces for HuckBolts® Learn more about Huck and Huck® structural blind rivets products for PV panels and up to 1/4” diameter. frames or email sales at [email protected]

TALKING POINT Quality made in Germany In Rangsdorf, 30 minutes outside Berlin, surrounded by beautiful fields and lakes, an impressive building appears. This is where Germany’s only manufacturer of solar mounting systems, Mounting Systems GmbH, is located. The company specialises in the development and manufacture of the entire product range for pitched and flat roofs, as well as solar carports and ground-mounted systems. They have been producing their quality Systems’ products are in great demand From the idea of a new innovative flat roof products ‘Made in Germany!’ for over 28 years. and have an excellent and unique and the perfect balance between function, reputation in the PV industry. The durability, design and cost... In the international market, Germany as a reasons for this are simple: the use of production location stands as a guarantee for high-quality materials coupled with well The latest innovative development from value, reliability and a high level of quality. thought-out, innovative concepts, short Mounting Systems is the first release of the supply chains and a transparent corporate next generation of flat roof products Both with national and international mission statement. designed for ease of installation and a customers and trading partners, Mounting multi-functional possibility. 78 PES SOLAR

TALKING POINT After many in-depth consultations with gutters that provide additional space for results compared to many existing systems installers and developers across the globe, cables so that they do not have to lie in water on the market. The key to this is that we truly we decided to offer a 10º South, a 15º south on the roof. worked on a very aerodynamic design that and a 10º east west flat roof options in just incorporated different wind deflectors in one new system. The same key components Mounting Systems wants to make it as easy critical positions and state-of-the-art wind are used for all three variations, meaning by as possible for the installer tunnel expertise. simply changing the position of the supports, the customer can have three different The new flat roof system is designed so that Additional testing was carried out to really inclinations of the same system for mounting the installer only needs minimum tools to focus on creating a low ballast system, reducing on flat roofs. construct the system simple locking the loads on the roof and being compatible with connections are used to ensure quick various roof coverings,’ says Jason McCabe The new flat roof system is equipped with assembly throughout, rapidly reducing the Director of products and engineering. fully integrated cable management. Hooks overall installation time. are attached to the module supports, into The system can be ballasted on roofs up to which the installer can attach the cables All key components are manufactured using 30 metres high as standard, with higher between the modules. The base rail is the die-casting process, which means there buildings available on request. The ballast is designed to provide sufficient space for cable are no sharp edges on which the tradesmen inserted into the newly developed tray, which containment, and its cover allows the could damage cables or injure themselves. can accommodate a vast amount of different tradesman to lay the cables in a protected size blocks which are commonly found across manner. The rails are also equipped with Significantly less ballast required Europe and further afield. ‘Initial results show very favourable ballast WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 79

TALKING POINT Solar carports: the solution for individual Mounting Systems has a portfolio with 5 a high-quality, clever design and excellent independence different solar carports. E-Port Home is workmanship of the solar carports. offered in single, double and premium Generating your own household electricity versions, each of which can be purchased as a Above all, sustainability also means longevity and thus being independent of electricity ready-made package that can be installed and this is guaranteed by the very high providers and rising electricity prices and at without special tools or advanced training. readiness for use of the products. the same time refuelling your e-mobile on The E-Port Line and Wings are intended for your own doorstep and protecting it from larger commercial spaces. Visit the new, particularly user-friendly rough weather. website and get to know the company and its In addition to an all-round carefree package, product portfolio better. Sounds complicated, but it’s not. With the solar Mounting Systems GmbH also assures its carport, E-Port Home from Mounting Systems, customers of the highest material quality, Mounting Systems: more than a system, you can combine all this and much more. quick and uncomplicated assembly, as well as it’s a brand. Use the power of the sun and create your www.mounting-systems.com own private energy turnaround. The development team of Mounting Systems GmbH has developed an innovative solution for its customers in the field of solar carports, in line with today’s increasing environmental awareness and the rise in electromobility. E-port portfolio The E-Port Home concept is very promising. In this way, the mostly unused area of the carport roof is put to lucrative use. You generate sustainable, green electricity via the PV modules integrated on your carport, which you can use in a variety of ways. With your private filling station in the driveway or in the garden, you can charge your e-car in the future without worrying about expensive electricity providers, or you can feed the generated electricity directly into the energy cycle of your household. This is not only an economically worthwhile investment, but also contributes to a healthier climate and a cleaner, emission-free environment. A future-oriented solution, both for your private e-car or e-bike on your own property and for large parking areas in front of office buildings, construction houses and supermarkets. 80 PES SOLAR

HiPace® turbopumps For perfect vacuum solutions to challenging applications ■ Unique rotor design with proven hybrid bearing ■ High compression for light gases ■ Minimal space needs due to compact design ■ Extended maintenance intervals ■ Bearing replacement on site ■ Low vibration due to patented Laser Balancing™ technology Are you looking for a perfect vacuum solution? Please contact us: Pfeiffer Vacuum GmbH · Germany · T +49 6441 802-0 · www.pfeiffer-vacuum.com

