Physical Education LAB MANUAL XI

NEPALIGNED PHYSICAL EDUCATION LAB MANUAL Salient
Features History General Rules Court/Field Specifications Fundamental Skills Equipment and Sports Gear Specific Exercises Injuries—Prevention and Treatment Related Sports Terminologies Important Tournaments Awards Important Personalities Viva Voce Olympic Movement and Athletics Records SAI Khelo India Fitness Test Brockport Physical Fitness Test Games and Sports for CWSN CLASS XI

(Student's Name) of of (School's Name) (Class/Section) He/She has performed these experiments during the academic year out of in (Subject's Name)  The student’s initiative, cooperation and participation during the practical classes was Excellent/ Good/ Average/ Below Average.  His/Her aesthetic presentation, visual appeal, expression and neatness is Excellent/ Good/ Average/ Below Average.  His/Her content accuracy, creativity, originality and analysis of different perception is Excellent/ Good/ Average/ Below Average. Examiner’s Signature Principal's Signature Teacher's Signature (with school's seal)







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Contents PART A : PHYSICAL FITNESS TESTS 1. Introduction to Physical Education ... 3–8 2. SAI Khelo India Fitness Test ... 9–16 3. Brockport Physical Fitness Test (BPFT) ... 17–34 PART B : GAMES/SPORTS 4. Athletics ... 37–71 5. Archery ... 72–81 6. Badminton ... 82–92 7. Boxing ... 93–105 8. Chess ... 106–119 9. Judo ... 120–131 10. Rifle Shooting ... 132–144 11. Skating ... 145–153 12. Swimming ... 154–163 13. Taekwondo ... 164–177 14. Table Tennis ... 178–187 15. Tennis ... 188–198 16. Aerobics ... 199–208 17. Gymnastics ... 209–221 18. Rope Skipping ... 222–232 PART C : GAMES/SPORTS FOR CWSN (CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS–DIVYANG) 19. Bocce / Boccia ... 235–242 20. Sitting Volleyball ... 243–253 21. Wheelchair Basketball ... 254–262 22. Unified Badminton ... 263–271 23. Unified Basketball ... 272–277 24. Unified Football (Soccer) ... 278–288 25. Blind Cricket ... 287–292 26. Goalball ... 293–300 27. Floorball ... 301–306 28. Wheelchair Races ... 307–311 29. Wheelchair Throws ... 312–320 PART D : MISCELLANY 30. Changing Trends in Sports and Games ... 323–327 31. Yoga ... 328–340 32. National Sports Awards ... 341–346 Appendix 1: Venue of Games ... 347–350 Appendix 2: Athletics Records ... 351–355 3

Syllabus Physical Education (Practical) (For Class XI) Practical Max. Marks 30 01. Physical Fitness Test: SAI Khelo India Test, Brockport Physical Fitness Test (BPFT)* — 6 Marks 02. Proficiency in Games and Sports (Skill of any one IOA recognised Sport/Game of Choice)** — 7 Marks 03. Yogic Practices — 7 Marks 04. Record File*** — 5 Marks 05. Viva Voce (Health/Games & Sports/Yoga) — 5 Marks * Test for CWSN (any 4 items out of 27 items. One item from each component: Aerobic Function, Body Composition, Muscular strength & Endurance, Range of Motion or Flexibility) ** CWSN (Children With Special Needs – Divyang): Bocce/Boccia, Sitting Volleyball, Wheelchair Basketball, Unified Badminton, Unified Basketball, Unified Football, Blind Cricket, Goalball, Floorball, Wheelchair Races and Throws, or any other Sport/Game of choice. ** Children With Special Needs can also opt any one Sport/Game from the list as alternative to Yogic Practices. However, the Sport/Game must be different from Test – ‘Proficiency in Games and Sports’ *** Record File shall include: E Practical–1: Labelled diagram of 400 M Track & Field with computations. E Practical–2: Describe Changing Trends in Sports & Games in terms of changes in Playing surface, Wearable gear, Equipment, Technological advancements. E Practical–3: Labelled diagram of field & equipment of any one IOA recognised Sport/Game of choice.

