RAFAC - STEM booklet - Space

2

3 Space. Why does it fascinate us and The RAF, via the ASTRA capture our imagination? Is it directive, plans to increase the because now that we have number of personnel committed to conquered our skies, we want to know this domain. UK Defence now has a what is further ‘up there’? Is it because Director Space (Air Vice-Marshal Smyth, we look at the moon at night and wonder whom kindly participated with how it possible that we have had people the content for this booklet). In the RAF travel so far and walk on its surface (which Air Cadets, the Training Ground (TG) to date, is an ultra-exclusive club of only branch have introduced the Space twelve people)? Does the progressive training syllabus, created in incomprehensible enormity of the solar partnership with the Open University. system, galaxies and the universe blow our minds? It can arouse our curiosity as The aim of this booklet is to inspire. It it is out of our reach, except for the contains: practical STEM activities relevant relatively small number of bold to Space; spotlights on some of the space astronauts. And what – or who – else is agencies; apps and simulators for you to out there? try; related RAF careers and roles, and; information on space travel, the space Films and programmes like Star Trek technology we now use every day in our helped science fiction become science homes and some fascinating space facts fact, inspiring such technology as mobile and articles. I hope you enjoy the content phones and tablet computers to become in the following pages – maybe this could reality. And the rate of development in be the start of a new journey for you. space-related technology will continue to rapidly increase, demanding a larger workforce with modern skills. Space is becoming more relevant to all of us in our everyday lives. We rely on satellites and their security, in order to use mobile technology and much more.

4

5

8 38 15 40 18 45 23 46 24 27 Air & Space Operations Specialist 30 (Flight Operations) 31 48 49 Air & Space Operations Specialist 51 (Aerospace Systems) 52 33 53 34 55 37 6

57 73 58 75 76 Air Operations (Systems) Officer 77 60 78 61 79 64 80 65 81 67 82 69 83 70 84 71 7 72

The development of a modern and dynamic space syllabus represents a major step forward in the delivery of innovative and technology-led training. The new syllabus is testament to how collaboration and partnership can work, as the Open University have engaged exceptionally well over the past 18 months to provide a wide range of learning material that will be used across the Blue, Bronze, Silver and Gold Levels. The introductory Blue Level was launched on 16 June 2020 and concentrates on the applications of technology developed for space travel. This allows cadets to research and understand where space begins, how satellites are used, how we look from space and how space exploration has developed. The next levels of the syllabus will concentrate on topics including: the development of rocket engines, space exploration and the Earths relationship to the solar system. The roll out of STEM, Cyber and Space Ambassadors will allow the RAFAC to build a portfolio of talented people who can accelerate the changes needed to support the delivery of STEM based training that is fit for the Next Generation. 8

9

10

11

12

13

Interested in STEM? We will be looking for volunteers to help deliver the experience to a wider audience, as part of the RAFAC 2025 strategy. STEM covers a wide range of subjects, some of which are very specialist. Therefore, RAFAC ASTRA Ambassadors will initially be divided into three main categories: Space, STEM and Cyber. It is strongly emphasised that the RAFAC ASTRA Ambassadors will be an additional duty role within the RAFAC for volunteers who are keen and invited to assist with STEM delivery: it is important to acknowledge that the current primary role on a squadron or WHQ/school etc takes priority. RAFAC ASTRA Ambassadors will be appointed to actively offer support to their Wing and Region/TEST Area (and where invited, to National events or helping to develop National camps). This is just one of our RAFAC ASTRA initiatives – more to come! Space Ambassadors will be staff or Staff Cadets that have either professional experience, knowledge or keen interest of rocketry, satellites or other space-related subjects, or have attended any courses or camps where this has been delivered. Space Ambassadors will assist in furthering knowledge and experience in this area. STEM Ambassadors will be staff and Staff Cadets that have a general interest in STEM. STEM Ambassadors will: assist in furthering the STEM experience by: supporting delivery of CREST Awards; providing experience of MTa STEM kits; LEGO Mindstorms, Sphero’s and other robots; logistics, design and engineering activities, and more. Cyber Ambassadors will be Staff or Staff Cadets that have professional experience of cyber, or have attended the Gold Cyber course. Cyber Ambassadors will assist in furthering experience and delivery of the various Cyber courses to a wider audience. More detailed information on RAFAC ASTRA Ambassadors to be released soon. 14

Growing up as a teenager in Northern Ireland, Air Vice-Marshal Smyth joined the Army Cadets at his school (“it was the complete making of me, I mean that wholeheartedly”) and credits his shooting ability today to the marksmanship training he received whilst an Army Cadet. Not only that, but he told us that “being in the Cadets taught me leadership skills that I still use today as a senior leader in Defence, and that goes to show how good the teaching is, across all the Cadet Forces”. As a way of payback to the skills he gained, he has become an Honorary Colonel for his old Battalion; he still has links to the Cadet Forces today, as his daughters are both part of their school CCF(RAF). And when he was Station Commander at RAF Marham, he hosted many Air Cadet Summer Camps and was the Reviewing Officer for several Air Cadet parades. He joined the RAF straight out of school as a pilot, going through Fast Jet training and being streamed onto the BAe Harrier. Having served in all the major conflicts of the late 20th and 21st centuries, he was OC 4 Sqn when the Harrier was withdrawn from service. This led him down a different path, with various subsequent roles including F35 Lightning Force Commander and, most recently AOC 1 Gp, before he applied for his current role in what will soon become Space Command. 15