THINK TANK The sun as a natural power plant Powerful vacuum technology and reliable tightness control for improved efficiencies of solar receivers When solar energy for electricity generation is discussed, photovoltaic systems most often come to mind. However, concentrated solar power systems are gaining popularity as an interesting alternative. In this type of power plant, collector systems concentrate sunlight and collect it on an absorber pipe. A heat transfer fluid in these absorbers or receivers transports the energy to a turbine which is connected to an electrical power generator. This type of power plant is installed in regions The technology trough power plant, parabolic shaped mirrors that offer high levels of direct sunlight concentrate solar radiation in an absorber irradiation, for example, in Spain, the US Various concentrator technologies are using pipe, the so-called receiver, positioned at the (California and Arizona), and North Africa parabolic troughs, solar power towers, Fresnel focal point of the reflectors. A heat transfer (Morocco). More recent installations are reflectors, and hybrid systems using both fluid such as thermal oil or molten salts pass spreading all over the world including solar power and synthesis gas as an energy through the receiver (see graphic 1). The facilities in India, Israel, the Arabian source. The majority of installations is using receivers are connected in a series and lead Peninsula, South Africa, Australia and China. parabolic troughs. In a solar thermal parabolic the heat transfer fluid to the steam turbines in 82 PES SOLAR

THINK TANK the system’s plant collector. Additional heat obtained heat, the receiver (or collector) connecting nipple. From the vacuum collectors in the plant can compensate for must be evacuated for vacuum insulation, technology point of view the diameter of the abrupt fluctuations in sun radiation and the receiver comprises a hollow glass pipe nipple needs to be as wide as possible for operation is also guaranteed during the night. and an internal steel tube. This design allows minimum conductance loss during the the different thermal expansion coefficients evacuation process. A solar thermal power plant with heat of glass and steel to be balanced out with collectors can be planned as the energy flexible bellows in the event of temperature However, the glass nipple still needs to be production can be adapted to the change. The heat-transfer steel pipe must be moltened off in order to hermetically seal the consumption and/or the network load. The insulated without limiting the solar radiation. receiver tube. A compromise must be taken heat obtained in this way is pumped out and, This type of vacuum insulation, similar to the regarding the nipple dimensions which by means of a heat exchanger, is used in a thermo jug principle, and the use of special results in limited effective pumping speed at steam turbine for electricity generation. glass which permits a high transmission of the nipple and comparatively long process The parabolic trough technology has been sunlight, as well as special coatings on both times for thermal treatment. In this process proven and tested for many years and tubes result in a significant reduction of step the surface of the receiver materials is stands out due to a high degree of radiation and convection loss. degassed in order to minimize desorption gas efficiency, high reliability and comparably load during long-term operation. low electricity generation costs. Evacuation is performed at high temperature in a furnace where the receivers, structures What pressure? Why vacuum? with an individual length of typically 4 to 5 m, are connected to the pumping station. To effectively insulate the tubes, heat Vacuum plays a decisive role for the power Adaptation to the pump is performed via a transported by convection must be plant‘s efficiency: In order not to lose the prevented. If air is evacuated as the heat WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 83

THINK TANK the receiver and the flow resistance of the very narrow connection diameter of the pump port for evacuation from a technical vacuum perspective. The molecular flow conditions in the high-vacuum prolong the pump-out times to lower pressures. The pressure reached in the receiver provides a practical compromise from the theoretically attained pressure and the permitted cycle times suitable for production. Leak detector ASI 35 Due to the limitations of leak rates and final pressure, the use of getter material may also transfer medium, heat is lost not as a result be necessary, which further binds the of convection but by radiation that emerging gas and keeps the pressure low. transports considerably less heat than However, the challenge remains to ensure convection. Physically, a vacuum of below that, right from production, the insulation 10-3 mbar offers optimal heat insulation. vacuum in the receiver is maintained As a result, the specified pressure must be throughout its service life. This tightness maintained during the entire service life of requirement is tested in a helium leak detector. the receiver. In addition, the gas supply caused by the permeation of sealing Why helium? materials, desorption from the walls or leaks must be minimized. The requirements for the maximum Helium is an inert gas, this means, it does not react with other substances. Other benefits To generate the required vacuum in the permitted leak rate QL result from the include that helium is non-toxic and receiver, Pfeiffer Vacuum offers a wide range planned service life [s] of the receiver, the non-explosive, with clear costs. It does not of vacuum solutions. Specially designed harm the health of the operating personnel turbo pumping stations are used to evacuate maximum permitted pressure increase [Pa] and, as a natural component of air, it does not receiver pipes that not only optimize vacuum and the available volume [m3] in the hollow harm the environment. technology but the shape is also adjusted to the production facilities. glass pipe: An example of a customized pumping group Leak pressure rise x internal free volume Δp x V Pa x m3 Several methods, according to internationally is shown in Figure 1. In addition to vacuum rate technological parameters the components service life period or QL= Δt s accepted regulations, can be used with the are selected for high resistance against glass tracer gas and the detector technology based particles after potential breakage of a receiver tube and the strong forces on the on mass spectrometry. This leads to unrivaled pumps going along with a sudden air inrush. sensitivity and selectivity going along with Leak tightness As mentioned before, achieving a reasonable easy calibration and high repeatability and The manufacturer of the receiver must guarantee the insulation for periods of at least final pressure is limited by the geometry of reproducibility of the test. 20 years so that efficiency is maintained in the power plant operation. Depending on the Fig. 1 Customized pumping cart for solar receiver degassing power plant’s output, design, and the number of receivers connected together, every replacement of the receiver in the field entails an enormous expenditure of time and money. 100% tightness cannot be achieved technically. Therefore, it should be clarified as to how high the permeability may be and how far the pressure in the delivery status of the receiver must correspondingly lie under the guaranteed values in order to tolerate a pressure increase over a specified period. 84 PES SOLAR