Part–A PHYSICAL FITNESS TESTS



Introduction to Physical Education 13 UNIT Introduction to Physical Education INTRODUCTION The basis of Physical Education is difficult and very broad. With changing time, its meaning also kept changing. The following definitions clear its meaning to a great extent: •• According to H.C. Buck, Physical Education is the part of general education programme which is considered with growth, development and education of children through the medium of big muscle activities. It is the education of whole child by means of physical activities. Physical activities are tools and are so selected and conducted as to influence every child’s life physically, mentally, emotionally and morally. •• According to C.L. Brownell, Physical Education is the accumulation of whole some experience through participation in large muscle activities that promote optimum growth and development. •• According to J.B. Nash, Physical Education is that phase of the whole field of education that deals with big muscle activities and their related responses. •• According to Cassidy, Physical education is the sum of changes in the individual caused by experience which can bring in motor activity. Post-Independence Development of Physical Education After 15 August 1947, the development of physical education moved in a new direction. Many organisations were set up for the development of physical education as per the following details: 1. The Central Advisory Board of Physical Education and Recreation: This was set up in March, 1950 under the presidentship of Dr. Tara Chand along with 10 other members. Its first meeting was held on 19 March 1950. In 1958, a meeting of the principals of all the colleges of the country was held in Madras (now Chennai), during which emphasis was put on imparting physical education. 2. All India Council of Sports: The central government prepared a policy to boost games and sports in India. In 1954, the Union Minister Maulana Abul Kalam Azad called a meeting of the heads of different sports associations. Retired Admiral General K.M. Kariappa was appointed as its first president. 3. Netaji Shubhash National Institute of Sports: In 1958, a committee was set up, headed by the Maharaja of Patiala to make an inquiry about India’s poor performance and downward slide in the Olympic games. The Government of India established Netaji Shubhas National Institute of Sports in March, 1961. It was inaugurated by Dr. Sreemali. 3

4 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI 4. Sports Authority of India (SAI): After the successful completion of the 1982 Asian Games in New Delhi, the Government of India’s Department of Sports, formed the Sports Authority of India (SAI) on 25th January 1984. This organisation was formed to increase and raise the standards of sports in India. The SAI undertook the responsibilities to maintain and utilise grounds which were constructed/renovated for the IXth Asian Games held in 1982. It also implements programmes for achieving excellence in sports in different disciplines at the international level. It also produces and manages sports coaches, educators and teachers and lookout other issues such as the promotion and management of sports. 5. Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports: An independent ministry was made on 27th May 2000. It has two separate departments named the Department of Youth Affairs and Department of Sports. The role of the Department of Sports is to create the infrastructure and promote capacity building for broad-basing sports as well as for achieving excellence in various competitive events at the national and international levels. Integrated Physical Education Concept and Principles: Under this, one must have the knowledge of different subtopics and their utility, so that the students could be trained properly. The knowledge of integrated physical education will promote the fitness and wellness of individuals. It will help in designing high quality programmes. Adaptive Physical Education Concept: There are many children who suffer from the various types of disabilities like mental retardation, deafness, blindness, speech impairment, etc. For such children, special programmes may be organised, so that their physical, cognitive, social and emotional abilities can be developed. Principles: For successful implementation of adaptive physical education, certain principles may be kept in mind, such as medical examination, interest and capacity of the student, appropriate equipment, a proper environment, specific instructional strategies, etc. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The aim of physical education is to provide education through physical activities for the development of the total personality of the child to its fullness and perfection in body, mind and spirit. An individual with a well- balanced personality is one who is physically fit, mentally alert, socially outgoing, emotionally stable, and morally and ethically sound. According to the National Plan of Physical Education and Recreation, The aim of Physical Education must be to make every child physically, mentally and emotionally fit and also to develop in him/her such personal and social qualities as will help him/her live happily with others and build him/her up as a good citizen. According to J.F. Williams, Physical education should aim to provide skilled leadership, adequate facilities and ample time that will afford an opportunity for the individuals or groups to act in situations that are physically wholesome, mentally stimulating and satisfying, and socially sound.