The military’s involvement with Space is nothing new. AVM Smyth talked compared the development of flight over a century ago, and how being part of that new technology is appealing and exciting. “I think that if we went back 100 years, when we were just getting our teeth into flying aeroplanes, and people were looking up and saying, ‘this is exciting, this is different and we are exploring this new frontier’… I think there is something in human nature that thinks this is exciting and wants to be involved with it, it’s new and ground-breaking, leading the field… and that’s what I sense about Space”. The Royal Air Force announced its new ASTRA programme at the start of 2020. In terms of Space, the RAF has some very clear views on how it wants to grow its Space cadre: by 2030, the RAF hopes to have about 2000 personnel concentrating on Space efforts (currently there are about 300-500 across the whole of Defence). It’s quite an ambition for the Service to grow beyond where we are today and that reflects the understanding of the importance of Space. One of the first important tasks is to develop a space capability roadmap, which is where opportunity will arise for promoting UK prosperity, and giving opportunity for small industry up to large prime industry, so that they can see a pathway to their own growth. “When people think of space, they think of people in spacesuits, rockets taking off… actually it’s the applications that we get from space that are so important, the communications, systems like GPS, what we use on our mobile phones… those won’t work to the standard that society has become used to without satellites, air traffic wouldn’t work… it completely underpins everything we do – not just in the military but also in modern society and that’s why it’s so important to us and why we treat is as critical national infrastructure”. Space is a hugely important sector for national defence, as well as for economic growth and improved standards of living. Satellites these days are already being used to enable individuals around the world to access the internet who didn’t previously have any coverage, as well as enabling organisations to track health data quickly and effectively, certainly a pertinent issue at the moment. The military, and indeed the UK as a whole, are involved in Space for a variety of reasons. The SKYNET satellites, which have been around since 1969, are coming into their 6th generation. These satellites provide world class secure communications around the world, for use by the British Military and NATO forces. 16

These satellites allow military personnel anywhere in the world, from personnel on board a ship to Special Forces in the desert, to communicate securely and reliably. AVM Smyth believes that cadets should be enthusiastic about Space because it’s at the cutting edge of technology; as we look ahead a few decades, the real high-end technological gains and growth are going to be in space technologies, or even in Space itself. He enthused that “the opportunities are so amazing” within the cadets to learn new things and to open up opportunities to take new and exciting career paths that you may not have even known existed before. “It’ all about preparing for the future, there’s a real growth market here”. He has taken a look at the new Blue Space booklet and was hugely impressed with it, telling us “I wish I’d had this training… and I would advocate it, get stuck in!”. 17

Since Mar 2019 I have been part of high in the atmosphere being in just the the SKYNET Team at Hawthorn in right condition so it could act like a Wiltshire and a Spacecraft Controller. mirror, bouncing signals back to the Earth The RAF had Spacecraft Controllers up over the horizon. until 2003, when the job was transferred to civilian contractors immediately before the next generation of Spacecraft – SKYNET 5 - were launched. My brief is to learn as much as I can from the experts currently doing that job and bring that back into the RAF for the future. SKYNET 5 Placing satellites in Geostationary Orbit – a particular, very circular orbit around the First, the name SKYNET is older than The Earth exactly above the equator and an Terminator assassin robot of the Arnold altitude of 36000km – meant they would Schwarzenegger films! The name was go around the Earth in exactly 24 hours coined back in 1969 as a programme to and so appear to be stationary in the sky. launch two satellites providing communications for the Royal Navy. Antennas on a Satellite Ground Station in Before satellite communications, the RN the UK ‘bounce’ the radio signals through had to use High Frequency Radio, which the satellite, which send them back from was highly unreliable, needing a layer very space to the antennas on ships in another part of the World. 18

The first SKYNET – named 1A - launched replace SKYNET 4.These satellites are huge in 1969 and was the first geosynchronous in comparison to the older SKYNET 4s. communications Spacecraft to reach They weigh in at 4.7T (approx. 2 large operational service. In comparison to SUVs) and have solar arrays 25m long on modern communications satellites, it was both the top and bottom surfaces. They tiny, only about the size of a lorry wheel offer much higher data rates and are also and carrying only the equivalent of a few much more reliable than their voice calls of data. predecessors. They are still world class military communications satellites and SKYNET 2B followed on in 1974 and then used to support UK and allied military in 1988 the first SKYNET 4 was launched communications. (SKYNET 4B). It came in 2 stages (3 in each, Stage 1 SKYNETs 4A-4C and Stage 2 SKYNET 4D-F). Two of these satellites remain in service today with SKYNET 4C approaching its 30th birthday. Not bad for a satellite with a 7 year design life. All the satellites in the constellation are controlled from the purpose built Spacecraft Control Centre at Hawthorn, just East of Bath, Somerset. The actual antennas we use to send commands to the satellites are at Colerne in Wiltshire and Oakhanger in Hampshire, both ex RAF stations. There is an additional ground station in Adelaide, Australia to control SKYNET 5A, sitting over the Pacific Ocean. The Space Operations Centre is manned 24/7 with a crew of at least 2 people who manage both the satellites and antennas. All the controllers go through a rigorous nine month training course to ensure that they fully understand all the systems on the satellite as well as the procedures used to control them. There is a lot of time spent in the simulators to ensure that the SKYNET 5 was launched from 2007 – 2012 with a total of 4 satellites designed to 19