THINK TANK The measuring method Rotary vane pump DuoLine and concentration are defined in the process. Helium is a natural component of air with a pipe ends. For integral leak detection, a The challenges posed by the technical natural concentration of 5 ppm. For highly filling chamber with a defined helium implementation of a test system for receiver accurate measurements, the residual helium concentration is created, using an pipes lie in the adaptation to the cycle times portion of the air in the test chamber must be adaptation at the pipe ends. of a production-based inspection as well as, evacuated to generate an extremely low from a vacuum perspective, in the difficult background signal. In order to be able to This adaptation must be fully automatic for geometry of the test object and adaptations definitively detect the maximum permitted industrial use and is required for the defined for pump system and test conditions. leak rate, the background signal must lie at application of the helium test gas. The least a half decade below the defined leakage test must be conducted in In addition, the sensitivity of the leak tightness requirement. compliance with ISO 20485 as both pressure detection effect of the receiver material and dead volumes, for example due to switching The helium atoms are detected with a sector valves, must be taken into account. field mass spectrometer, which is evacuated by a turbo molecular pump specially Summary synchronized with the application. The test gas can thus be detected with the greatest Evacuation of solar receiver tubes is a possible accuracy and high selectivity already compromise between the demands of in a pressure range of lower than 1 mbar. vacuum requirements and glass processing technology. Dedicated pumping carts are Integral/local leak detection used in order to provide for optimum vacuum performance going along with high The tightness of the receiver must be ruggedness and a high level of protection in integrally determined. Reliable evidence of case of glass breakage. the functioning of the tested receivers is vital in detecting all potential leakage Inspection of the tightness of the receiver points. A local leak detector can be used in during production is a big challenge. In localization of permeability spots for the planning an industrial leak detection system purpose of reworking. for integration into modern production lines, process consistency and reliability can only The testing direction should always be achieved with a fully automatic system. correspond to the use in real-life. In the case The complex physical parameters must be of the receiver, this refers to the pressure taken into consideration in order to fulfill the difference between the atmospheric high-quality requirements and obtain pressure and the evacuated room in the reproducible results. glass pipe. The weak points of the receiver pipes are the glass-metal junctions on both Pfeiffer Vacuum provides support with consultation and planning for the required systems and offers specially customized vacuum solutions for helium leak detection test and complete vacuum technology in the individual production steps. www.pfeiffer-vacuum.com WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 85



an OTT HydroMet brand RELIABLE INSIGHTS INTO PV PLANT PERFORMANCE When it comes to the engineering, procurement, and construction of a new solar power station, there are many elements to consider. Learn more about meteorological monitoring to create a well-performing PV plant at: www.kippzonen.com/epc

ASK THE EXPERTS 88 PES SOLAR

ASK THE EXPERTS ISO 9060: 2018 reflects the reality much better than its predecessor In late 2018, the ISO 9060 standard for solar radiometers underwent a remarkable update that brought significant changes to the classification of solar radiation measurement quality. At first glance, ISO 9060:2018 appears to be mainly a renaming of radiometer classification launched in the original version from 1990. But, as often, the devil is in the detail and still causing a lot of confusion within the solar industry. Dr. Joop Mes, Senior Scientist and OTT HydroMet, was part of the committee that updated the ISO 9060 standard. In this interview with PES, Mes explains the difference between the versions and how users benefit from it. PES: After nearly 30 years, ISO 9060 was error was not there before’. But you cannot changed in 2018. An overdue update? look at the sensor alone. It is always linked to a data logger or another device that receives Dr. Joop Mes: Since 1990, many things have and converts the signal from analogue to changed. Now, all manufacturers make smart digital; sometimes it also amplifies it. sensors too and that means they come with internal amplifiers and processing units. Of Looking at the system as a whole, that course, this causes additional errors. With its processing error always was there. The only 2018 update, the standard considers the difference is that in smart sensors the signal small signal processing errors and includes processing happens now in the device itself, smart instruments. not in a later step in the data logger. So, this is not an additional error, it was there before. It PES: Does that mean that smart sensors just wasn’t covered by the standard. always come with bigger errors than analogue ones? PES: Is there still a need for analogue sensors? JM: No, this is not true and a common JM: Oh yes, they are still relevant. Now at mistake that one could make thinking ‘that OTT HydroMet are selling more smart WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 89