Introduction to Physical Education 5 The aims of physical education may be summarised as follows: 1. It exhibits a physically active lifestyle. 2. It achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness. 3. It demonstrates responsible personal and social behaviour in physical activity settings. 4. It demonstrates competency in many movement forms and proficiency in a few. 5. It applies movement concepts and principles to the learning and development of motor skills. 6. It demonstrates understanding and respect for differences among people in physical activity settings. 7. It demonstrates that physical activity provides opportunities for enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and social interaction. Objectives are all the pathways that one takes to reach the goal. Physical education achieves two important goals—developing motor skills and physical fitness. A motor skill is a learned sequence of movements of muscles that combine to produce a smooth, efficient action in order to perform a specific act. The most purposeful movement requires the ability to “feel” or sense what one’s muscles are doing as they perform the act. Motor skill difficulties occur when an individual lacks the ability to move in the way he or she originally intended. This can have a significant effect on classroom performance and motivation in school. Motor skill difficulties can be addressed in a variety of ways. Some motor skill difficulties can be overcome through development and maturity. Physical education plays a significant role in developing the motor skills. Physical fitness includes cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, endurance and flexibility. Broadly speaking, the objectives of physical education are—health or organic vigour, worthy use of leisure time to develop personal and social attitude, citizenship qualities, co-operation, followership, leadership, respecting the rules and regulations of the game, respecting the officials, etc. These may be summarised into three groups as follows: 1. The Objective of Overall Physical Fitness: It refers to that state where an individual has developed great endurance, speed, strength, etc. It helps in the proper functioning of various systems of the body and assists in the development of skills through better neuromuscular coordination. Physical fitness is essential to live a happy, vigorous and abundant life. 2. The Objective of Social Efficiency and Moral Development: It concerns with one’s proper adaptation to group living. Physical education activities provide ample opportunities to develop traits such as cooperation, respect to others, loyalty, sportsmanship, leadership, self-confidence, etc. All these qualities help a person make himself a good citizen. It facilitates in developing qualities of sympathy and cooperation with others along with becoming a worthy member of one’s home and society. 3. The Objective of Culture: It aims at developing an understanding and appreciation of one’s own local environment as well as the environment which is worldwide in scope. By participating in various physical education activities such as dance, sports and games, a person fully understands the history, culture, tradition, religious practices, etc. and the aesthetic values associated with these activities. The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation stated five major objectives of physical education as mentioned below: 1. To help children move in a skilful and effective manner in all the selected activities in which they engage in the physical education programme and also in the situations they will experience during their lifetime. 2. To develop an understanding and appreciation of movement in children and youth, so that their lives will become more meaningful and productive. 3. To develop an understanding and appreciation of certain scientific principles concerned with movement that relate to such factors as time, space, force and mass energy relationships. 4. To develop through the medium of games and sports better interpersonal relationships. 5. To develop the various organic systems of the body, so that they will respond in a healthy way to the increased demands placed on them.

6 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION In a society, men always need to prepare themselves as responsible citizens. It is equally true for today’s society, where we need to prepare the future citizens who are responsible, committed and focused and the means of achieving this is through a well-organised physical education. Thus, physical education can be needed to: 1. Improve and Maintain Sound Physical Fitness: Physical education helps in improving the children’s muscular strength, flexibility, muscular endurance, body composition and cardiovascular endurance and hence is able to stretch his/her physical abilities to an optimum level. 2. Develop Different Kinds of Skills: Motor skills are developed, reflexes are strengthened, sound body posture is developed, and hand-eye co-ordination is developed which allow for safe, successful and satisfying participation in physical activities. 3. Motivate Regular Healthful Physical Activity and Nutritional Awareness: Physical education provides a wide-range of developmentally appropriate activities to improve overall physical health. It propagates the benefits of healthy and nutritious food. 4. Support of Other Subject Areas: Physical education reinforces the knowledge learned from the curriculum and provides a practical application of Science, Mathematics and Social Studies. 5. Maintain Self-Discipline: Physical education facilitates the development of a student’s responsibility for health and fitness which help him/her grow up to become a healthy and responsible adult who understands the benefits of a healthy lifestyle. Discipline is promoted by games and sports. 6. Improve Judgement: A quality physical education programme can influence moral development as students get opportunities to assume leadership, cooperate with others, question actions and accept responsibility for their own behaviour. 7. Reduce Stress and a Source of Recreation: Physical activity helps in releasing tension and anxiety and helps in emotional stability. When students are involved the whole day in academics, i.e., sitting on the desk and studying, physical education is a welcome break which reduces the stress and is a source of recreation for the students. 8. Strengthen Peer Relationships: Physical education helps children socialise with others successfully and provides opportunities to learn positive people skills. Participating in dances, games and sports is an important part of peer culture. 9. Improve Self-Confidence and Self-Esteem: Physical education instils confidence and a strong sense of self-worth in children based on their mastery of skills and concepts in physical education. They become more confident, assertive, independent and self-controlled. When an individual goes on the field and plays, his/her self-confidence increases, this aids in the development of the individual’s character. Winning on the play field boosts one’s confidence levels. Accepting defeat but believing in one’s capabilities brings a sense of positive attitude. Hence, participation in sports has a positive influence on the individual’s personality and character, and works wonders for his/her self-confidence. 10. Inculcate Sportsmanship and Encourages Budding Sportsmen: Through participation in team games, children develop team spirit. The participants learn to organise themselves, function as a whole, and develop overall communication skills, cooperation and team spirit. Physical education provides opportunities to young budding sportspersons to explore different areas in sports and games and after finding a sport they are able to work hard on that sport and excel in it. 11. Creates Tolerance: Physical education provides a number of opportunities to enhance the power of tolerance. The tolerance power is really very essential for human beings. A person, who has tolerance, would be well-adjusted in society. SPORTS AND PHYSICAL FITNESS In a broad sense, the human body shape, physiological functions, physical quality, athletic capability, immunity and psychological quality are all constituents of physical fitness. Physical fitness comprises the fitness on health—metabolic, morphological, bone integrity; skill—body composition, cardiovascular fitness, flexibility,