controllers know how to respond to an When this happens the controllers have a emergency with the satellite. This is large number of procedures to follow to important as a small anomaly can, if not ensure the spacecraft is in a safe and handled properly, can lead to the loss of a stable position to allow us to recover it. satellite. It means that a quiet shift can When this happens the controllers must quickly become a very busy one with very ensure they are doing the right thing at little warning, when this occurs, the the right time or the spacecraft could be control team need to do the right thing at left in an un-recoverable state. It can the right time to recover the situation. include turning the satellite around so it is The last thing anyone wants is an facing the earth allowing the team to uncontrollable satellite drifting in orbit, bring the satellite back online and can forcing other satellites to avoid it. take hours or even days of intense work. If the Spacecraft cannot be saved then it is A typical day in the Spacecraft Control sent into a graveyard orbit. This is an Centre normally focusses on the routine orbit 300km above geosynchronous maintenance tasks to keep the height and is used to store failed constellation in their orbital slots and spacecraft. It takes a massive multi-stage operating safely. We regularly need to rocket with hundreds of tonnes of fuel to manoeuvre the satellite by firing thrusters give a geostationary satellite the energy to ensure they are in the right place on for orbit, so deorbiting them to burn up in orbit. We need to adjust the spacecraft the earth’s atmosphere is impossible sensors to make sure they are not being In this case, the controllers fire the blinded by the sun as it passes behind the thrusters on the spacecraft to raise the earth and ensure that the payload is orbit as high as they can and burn as configured correctly to carry out its task. much fuel as possible and then power But these routine tasks can be taken over down, making sure the batteries are flat. by events very quickly if a spacecraft This minimises the chance of the suffers an anomaly. This can range from a spacecraft exploding and throwing debris small outage where a system needs to be out into other satellites. turned off and on again (although this is not quite as simple from 36000km away) In addition to controlling the satellites to major events that cause the spacecraft themselves, the crew also manage the to shut down in order to save itself. ground segment including all the 20

antennas. As with everything related to its optimum. This becomes especially geostationary satellites, these are huge, important as the satellite gets older. each one being approximately 14m in • The training team provide initial diameter. These can be turned to focus training and ensure that all the on any constellation as long as it is above controllers maintain currency with the horizon. In order to complete periodic simulator refresher sessions. maintenance works or ranging (how we • The Spacecraft Management Authority work out where the satellite is in its orbit), is responsible for ensuring that all the antennas are regularly swapped controllers and systems meet all meaning we have to re-point the antennas regulatory requirements for operating and ensure we can still control the satellites. satellite. As well as being a spacecraft controller, When you consider that a single my role is to provide a link between the command sent from the console in the SpOC at High Wycombe and the SKYNET operations centre can turn a huge antenna Team at Hawthorn. This ensures that on the other side of the globe or move a everyone is aware of potential threats to 4.5T satellite going at 3 km/s, 36000km in the spacecraft and that the SpOC are space it is a very cool job. It gets even aware of any issues with the spacecraft. more serious when you consider the cost This is a busy job given the number of of each satellite, a SKYNET 5 cost the satellites currently in the geosynchronous equivalent to about 10 Typhoon FGR4s. belt and we talk regularly to the Orbital We have a lot of support to ensure that all Analysts at the SpOC to keep our these things happen correctly and at the awareness up. We have also seen a right time, teamwork is absolutely massive increase in the number of essential to carry out these complex tasks. satellites carrying out close approaches on The Flight Dynamics team ensure the allied satellites. We work very closely with spacecraft operations are all scheduled the SpOC to ensure we are forewarned of correctly and plan all manoeuvres. the threat. • The Spacecraft Operations I also talk to the Strategic Command team Engineering team analyse long term that manage the use of Satellite trends and plan changes in various systems. These include the thermal control systems, the attitude and orbit control system, power systems, and making sure the satellite operates to 21

communications for defence to ensure programmes like ARTEMIS (the new ISR they are aware of any threats they need to satellites announced last year) and react to. changes to the SKYNET contract in 2022 which mean the MOD will again take As the lead service for space operations ownership of the satellites, it was felt that the RAF used to have a large amount of there was a need to regain some of the experience in operating satellites with a knowledge lost. It has proved to be a unit called 1001 Signals Unit, previously highly rewarding posting working with a based at RAF Oakhanger which used to highly professional team at SKYNET. control the entire SKYNET 4/NATO IV constellation until the operation was privatised in 2003. During this posting I have become the first RAF SKYNET 4 controller since 2003 and the first ever RAF SKYNET 5 controller (the satellites were launched after the handover to SKYNET), an achievement that I am proud of. A lot of the experience was lost as the people who used to operate the satellites moved over to SKYNET to operate the satellites on behalf of the MOD. With 22

Nasa led the way in robotics in order to remotely control space vehicles, and this technology has been successfully adapted to create more functionally dynamic artificial limbs. Another Nasa invention – memory foam (see below) – has also been used to mould coverings that have the natural look and feel of flesh. 2. Finding ways for astronauts to access a ready supply of drinking water is an ongoing challenge for Nasa engineers. Collaborating with commercial companies, they have developed systems for use on the International Space Station that turn wastewater from respiration, sweat and urine into drinkable water. The technology is now been utilised in underdeveloped parts of the world where water may be heavily contaminated. 3. Sensing early signs of fire is a vital consideration for the safety of astronauts and there is no room for error in detection. In the 1970s, Nasa instigated the invention of a smoke detector that could be adjusted to different sensitivity levels, to protect from false alarms. The development informed later designs of the inexpensive detectors we rely on today. 4. Before astronauts went into space, unmanned satellites were sent up on test flights to beam data back to Earth. The technology is now an essential part of our everyday lives, allowing long-distance communication via 200-odd satellites that currently orbit the globe each day. 23