ASK THE EXPERTS instruments than analogue. But some years and requirements, customers go for Class A, Class C, it’s the CMP/SMP3. We have one ago, it was the other way around. And we B, or C. The classification is a good pyranometer that is specially designed for keep selling analogue sensors, they will be introduction to various quality levels, but it extreme conditions and has an outstanding around for quite a while. The reasons can also has disadvantages. temperature behavior, it’s the CM4. But its vary. Some customers prefer analogue directional error is comparable to the CMP3. sensors because they have remote stations PES: What are those? or they are more traditional overall, for So, it is classified as Class C although it is example meteorological services. JM: A standard classification always narrows very good for its purpose. This is what one down product specifications to fixed should have in mind. Some quality features PES: Who is that standard made for and why? categories. Specific features can get lost. Let for very specific applications are not me explain that according to our sensors’ explicitly covered by the classification. JM: To start at the beginning, the ISO 9060 portfolio. At OTT HydroMet and our solar was made to give a rough indication of energy brand Kipp & Zonen have many PES: Would you say that the update still different quality levels and to make instruments in the highest Class A, as the makes sense? instruments easily comparable with each CMP10 and its smart version SMP10, CMP/ other. Basically, there are three different SMP11, CMP/SMP21, and CMP/SMP22. JM: Yes, for sure. And the standard even classes of quality. Depending on their budget mentions that for some applications, specific In Class B, we have the CMP/SMP6 and in instruments from lower classes might 90 PES SOLAR

ASK THE EXPERTS perform better than others from the highest composition of sunlight, the spectrum, Pyranometers with photodiodes don’t cover class. The Kipp & Zonen CM4 is an example of varies depending on the time of day in a the whole range of solar radiation from 300 that. So, the makers of the ISO 9060:2018 way more relevant for the application of nm to 3000 nm. ISO 9060:1990 demanded were very aware of that. solar measurements. spectral flatness of 3% across 350 nm 1500 nm spectral flatness which excluded Keep in mind the standard has been made for That said, the new 2018 version reflects the photodiode pyranometers from the solar energy, not for climate studies. And for reality much better than its predecessor classification. Now, they do not need to this purpose, for solar energy applications, it since it gives a typical uncertainty or ‘error comply with that range. As long as their is good and useful. The new version is much value in %’ that a customer can expect, and spectral error is within the requirements of a more modern and makes allowance for this number can directly be compared to specific class, they can be classified. technical developments and learnings from other instrumental errors such as recent years. temperature dependence That was not the Actually, they cover the range of visible light case with the spectral selectivity from the and even a bit more, that is 400 nm to more PES: Which changes would you rate most 1990 version. than 1000 nm. For some use cases, that important? perfectly matches the requirements. PES: How exactly does that spectral error JM: There are several, with one being the determine where to rank an instrument When you look at the testing spectrums inclusion of smart pyranometers’ errors. within the new classification? defined in ISO 9060:2018, it stays within the Another one is the addition of guard bands, allowed bands for a Class C pyranometer. So, if which basically means that measurement JM: Basically, you have to look at how the it performs like a pyranometer, why not call it a uncertainties are considered for specifying instrument reacts to a couple of different pyranometer? In the new standard in paragraph the different instrument properties, which spectrums and calculate the error for each 4.3.1 it is stated that the classification of makes the classification more realistic. spectrum separately. Then, you pick the pyranometers is based exclusively on the largest of these errors and that determines in measuring specifications of the instruments, The biggest change is surely the introduction which class you can put your instrument. not on manufacturing technologies. of a new parameter that describes the spectral flatness of a pyranometer. The PES: When we look at the new classification However, the SP Lite2 does not have the spectral selectivity from ISO 9060:1990 is in detail, we see that it describes more spectral flatness over the whole wavelength now replaced by the spectral error, which instruments than the first version of the range that our thermopile-type makes much more sense. It compares how an standard. What does that new Class C cover pyranometers have. That’s why it is classified instrument performs in the middle of the day and why has it been included? as Class C but without the addition with a certain atmospheric spectrum to its ‘spectrally flat’. The new classification helps performance in the morning and evening, JM: The new version of the standard now to easily visualize this important difference. when the solar elevation is significantly lower. covers well-built photodiode radiometers, too, that have not been covered in the old PES: You mention one new term that is part In short, the spectral error says something version. Our Kipp & Zonen SP Lite2, for of the 2018 version, ‘spectrally flat’. about what error you can expect when the example, is an entry-level pyranometer Another is ‘fast response’. Tell us position of the sun changes – and with that, based on a photodiode detector, not on a something about this. the solar spectrum. The spectral error thermopile module as the typical models. considers the important fact that the JM: In addition to the three Classes A, B, and C, we have those two new terms that specify the quality and characteristics of a pyranometer. We talked about the spectral flatness before. The other one, fast response, means that the instrument quickly reacts to changing solar radiation. Quickly means faster than 0.5 seconds. This can be important for solar PV plants. If the clouds move quickly and cast shadow on the PV modules, fast response pyranometers can immediately measure the right irradiance level and give nearly real-time information that is important for the determination of the performance ratio. Traditional pyranometers need around five seconds to measure an increase or decrease of solar radiation. With the new standard, users can identify quickly if the instrument is suitable for fast response applications or not. www.otthydromet.com WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 91