Introduction to Physical Education 7 muscular endurance, and muscle strength; sports—agility, balance, co-ordination, power, speed, reaction time, and team sport. Participation in physical activity and sport, through a number of mechanisms, can have a significant impact on the health, skills and sports skills of individuals. Physical Fitness Test A physical fitness test is a test designed to measure physical strength, agility and endurance. It is generally conducted by professionally trained physical educators, physical fitness trainers and sports professionals. It covers three broad areas, namely physical measurement, cardiovascular ability, and physical ability. The areas generally covered in physical fitness test are listed below: Physical Measurements Height, weight, chest circumference, waist circumference, hip circumference, skinfold thickness and body fat percentage Cardiovascular Ability Physical Ability Heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory functionalities and vital capacity Cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, power, speed, coordination, agility, reaction time, and balance Drug Test Drug testing has become an essential part of physical education and sports. An athlete can be called for drug testing at anytime, in or out of competition. During competition, some sports only carry out drug testing on the winning team or top three competitors. Others will be tested by random selection from all competitors. Anabolic steroids are used to enhance performance in sport and as they are prohibited in most high-level competitions, drug testing is used extensively in order to enforce this prohibition. Testing can occur at anytime, usually when the investigator has reasons to believe that a substance is possibly being abused by the subject. Generally, urine testing and blood testing are carried out to test for the presence of a drug. PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND CAREER OPTIONS Today, there are many opportunities in the field of physical education. Initially, when professional preparation in physical education was started in 1920 at the YMCA College of Physical Education, Chennai (then Madras), there were very few job opportunities such as a coach and teacher. But over the years, a lot of opportunities have been created and now they are unlimited. Persons with a professional degree in physical education are working in different walks of life. A physical education professional may be a teacher, a trainer, a sports specialist or a scientist whose primary responsibilities address health and physical fitness. As the lifestyle shifts from active to sedentary, the health issues rise, and the need for physical activities also increases. So, the career opportunity in this field also expands. Special Olympic Bharat: This organisation prepares the children with physical and mental disabilities for Special Olympics. At the national level, they are trained to participate in 24 single and team games by the Sports Authority of India. This organisation was established in 2001 as per the Act of 1982. Following are some career options available in the field of physical education nowadays: 1. Teaching career: (i) Elementary school level (ii) Middle school level (iii) High school and senior secondary (iv) College and university level 2. Coaching career: (i) Administration related course (ii) Physical education department (iii) Sports department (iv) Industrial recreation (v) Sport facilities management