Gagarin's flight came at a time when the United States and the Soviet Union were competing for technological supremacy in space. The Soviet Union had already sent the first artificial satellite, called Sputnik, into space in October 1957. Before Gagarin's mission, the Soviets sent a test flight into space using a prototype of the Vostok spacecraft. During this flight, they sent a life-size dummy called Ivan Ivanovich and a dog named Zvezdochka into space. After the test flight, the Soviet's considered the vessel fit to take a human into space. As a teenager, Gagarin witnessed a Russian Yak fighter plane make an emergency landing near his home. When offered a chance years later to join a flying club, he eagerly accepted, making his first solo flight in 1955. He later joined the Soviet Air Forces as a pilot and was stationed at the Luostari Air Base, near the Norwegian border, before his selection for the Soviet space programme with 24

five other cosmonauts. More than 200 Russian Air Force fighter pilots were selected as cosmonaut candidates. Such pilots were considered optimal because they had exposure to the forces of acceleration and the ejection process, as well as experience with high-stress situations. Gagarin, a 27-year-old senior lieutenant at the time, was among the pilots selected. Because no one was certain how weightlessness would affect a pilot, the spherical capsule had little in the way of onboard controls; the work was done either automatically or from the ground. If an emergency arose, Gagarin was supposed to receive an override code that would allow him to take manual control, but Sergei Korolev, chief designer of the Soviet space program, disregarded protocol and gave the code to the pilot prior to the flight. Over the course of 108 minutes, Vostok 1 travelled around the Earth once, reaching a maximum height of 203 miles. The spacecraft carried 10 days' worth of provisions in case the engines failed and Gagarin was required to wait for the orbit to naturally decay. But the supplies were unnecessary. Gagarin re-entered Earth's atmosphere, managing to maintain consciousness as he experienced forces up to eight times the pull of gravity during his descent. 25

About 4 miles up, Gagarin ejected from the spacecraft and parachuted to Earth. In order for the mission to be counted as an official spaceflight, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the governing body for aerospace records, had determined that the pilot must land with the spacecraft. Soviet leaders indicated that Gagarin had touched down with the Vostok 1, and they did not reveal that he had ejected until 1971. Regardless, Gagarin still set the record as the first person to leave Earth's orbit and travel into s pace. Upon his return to Earth, Gagarin was an international hero. A cheering crowd of hundreds of thousands of people greeted him in Red Square, a public plaza in Moscow. A national treasure, Gagarin travelled around the world to celebrate the historic Soviet achievement. Because the Soviets did not want to risk losing such an important public figure, they were hesitant about allowing Gagarin to return to space. He continued to make test flights for the Air Force, however. On March 27, 1968, Gagarin was killed (along with another pilot) while test-piloting a MiG- 15, a jet fighter aircraft. NASA's Apollo 11, the first mission to put people on the moon, landed in July 1969, and the crew left behind a commemorative medallion bearing Gagarin's name. 26

• corrugated cardboard body (6- corrugation (the tubes inside a piece inch/15-cmsquare) of cardboard). • 2 corrugated cardboard wheels 2. Then, make the front wheels. On the (5-inch/13-cmsquare) two 5-inch (13-cm) cardboard squares, draw diagonal lines from • 1 sharpened round pencil corner to corner. Poke a small hole in • 2 rubber bands the centre (that’s where the lines • ruler cross). On the body, poke one hole • tape close to the end of each side for the • 2 Polo mints axle. Make sure the holes are directly • 1 drinking straw across from each other and are big • scissors enough for the pencil to spin freely. 1. First, you have to make the body. 3. Now attach the front wheels. Slide Fold the cardboard into thirds. Each the pencil through the body’s axle part will be about 2 inches (5 cm) holes. Push a wheel onto each end. across. Fold along (not across) the Secure with tape. 4. Next, make the rear wheels. Tape the straw under the back end of the rover. Slip a Polo onto each end. Bend and tape the axle to stop the Polo’s from coming off. 5. Finally, attach the rubber band. Loop one end around the pencil. Cut small slits into the back end of the body. Slide the free end of the rubber bands into the slits. 27

Test your rover. Wind up the wheels, set holes. Also, make sure the wheels are the rover down, and let it go. firmly attached and are parallel to the sides. Did everything work? Can you make your rover go farther? Engineers improve their • the rover doesn’t go far - wind up the designs by testing them. This is called the wheels more. Try wheels of different design process. sizes or shapes, eg, square, octagonal, and round wheels. Or, add another Try redesigning the wheel setup or rubber rubber band or use a rubber-band band system. For example, if: chain. • the wheels don’t turn freely - check • the wheels spin out - add weight that the pencil turns freely in the above the square wheels; put more wheels on the pencil; use bigger wheels; or cut open a rubber band and use only a single strand of elastic. • the rover won’t travel in a straight line - check that the pencil is straight and the front wheels are the same size. 28