TALKING POINT Using thermal laser separation to cut solar cells in half-cells or stripes Over the past years, cutting solar cells into half-cells has grown to become a mainstream strategy in PV manufacturing. Significant gains in both power rating and mechanical strength at module level are demonstrated by using these technologies. It is also one of the key developments that has allowed the recent switch to larger cell formats and the accompanying jump in module power ratings. Since many of these larger formats, as well as half-cells are obtained. the substrate is heated locally by a laser and other technologies that caught the eye of Because TLS is a cleaving process, an initial subsequently cooled down by a mist of DI manufacturers, require cells to be cut into scribe (I-scribe) is required to give the water. By skillfully superimposing both areas, three or even more pieces, cell cutting is sure separation a well-defined starting point. a stress field comprised of tensile and to remain at the heart of PV manufacturing However, this I-scribe is significantly smaller compressive stresses is generated in which a for the foreseeable future. compared to conventional scribes for fissure can be introduced, independently of subsequent mechanical breaking (only a few any possible grain boundaries or preferred But this has not come without challenges or micrometers deep, wide and long). After that breakage directions. risk. A conventional cutting process is laser scribing, followed by a mechanical breaking Fig. 1: Illustration of TLS principle process. This laser scribing method requires a deep scribing of approx. 30%-50% of the wafer’s thickness and causes a significant damaging of the solar cell edge in combination with microcracks. Both have a negative effect to the performance of the cell. Basics of thermal laser separation (TLS) TLS is a well-known process that came from the micro-electronics industry. The process is well established in cutting of half-cells since many years with industry references from leading manufacturers. TLS process is a damage free laser dicing technique for brittle materials such as silicon, silicon carbide and gallium arsenide. It relies on the application of a defined and controlled stress field imposed by a laser-based heating and subsequent cooling. Thus, a crack is guided through the entire cell and two 92 PES SOLAR

TALKING POINT Fig. 2: Comparison of separation edges: Left a laser-processed edge with subsequent breaking, right a TLS edge Compared to conventional separation requires a cut in the middle of the cell. With The contour to area ratio is increasing while technologies, TLS impresses with its clean, this layout the modules benefit from a higher increasing the number of cuts (for half-cell microcrack-free edges. No crystal damage efficiency. By using TLS, the electrical one cut is necessary, for shingling modules up occurs on the separation edge – damage characteristics are further optimized and the to six cuts are performed). In general, this which is otherwise common to date due to breaking strength of the cut cells is improved results in recombination losses at the cutting the displacement of re-solidified silicon in significantly. This results in a higher lifetime edge of the solar cell. Due to the perfect edge the ablation region. As opposed to laser of the modules. quality of TLS cuts the edge recombination is cutting, no bulging and no formation of significantly reduced compared with laser particles occur, because the substrate is With the next generation of modules – the scribe and break processes [1]. merely heated and not vaporized. The so-called shingling modules – the benefits of mechanical stability of TLS-processed solar TLS cut cells are gaining momentum. In addition, applying a post metallization cells is significantly greater than Shingling modules not only guarantee an process, also referred to as edge conventionally processed solar cells. The even higher efficiency and module power passivation, can further reduce the process leaves no residue. output compared to half-cell modules, but recombination losses at the cutting edge are especially interesting for rooftop and may therefore be an ideal solution for This leads to a significant higher module applications due to their aesthetic look. the shingling concept for highest power gain and less module power However, a shingling module architecture performance increase. Results from the degradation. The innovative cooling process requires the cells to be cut into multiple Fraunhofer ISE patented Passivated Edge enables a faster temperature take-out than stripes. The smaller the separated cell size is Technology (PET) on TLS cut cells show that any other process which leads to best results the more important is a smooth edge with no TLS separated shingle stripes can regain on silicon layers and further temperature defects. By increasing the number of cuts per half the loss that is induced due to sensitive coatings or depositions. cell the effects of the cutting technology separation with an increase in pFF of up to become more relevant. This comprises both +0.7%abs. This gives TLS a clear advantage Current industry standard modules with cut the mechanical and electrical characteristics to laser scribe and break and proves that a cells are produced with half-cell layout which of the separated cell stripes. TLS low damage separation process with smooth edges is required to completely 2 benefit from advanced edge passivation process. The Fraunhofer ISE Passivated Fig. 3: Weibull characteristics of full cells and half cells cut with laser scribe and cleave (LSC) and TLS from Edge Technology consists of aluminium front and backside [3] oxide deposition with a subsequent annealing process [2]. Also, the relevance of breaking strength is increasing while going for shingling modules. The handling of the thin stripes and also the mechanical load on the edges during module production results in yield loss while using cell stripes with reduced edge quality. TLS proves the best breaking strength due to the high edge quality (See Fig. 3). Industry-approved laser machines 3D-Micromac has further improved its microCELL cutting systems using TLS technology. The new model microCELL MCS enables highest throughputs of more than 6,000 wafers per hour (full-cells) and is able to cut mono- as well as polycrystalline silicon, square and pseudo-square wafers in size M2 to M12/G12 into half-cells or shingled cells (cutting one cell down to six or more stripes). So, with six stripes shingle technology one TLS system produces 36,000 cell stripes per hour. WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 93