Snowmobiles, tanks, dune buggies, and • withstands extreme hot and cold all-terrain vehicles are similar. They all temperatures—on the moon, they have good traction, are very stable, have range from roughly 250oto –250o powerful engines, and don’t require a Fahrenheit (121o to –157o Celsius) roadway. • weighs 12 pounds (5.5 kg), which is To be efficient, there needs to be minimal half the weight of an average car tyre friction between the axle and the axle hole in the cardboard. To move, there needs • won’t get clogged with the fine dust to be lots of friction between the wheels that covers the moon and the ground. The farthest trip anyone has ever taken on Potential energy is energy that is stored. the moon with a rover is 2.8 miles (4.5 Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. km). Winding the front wheels increased the amount of potential energy stored by the Despite these challenges, engineers rubber band. When the wheels spin, this designed a tyre that worked perfectly potential energy is turned into kinetic when it was used on the moon. It’s made energy, and the axle and wheels turn. of thin bands of springy metal. That helps it be lightweight, have good traction, and work at any temperature the moon can throw at it. Plus, it flexes when it hits a rock, and it doesn’t need to be pumped up. Dependability is important. There’s no roadside service when you’re on the moon, 250,000miles (400,000 km) from home. The moon doesn’t have an atmosphere - there’s no air there! So air-filled tyres like the ones on a bike or car would explode - the air inside would push through the tyre to escape into outer space (where there’s no air to push back against the walls of the tire). Imagine you’re a NASA engineer who has to design a tyre that: • works in space, where there’s no atmosphere 29

30

• Assist in the scrambling of Quick Reaction Alert Typhoon jets to intercept suspect aircraft. • Keep watch for foreign missile launches and monitor foreign surveillance satellites to warn friendly forces they may be being observed from space. • Monitor and identify all aircraft flying within UK airspace and throughout NW Europe. As an Air & Space Operations Specialist (Aerospace Systems) you are the eyes and ears of the RAF. You will play a vital part in UK homeland defence, contribute to the security of UK overseas territories and UK Armed Forces serving abroad and be a part of the UK Government’s mission to act as a force for good throughout the world. Throughout your career you will operate from a hardened Command and Control Centre; a deployed Command and Control Radar Unit, working and living in field conditions both in the UK and overseas; a missile warning/space surveillance radar unit; RAF Main Operating Bases and Royal Navy (RN) Air Defence ships. 31

You will assist in the direction of fighter, ground attack, surveillance and refuelling aircraft operating to maintain control of the air. In the Space environment, you will help provide a 24- hour Ballistic Missile Early Warning and Space Surveillance service to UK and US senior leadership. You may also have the opportunity to work with Data Links and Electronic Warfare units. Throughout your career you may be required to serve overseas on a detachment as part of your role for a number of months, or as a full-time posting to certain locations working alongside other services and nations. Your duties will be similar to those at your home station, but will be more demanding in an operational environment. Your career will start with a 10-week Basic Recruit Training Course at RAF Halton in Buckinghamshire. The course is designed to help you adjust to a military environment. As well as fitness and military training, you’ll also learn about the RAF lifestyle. The next step is the 8-week Aerospace Systems Specialist Course at RAF Shawbury in Shropshire. Here you will learn about: • Modern Air Battle Management and its development from the proud legacy of the Battle of Britain. • The interpretation and operation of complex radar systems. • Data Links and communication networks: how they work and are used to communicate with aircraft, RN ships and ground stations. • Missile Warning and Space Surveillance. • Joint Land and Maritime operations. • The capabilities of aircraft and weapons systems currently operated by the RAF and its allies. • You will be trained and examined in a simulated and/or live operational environment. https://www.raf.mod.uk/recruitment/roles/roles-finder/air-operations-support/air-space-operations- specialist-aerospace-systems 32

There is no atmosphere in space, which means that sound has no medium or way to travel to be heard. Astronauts use radios to stay in communication while in space, since radio waves can still be sent and received. Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system and has an average surface temperature of around 450° C. Interestingly, Venus is not the closest planet to the Sun – Mercury is closer but because Mercury has no atmosphere to regulate temperature it has a very large temperature fluctuation. The sheer size of space makes it impossible to accurately predict just how many stars we have. Right now, scientists and astronomers use the number of stars only within our galaxy, The Milky Way, to estimate. That number is between 200-400 billion stars and there are estimated to be billions of galaxies so the stars in space really are completely uncountable. Discovered in 1705 by Edmond Halley, the famous comet was last seen in 1986 and is only seen once every 75 to 76 years. While the entire suit costs a $12m, 70% of that is for the backpack and control module. 33

Name: Bonnie Posselt (reduced oxygen (hypoxia), G-force, low Daytime job title: Doctor pressure, vibration), how to perform to Employer: Royal Air Force their best ability, and how to use the STEM area: Medicine (Aviation & Space) equipment needed (oxygen masks, Rank: Squadron Leader lifejackets, G trousers, helmets etc.). · Research – Conducting trials and Aviation and Space medicine is the study experiments to ensure that new of all factors affecting the human body in equipment works for the people who need flight. Although I am a doctor, I do not it. Or to answer questions that arise from see patients in the traditional sense. flying operations. Instead, my job blends medicine, pure · Accident Investigation – To investigate science, research, physics, engineering, the cause of aircraft crashes and study the psychology, teaching and other disciplines injuries that can occur with the different in order to support men and women in types. the air and space. Examples of my job include: Although the military do not have any · Clinical – performing routine medical astronauts, space medicine essentially is examinations as well as occupationally the same in many aspects and is part of specific trials to make sure aircrew are fit my training. As part of my training for the to do their job. · Training – teaching aircrew what to expect in the aerospace environment 34

Space medicine aspect, I have worked at most appropriate medical selections the European Astronaut Centre in standards should be. Cologne, Germany and spent a summer at the International Space University. I love the variety of the job. When in the UK I’m based at the RAF Centre of Additionally, I took part in an analogue Aviation Medicine; one day I could be space mission with the Austrian Space teaching pilots about G-forces on the Forum as the medical Officer. We spent 5 human centrifuge, another I could be weeks in the deserts of Oman, simulating doing medical examinations in clinic, and Mars. Our analogue astronauts wore another testing a new face mask or giving space suits and performed a number of a lecture on an aerospace medicine topic. experiments as well as tested new equipment, practicing for when humans I like that it’s a small speciality and travel to Mars for real! involves collaboration with peers in other countries all around the world. Also, I love getting to fly whenever I can in as many different types of aircraft. Photo credit: Austrian Space Forum I first learnt about the RAF as a cadet in the CCF at school. This led me to join the Currently I am working with the US Air University Air Squadron at Manchester Force, as part of an Exchange programme. University where I was lucky enough to I’m spending 3 years at Wright-Patterson continue learning to fly, travel the world Air Force Base in Ohio conducting research into the next generation Helmet Mounted Display Systems, and what the 35

on expeditions, and make friends for life. Different medical schools require different During my medical studies I became A-levels, but most will ask for Chemistry increasingly interested in the human body possibly also with Biology. After medical in extreme environments. I spent 4 weeks school you need to complete your junior at the RAF Centre of Aviation Medicine doctor training and take some more post (RAF Henlow, Bedfordshire), which graduate membership exams, but that’s introduced me to the subject. In quite far down the line. Flying experience particular, I loved whizzing around in the is definitely beneficial for the job but not centrifuge experiencing G-force! I then essential. went on to study it in more detail for my undergraduate studies with a BSc in If you don’t know what you want to do, Aerospace Physiology at King’s College then try a little bit of everything to find London. out. Once you’ve found something you’re interested in or passionate about then When I found out that you could mix pursue every opportunity you can to find flying and medicine in the RAF, I knew out even more. Enthusiasm, drive, and that it was for me. There have been a passion will get you a long way. I couldn’t number of steps I’ve taken along the way have done any of this without a science to get me where I am today. The education, so I’d definitely advocate foundations were studying Maths, Physics, students to keep studying science. and Chemistry at A-level, enabling me to study medicine at Manchester University. Here are some YouTube videos about During University I joined the RAF, and Aviation & Space Medicine, suggested had to pass the selection standards and by Sqn Ldr Posselt: interviews. They then sponsored me through my last two years. After https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h- university, I worked as a junior doctor in KAeeSi2TY Birmingham and London, rotating through RAF video about the Mars Analogue mission a number of different specialities (A&E, surgery, GP, cardiology, anaesthetics) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wmxgE1lkF before I was allowed to specialise in FU Aviation and Space medicine. There are How scientists’ practice for a trip to Mars only a few training posts, so I was lucky to get a slot. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMKcO- T5Y4o Centrifuge operations https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4WCam- YTZw A friend of mine made this video (parts in French with subtitles) 36

5. Nasa conducted wide-ranging research into space food when planning for the lengthy Apollo missions, developing a freeze-drying technique first used in the Second World War to transport blood over long distances without refrigeration. The food they created retained almost all of its nutrition but weighed 20 per cent of its original weight, making it ideal for carriage in large quantities on cramped spacecraft. The technique is now used across the food industry. They are also easier and more pleasant to eat than former meal sources that were packed into squeeze tubes. 6. The lightweight silver blankets were developed in 1964. As well as reflecting infrared radiation, they help the body retain heat and are now a staple in modern first aid kits to treat shock and hypothermia. 7. The mattress that moulds to the shape of a warm body is made from a polyurethane- based foam, invented by Nasa in 1966 in a bid to enhance the safety of aircraft cushions. The foam is also used in medical settings, when patients have to lie still for long periods of time, to decrease the chance of pressure sores. 8. Nasa worked with the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company in the 1970s to produce a fibrous material five times stronger than steel. This was used for parachute shrouds to aid the soft landing of the Viking Lander spacecraft on the surface of Mars. Goodyear went on use the material to create a new type of tyre with a tread that would last 10,000 miles longer than a conventional tyre. 9. Shock absorbers designed to protect equipment during space shuttle launches are now used to protect bridges and buildings in areas prone to earthquakes. 37

The Apollo 11 mission was the first successful manned landing. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the surface of the Moon on 20th July 1969. Michael Collins stayed inside the spacecraft, in orbit around the Moon, to make sure all three astronauts made it safely back to Earth. They landed in the Pacific Ocean on 24th July. The Apollo mission is the only space mission to have sent astronauts beyond low Earth orbit, above an altitude of 2,000 km. Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another body, when it circled the Moon in 1968. The missions have brought 400 kg of rock and soil from the Moon's surface to Earth for scientific investigation. The Gemini missions was NASA's human spaceflight program in the early 1960s. The Gemini missions came after the Mercury missions, and before the Apollo missions. 38