TALKING POINT Fig 4: The new microCELL MCS laser cutting system by 3D-Micromac. The new tool enables highest throughputs of more than 6,000 wafers per hour (full-cells) by using TLS microCELL MCS allows feed rates of up to 3D-Micromac is now pushing back 2 – F elix Kaule, Fraunhofer CSP: “ 500 mm/s. As in all microCELL systems, boundaries with groundbreaking tools that Postmetallization “Passivated Edge processing takes place ‘on the fly’. The highly are capable of cutting shingled cells as well. Technology” for Separated Silicon Solar improved transportation system guarantees Cells” in AIP Conference Proceedings 2018 lower tension on the cut edges, especially With the focus on unique technologies that with rising numbers of cuts. are aiming for quality and highest 3 - P uzant Baliozian, Fraunhofer ISE: throughput, the company offers solutions “Mechanical damage of half-cell cutting 3D-Micromac: Micromachining Excellence for all different laser processes in production technologies in solar cells and module like cell cutting, laser contact opening and laminates” in IEEE JOURNAL OF 3D-Micromac is the leading specialist in laser doping as well as unique laser systems for PHOTOVOLTAICS, Digital Object Identifier micromachining, based in Germany. Their machining of flexible thin-film solar cells. 10.1109/JPHOTOV.2019.2959946 technologies and systems have been successfully implemented in various 3D-Micromac operates its own fully- Contact: high-tech industries worldwide, equipped application lab staffed with e.g. photovoltaic, semiconductor, glass, and experienced application and process 3D-Micromac AG display industry. engineers to provide support to customers both in the development and establishment Technologie-Campus 8 In PV, 3D-Micromac has revolutionized the of processes as well in the choice of suitable 09126 Chemnitz, Germany cell and manufacturing production with the machine configurations. microCELL systems. The damage free Tel. +49 371 40043-222 cleaving process of Thermal Laser References: Separation (TLS) gains more and more [email protected] importance in downstream markets due to 1 - Nico Wöhrle, Fraunhofer ISE: “Solar Cell its mechanical and electrical benefits. As the Demand for Bifacial and Singulated-Cell www.3d-micromac.com market leader in half-cell cutting tools Module Architectures” in PV International 94 PES SOLAR

New: Laser Contract Manufacturing High-Throughput & Reliable Laser Equipment » Cutting of silicon solar cells into half-cells and shingled cells by TLS-Dicing® for excellent edge quality » Monolithic interconnection of flexible solar cells to serially connected submodules in process steps P1, P2, P3 Contact us: Tel: +49 371 40043-222 [email protected] WWW.3D-MICROMAC.COM

ASK THE EXPERTS Grid-forming takes charge Grid-forming is an emerging technology that allows solar and inverter-based energy sources to power up the grid independently. We spoke with Blair Reynolds, product manager for energy storage with SMA America, about his perspective on the technology, case studies and how the future of the industry may change in response to grid-forming. PES: It’s lovely to chat with you Blair, technologies to bolster the grid in areas Blair Reynolds welcome to PES. First of all, please could where the network is weak or the retirement you introduce yourself to our readers, of fossil fuel generating assets has left gaps penetration, every single project is highly including your role with SMA and your in the resiliency of the system. scrutinized, and the modeling and design experience with storage technology? iterations can take years to fulfill the grid PES: Are there specific storage applications operators’ fundamental concerns. Blair Reynolds: As the large-scale energy that have recently emerged? storage product manager for SMA America, However, if you can simply operate your I’m in charge of SMA’s energy storage BR: Yes, synchronous grid-forming inverter-based resources in such a way that solutions for North America. I’m also globally applications for inverter-based resources are they do not cause any harm, then I expect the responsible for SMA’s advanced DC-Coupled a relatively new application that is seeing bottlenecks and red tape to be lifted. In many and grid-forming inverter capabilities. I’ve increasing demand. The fundamental cases, that will lead to fast-tracked been active in the solar and energy storage principle involves operating the energy interconnection approvals for large-scale industry since 2007 and consider myself a storage system in a voltage source such as solar and wind farms when coupled with technology specialist with a focus on grid-forming, rather than a current source, or synchronous grid-forming energy storage. matching solar + storage systems and grid-following mode. product design with market applications By closely adhering to the operational and needs. Large scale grid-forming inverter technology expectations on which our 20th Century has been used for several decades in islanded, electric grids were built, we can become a PES: What emerging trends have you seen or microgrid applications, but the unique drop-in substitution of conventional with large-scale storage? element of the emerging applications is that generation assets. this technology is now capable of operating in BR: We are definitely seeing a shift towards a synchronous manner with the electric grid. In doing so, this drastically increases the longer duration storage of 4+ hours for In doing so, the inverter-based resources can addressable market for large-scale energy energy shifting applications, addressing the build strength and stability into the network storage systems, because we can inject classic ‘Duck-Curve’ problem, in markets through a variety of capabilities, including system strength in low short-circuit ratio with higher solar adoption. fast-frequency response and synthetic inertia. It can even aid in system restoration We are also seeing grid-support storage via black start capabilities. systems really hit their stride nearly four years after the UL 1741-SA standard became PES: Are there new revenue streams being mandated in high renewable penetration recognized by system owners as a result of markets in the US, such as California and new storage applications? Hawaii. Driven in large part by more severe climate events in recent years, these BR: Of course! This happens mostly in the systems are being put to the test by realm of frequency support and stability. providing valuable ancillary services such as However, I fully expect to see synthetic frequency regulation through active power inertia become mandatory for energy reserve, voltage support via reactive power storage connected to the bulk power system regulation and fault current support and in many parts of the world over the next five fault-ride-through. years. One major issue we see with deploying large-scale solar and wind projects is the However, perhaps more interestingly, we are amount of time and effort required to once again on the cusp of a transformative perform grid interconnection studies, which and rapid evolution from grid-support are used to ensure these assets won’t cause systems towards an exciting emerging trend further issues with network stability. In areas for using synchronous grid-forming with the highest amounts of renewable 96 PES SOLAR