Each Gemini spacecraft could carry two astronauts, and 10 spacecraft were launched during the Space Race. The Space Race was a competition during the Cold War, between the USSR (Russia) and the USA. Both countries wanted to be the best at spaceflight. The USSR were the first country to send a human into space, but the Gemini missions put the USA back in the lead. Gemini's goal was to develop the technology, so that the later Apollo missions could successfully land humans on the Moon. The Gemini spacecraft practiced the movements that the Apollo spacecraft would use, including orbiting the Moon and docking another spacecraft. The first two Gemini missions were launched without any passengers, to test the systems and the heat shield. The name Gemini was chosen as it means 'twins' or 'double', and each later spacecraft carried two astronauts. Gemini 12, the final Gemini mission, was manned by James A. Lovell and Buzz Aldrin - who went on to land on the Moon with Neil Armstrong in Apollo 11. The Mercury missions was NASA's first human spaceflight program, from 1958 to 1963. There were 20 unmanned flights (some which sent animals into space), and six successful flights by astronauts. The Mercury spacecraft could hold a single passenger, in a sitting position with their back to the heat shield. Near their left hand was a handle to launch the escape system. The astronaut would wear a spacesuit with an oxygen supply and a cooling system. The Mercury missions tested not only the spacecraft, but also the spacesuits. They used pressure suits, which would protect the astronaut from the extremely low air pressure in space. The suits also monitored the astronaut's heart rate, blood pressure, and temperature. This medical information would be sent down to Earth during the flight. During the mission, the astronaut would drink water and eat food pellets. The spacecraft design was changed three times during the missions. The shape of the heat shield was improved, and the escape system was changed to a different design. The Gemini and Apollo missions which followed were successful thanks to the Mercury missions. 39

• Card paper pyramid that serves as the rocket’s nose • Glue stick cone. • Cellophane tape • Scissors At the opposite end are geometric shapes • PC and printer such as triangles or parallelograms, that • Crayons or coloured markers extend from the sides of the rectangles to • Ruler form the fins. The fins are glued or taped • Pop! Rocket Launcher together face-to-face to make them stiff. • Coin • 30 cm-long pieces of 1/2” PVC Print the blank rocket on card stock paper. pipes Have cadets tape a penny to the inside of one of the three nose cone triangles Pop! Rockets are made by cutting out before taping the nose cone together. three rocket-shaped pieces of paper and The penny adds additional mass to the joining them together. The basic pattern nose and increases its flight stability. is a long rectangle with a triangle on one end. When the three rocket sides are To provide support for the nose cone taped together, the triangles are bent during taping, insert a PVC pipe segment inward and taped to form a three-sided into the rocket. Ask cadets why fins are important to the rocket shape. After collecting their ideas, demonstrate how fins work by throwing two rockets (without the pennies) like javelins into the air. One should have fins and the other should not. The rocket with fins will sail straight across the room, while the one without will flop or tumble in the air. 40

1. Print out the template on page XX – 5. Pick up the rocket, bring the two side pieces together, and tape the seam. It 2. Cut out the three pieces and press the may be helpful to insert the PVC pipe edge of a ruler to the fold lines for into the rocket before taping. the fins and nose cone to get a straight fold. Fold the fins outward. 6. Use glue stick or tape to join adjacent fins pieces together to make three 3. Tape a penny securely to the inside of fins. If desired, the fins can be left one of the nose cone triangles. un-taped to make six fins. 4. Slide the pieces together and match 7. Push the PVC pipe inside the rocket up the sides of the rocket body. Run body up to the position of the nose a strip of tape along the seams. Do cone. Use the pipe for support while not tape the fins or nose cone pieces taping. Fold the three triangles yet. inward and tape the seams. 8. The rocket is ready for launch. Follow the launch instructions for the Pop! Rocket Launcher. D. Tape the coin to inside of E. Bend nose cone triangles one triangle. inward and tape closed. A. Lay the three rocket sides next to each other (with find bent upward) and tape the two middle seams. B. Fold sides to form triangular prism shape and tape third seam. C. After folding, tape or glue the fins together. 41

42

6. Fold the triangles inward to form the nose cone. The tabs should be inside. They will provide support for taping. 7. Bend the fins outward. The rocket is ready for flight. 1. Print the pattern on the next page on • The pointy upper end of the rocket is card stock paper. the nose cone. It helps the rocket spread apart the air as the rocket flies. 2. Use a ruler and the edge of a penny The nose cone can be compared to to score the fold lines. To do so, the pointed bow of a boat that place the ruler along a dashed line spreads water apart as it sails forward. and run the edge of the penny (held Astronauts and spacecraft are usually at an angle) across the paper to make placed in or near the nose cone. a small groove. The groove will ensure that the fold line is both (Note: The space shuttle is a little accurate and straight. different in design. However, the astronauts still ride in the cone- 3. Cut out the pattern on the solid lines. shaped front of the Orbiter.) 4. Tape a penny to the inside of one of • The body of the rocket is the tube- the nose cone triangles. shaped (triangular-shaped in this activity) part of the rocket that holds 5. Fold the three rectangles into a the rocket fuel. triangular prism shape with the large tab inside. Tape the seam. • Engines are where the rocket fuel is burned. These are found at the lower end of the rocket body. The engines push the rocket into space. • Fins are the tiny wings at the lower end of the rocket body. They help the rocket fly straight. 43