ASK THE EXPERTS nodes and even increase network short- changes in the external system and provide synchronous grid-forming technology, is the circuit ratios to serve as an alternative to stability in the controls during challenging lowest cost, lowest risk pathway toward traditional 20th Century assets such as network conditions. This phasor is tightly replacing traditional fossil fuel generation with synchronous condensers. So, we actually controlled through proprietary software to renewable generation. If you believe that fossil create further opportunities for more maintain synchronism with other devices fuel reserves are finite and that nuclear fusion renewable assets to be interconnected, thus and control active and reactive currents to is still many decades away from being building a sustainable and healthy support the grid. commercially viable, then we really have no compounding market poised for growth. better technical solution to enable more than This technology can, of course, also provide 25 per cent renewable penetration on our PES: How are large-scale storage plants voltage support through reactive power world’s 20th Century electrical grids without aiding with grid stability? injection and can fundamentally replace the suffering from massive reliability need for rotating generators and shortcomings. SMA is leveraging its decades BR: Most inverter-based resources currently synchronous condensers by providing the of experience engineering reliable grid- in service are grid-following assets, and that same sort of spinning reserve inertia. This forming systems to help make that a reality. means they rely on fast synchronization with limits the Rate of Change Frequency (RoCoF) the external grid to tightly control their of the network by providing the same sort of PES: SMA worked on a power plant project active and reactive current outputs. If these inertial response. in Bordesholm Germany that featured inverters cannot remain synchronized during grid-forming technology. Can you explain grid events or under challenging network And finally, the ability to isolate a portion of why this technology was the right fit in conditions, they are unable to maintain the grid in the event of a natural disaster that situation? controlled, stable output. allows communities at risk to continue to receive a reliable power supply through a BR: Bordesholm is a municipality located in The primary objective of grid-forming series of microgrids, which can operate the northern German state of Schleswig- controls for inverter-based resources is to independently as needed. Holstein. Here, a 15 megawatt-hour SMA maintain an internal voltage phasor. When energy storage system with grid-forming grid-forming controls are applied to the bulk PES: Do you envisage the growth of the technology is ensuring the electricity supply power system connected inverter-based large-scale storage market to continue as for the entire Bordesholm region in the event resources, the voltage phasor is held rapidly as we’ve seen in recent years? of grid failure. constant in the subtransient to transient time frame. This allows the inverter-based BR: There is no doubt in my mind that the It’s a tightly coordinated system solution resource to immediately respond to growth will continue. The fundamental featuring seven Sunny Central Storage technology at play here, in particular the WWW.PESSOLAR.COM 97

ASK THE EXPERTS battery inverters and an SMA Hybrid power outage. They disconnected the village Pacific atoll with the silent, clean and Controller XL. In grid-tied operation, the of Bordesholm from the European utility grid practically limitless fuel source, virtually public utility company is able to supply the for one hour via the synchronous tie breaker. eliminating the need for the small island European utility grid with critical balancing Best of all, the 8,000 residents of Bordesholm nation to import diesel fuel. This saves its energy. In fact, the battery storage system did not even notice it. citizens more than $1 million a year. is considered one of the most state-of-the- art balancing energy power plants in the All households, businesses and institutions The same engineering principles and world. If there are sensitive frequency were still supplied with electricity without fundamental grid-forming technology that fluctuations in the utility grid, the SMA any interruptions. However, the power no powered the islands of Kythos and Tokelau can system provides frequency containment longer came from the European utility grid be scaled to achieve even more ambitious reserve from the battery storage system but instead from the stand-alone grid, goals. For example, in 2017 on the Caribbean within a fraction of a second. supplied by 100 percent renewable energy. Island of St. Eustatius, SMA switched off the island’s central diesel generators. This ushered Therefore, the electric utility company helps PES: Are there any other projects SMA has in a new era for the local electric utility to ensure a stable utility frequency of exactly powered that are relevant to this company with the complete commissioning of 50 Hertz – and participation in the primary technology? a 4.15 MW PV plant coupled with a 5.9 MWh frequency control energy market opens up battery energy storage system. lucrative business opportunities. BR: At the turn of the century, SMA demonstrated a new way to power remote We have made substantial progress in just However, the grid-forming SMA energy communities with a fully autonomous power the last two decades. There are no technical storage system is capable of much more. In supply system on the Greek island of Kythos. barriers that prevent us from continuing to the event of a power outage, it forms a The system is an interconnected network scale up this grid-forming technology, and stand-alone grid within fractions of a second. consisting of a 100 kW PV array, 665 kW of very soon the cost curves will justify In doing so, it supplies the connected loads wind turbines, 500 kW battery energy storage large-scale investment and deployment in with fully renewable energy from PV system and a diesel genset – thus harboring a more mainland networks. When this systems and biomass and CHP plants new era of Sunny Island microgrids. happens, the transition away from 20th without any interruptions. Century fossil fuel powered base load Almost a decade later, SMA surpassed yet generators and towards a completely In an intentional islanding demonstration another milestone when it powered up renewable energy grid will be swift. conducted at the end of 2019, the public Tokelau, the first country in the world with utility company simulated a large-scale 100% solar power. SMA replaced the www.sma-america.com constant hum of diesel gensets on the South 98 PES SOLAR

WHEN DO WE START NOW! SHINING INSTEAD OF MINING? Visit us at Intersolar Europe 2021 Booth A5.170 This is the Decade That Matters. With renewable energy, we can avoid the worst effects of climate change together. The solutions are already here. www.decade-that-matters.com

ASK THE EXPERTS Clear thinking As the world steers its way towards carbon neutrality and the immediate effects of climate change are brought into ever sharper focus, Claire Gardner, Marketing Manager, Europe, at Solis spoke to PES about what the future may have in store and how solar technology looks set to play its part. PES: It’s great to welcome you back to PES the energy sector, it’s one that we can all Claire Gardner Solar Claire. Perhaps it would be good to make together. begin with a short overview of Solis This project utilises the Solis 110kW string Inverters and where the company fits in the PES: It’s always good to see systems and inverter which delivers excellent efficiency at solar market if we may, for those readers solutions being used in a real-world context almost 99% and supports 150% oversizing who aren’t so familiar with your work? to get a feel for their benefits. We noticed making it both flexible from a design point of an interesting case study involving Solis view and highly economical. Claire Gardner: Our parent company, Inverters recently, involving a carbon Ginlong Technologies was established in neutral fuel station in China. Can you give PES: Is this the first carbon neutral fuel 2005 by entrepreneur, Yiming Wang who still us some background on that one? station that you know of, and do you think leads the company today. He is driven and this will become more common in the future? passionate about providing sustainable CG: Absolutely. This is a great example of solutions which help to deliver against global different sectors across the energy spectrum CG: Certainly the first we have worked on in carbon reduction targets. working together for a higher common goal. this way and the statistics speak for Sinopec is China’s largest petrochemical themselves. Solar power generation enables In recent years Solis has become a top tier, company and as such, can make a huge impact the fuel station to annually reduce over 81 respected string inverter manufacturer and on reducing carbon emissions. tons of carbon dioxide emissions. we are proud of our top 3 market share position globally. We operate in countries We are working with them on several projects The site would annually emit 76 tons of carbon across all continents and local teams provide like this to bring carbon neutrality to a batch dioxide and therefore a balance is created service and support to our customers. of Sinopec fuel stations. between the CO2 reduced and the CO2 emitted. A genuine carbon neutral situation. PES: As targets for carbon neutrality edge PES: It’s not often we see the world of fossil ever closer and the world of solar continues fuels and clean energy colliding in this way, PES: China has a national target of to develop too, presumably business is is it? carbon neutrality by 2060. Do you think this quite brisk for you at the moment? is realistic? CG: I think we can expect to see more of it CG: It’s certainly been an interesting time though. We are in a period of energy transition CG: Of course, it’s not just the adoption of over the last year or so hasn’t it. The and unless there is a certain amount of more solar power that will achieve that target emergence of Covid -19 put the spotlight on collaboration across the different sectors, so many areas of our lives that we had all that transition will be a very difficult one. perhaps overlooked. This relationship and the fuel station project, Renewable energy and solar had been on an demonstrate how working together can lead upward trajectory for some years and images to the achievement of positive results. of cities across the globe suddenly appearing in crystal clear focus with no smog hanging PES: How did Solis contribute to creating over them visualised the stark impact we all the balance between the CO2 reduced and have on the world around us. 2020 turned out the CO2 emitted that the client was hoping to be our most successful year yet, which we for do you think? are incredibly proud of. CG: In mid-2020 we worked with Sinopec on Quite uniquely we offer products from 700W the initial design and survey of the site as well all the way up to 350kW so whether it’s a as in partnership with Longi who were small new build residential property or a supplying the solar modules. utility scale solar project, we have an inverter to fit every situation. The journey towards The project is BIPV where the modules are carbon neutrality is a long one and with the integrated within the roof itself so discussions commitment and focus from all key players in and decisions on the solar system needed to happen at a much earlier stage than in more commonly used roof mounted systems. 100 PES SOLAR