. 44

45

• The coordination of airspace, military and civilian aircraft and airfield operations. • Be a key member of the Air Traffic Control and Station Operations teams in direct support to Air Operations Controllers, Air & Space Operations Managers and Air Operations (Systems) Officers. • Management of mission planning systems and aeronautical data to support aircrew in peacetime and conflict. Air & Space Operations Specialists (Flight Operations) provide direct support to aircrew, air traffic control and Operations Managers in a variety of roles. In support of aircrew, you could be employed in a squadron operations room, where you will be responsible for the maintenance of aeronautical information and operating mission support IT, both of which are critical to the safe and expeditious conduct of the mission. Alternatively, you could also be employed in an air traffic control tower, managing IT systems with real-time flight information and operating radio equipment in support of the controllers. 46

There are opportunities for employment in station operations and flight planning, responsible for coordinating military and civilian aircraft operations and utilising your specialist flight planning knowledge to give advice to visiting aircrew on submitting their flight plans. Future roles could see you working within Space Operations. Like many RAF personnel you will be assigned to other RAF Stations as part of your career development. You may also have the opportunity to be go overseas on a detachment as part of your job for a number of months or as a full posting to certain locations. Your duties will be similar to those at your home Station, but will be more demanding with opportunities to work with other services and nations in an operational environment. Your career will start with a 10-week Basic Recruit Training Course at RAF Halton in Buckinghamshire. The course is designed to help you adjust to a military environment. As well as fitness and military training, you’ll also learn about the RAF lifestyle. The next step is the 12-week Flight Operations Specialist Course at RAF Shawbury in Shropshire. You will be taught the basic theory and regulations of flight operations and air traffic control. The course also covers aircraft and airfield operations, meteorology and navigation. By the end of the course, you will have gained an understanding of Flight Operations duties and will have practised carrying out your role using the air traffic control, flight operations and flight planning simulators. On successful completion of the course you will be promoted to Leading Aircraftman and receive your first assignment. https://www.raf.mod.uk/recruitment/roles/roles-finder/air-operations-support/air-space-operations- specialist-flight-operations 47

Neutron stars are the densest and tiniest stars in the known universe and although they only have a radius of about 10 km (6 mi), they may have a mass of a few times that of the Sun. They can rotate at up to 60 times per second after they are born from a core- collapse supernova star explosion and have been known to spin as fast as 600-712 times per second because of their physics. As space facts go, this is pretty impressive. Research by Yale University scientists suggests that a rocky planet called 55 Cancri e — which has a radius twice Earth’s, and a mass eight times greater – may have a surface made up of graphite and diamond. It’s 40 light years away but visible to the naked eye in the constellation of Cancer. The Moon has no atmosphere, which means there is no wind to erode the surface and no water to wash the footprints away. This means the footprints of the Apollo astronauts, along with spacecraft prints, rover-prints and discarded material, will be there for millions of years. Venus has a slow axis rotation which takes 243 Earth days to complete its day. The orbit of Venus around the Sun is 225 Earth days, making a year on Venus 18 days less than a day on Venus. The Andromeda Galaxy is approaching the Milky Way – where our solar system is – at rate of around 110 kilometres per second (68 mi/s) and eventually the two will collide to form a giant elliptical galaxy. 48

Name: Dave Waller No two days are the same, with the focus Daytime job title: Spacecraft Controller/ shifting between controlling and SpOC Liaison interacting with all the agencies involved Employer: Royal Air Force in Defence Space. I have been very lucky STEM area: Space Operations in my career in RAF Space to travel the Rank: Flight Lieutenant world on exercises and training courses including Las Vegas, Colorado and My job is a mixture between controlling Hamburg, Germany. The RAF Space world the SKYNET constellation of 6 satellites is a relatively small one so you are always and also providing a bridge between the working with colleagues dealing with SpOC and the SKYNET team. The idea is friends with similar interests. to build back some of the experience lost when we moved to civilian controllers in Whilst controlling the satellites, working 2003. The actual tasks for controlling the on the older SKYNET 4s is always very satellites vary depending on the time of satisfying. Because there is very little year, payload requirements, or automation, you send a command and maintenance on the ground segment. The immediately (well a few seconds later, it’s older SKYNET 4 satellites definitely require a long way to go) you see a response. The a lot more support than the newer automation on the SKYNET 5s is amazing, SKYNET 5s. but does take some of the fun out of controlling. This was not like a normal posting where you simply discuss what you want to do next with your career manager. Due to the high profile and commercial sensitivity of the role, I had to be interviewed by the Dir Air Defence and Space (a Gp Capt from 49

RAF High Wycombe) and then meet the then you will get to your goal in the end. Airbus team to ensure they were happy RAF Space is a great place to work at the with me as a training risk. moment with the high priority given to Space and the expansion currently For my role as an Air Ops Officer there are happening. We are still building the plan no qualifications apart from the standard so some of the opportunities do not even ones for an RAF Officer. The full time exist yet. There is an ever changing range satellite controllers are employed by the of jobs available, especially working with Space Operations Team within SKYNET our allies all over the world. It also means and they normally look for either that if you show an interest you can get Astrophysics based degrees or an involved in writing national policy at a Electronics background. Whatever you very early stage. come in with there is a comprehensive 9 month training course to get you up to speed on satellite operations. Don’t give up. I dropped out of my Aerospace Engineering degree after a year and a half and ended up as a CAD draughtsman. I worked my way up to a project manager in the construction industry and then joined the RAF as an Air Operations Officer. The first plan may not be the right one, but if you keep trying 50