8 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI 3. Health related career: (ii) Athletic training (i) Health club (ii) As officials 4. Performance related career (ii) Books publication (i) As professional player (iv) Sports broadcasting 5. Career in communication and media: (i) Sports journalism VIVA VOCE (iii) Sports photography Q. 1. What is the aim of physical education? Q. 4. designed for children with special needs to Ans. Ans. participate in. The aim of physical education is all round deve- Q. 2. lopment of the personality of the individual. When was Sports Authority of India Ans. established? What do you mean by “sports journalism”? Q. 3. The Sports Authority of India was established Ans. It involves writing and reporting about sports by the Government of India in January 1984. events in print or electronic media. What is adaptive physical education? Adaptive physical education refers to physical education programmes that are specially

2 UNIT SAI Khelo India Fitness Test INTRODUCTION Physical fitness (or simply fitness) is a state of health and wellbeing, and more specifically, the ability to perform physical activity and sports. It encompasses a wide range of abilities. Each physical activity and sport requires a specific set of skills and fitness level. If a person is fit for a physical activity or sport, it does not necessarily make that person fit for another activity or sport. Fitness is generally divided into specific fitness categories or components, and each can be tested and trained individually. Generally, physical fitness components include two types of specific fitness components: 1. Health-related Physical Fitness Components: (a) Body composition (b) Cardio-respiratory endurance (c) Muscular strength (d) Muscular endurance (e) Flexibility 2. Skill-related Physical Fitness Components: (a) Agility (b) Balance (c) Coordination (d) Power (e) Reaction time ( f ) Speed There is a great requirement for tests and measurements in sports and physical education. On the basis of measurement, a student or participant is selected for sports and physical activity programmes. A test, may be called as a tool, a question, a set of questions, or an examination, which is used to measure a particular characteristic or a set of particular characteristics of an individual or a group of individuals. Measurement refers to the process of administrating a test to obtain quantitative data. It can also be said that measurement aids the evaluation process, in which various tools and techniques are used in the collection of data. Thus, “measurement is a process by which the level of performance, fitness, ability, knowledge, personality and skills are measured with the help of various standard tests.” According to R.N. Patel, Measurement is an act or process that involves the assignment of numerical values to whatever is being tested. So it involves the quantity of something. 9

10 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI SAI KHELO INDIA FITNESS TEST SAI Khelo India Fitness Test is a battery or set of test items designed to evaluate various components of physical fitness for children (boys and girls) in grades 1–12. The test is divided into two categories (age group 5–8 years and age group 9–18+ years) to measure and track the physical fitness of the participant. The following Khelo India battery of Fitness Assessment Tests has been finalised by the Expert Committee of Physical Fitness Assessment: I. Battery of Tests for Age Group 5–8 years | Class 1 to 3 At primary classes 1–3, children should acquire Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) which are important for controlling the body in various situations, while the learning of specific physical activities is not suitable at that stage and should be learned at later stages. FMS provide the building blocks for many physical activities, such as playing games, dance, and sport. Locomotors, Manipulative and Body Management abilities are key to success in most physical activities and sports. The abilities of children in classes 1–3 which need to be measured and tracked (with their tests) are: 1. Body Composition (BMI Test) 2. Coordination (Plate Tapping Test) 3. Balance (Flamingo Balance Test) These parameters are important for controlling the body in various situations. II. Battery of Tests for Age Group 9–18 years | Class 4 to 12 For classes 4 to 12, it is important for students to have an overall physical fitness. The following components (with their tests) are to be considered in the physical fitness profile: 1. Body Composition (BMI Test) 2. Strength (a) Abdominal (Partial Curl-up Test) (b) Muscular Endurance (Push-ups Test for Boys, Modified Push-ups Test for Girls) 3. Flexibility (Sit and Reach Test) 4. Cardiovascular Endurance (600 Meter Run/Walk Test) 5. Speed (50 M Dash Test) Note: The above-mentioned tests are being done by schools across India through Khelo India Assessor App (School Version). This app is available on Google Play Store. Children are given a Fitness Assessment Report Card at the end of session. Schools and Parents have individual User ID and Password, with access to schoolfitness.kheloindia.gov.in and Khelo India App respectively where they can see detailed Report Cards and history. TEST DESCRIPTIONS FOR CHILDREN The participants/students are advised to warm up before the test. All the students must be medically fit. The SAI Khelo India Fitness Test in school has the following eight test items: Test Item 1 – Body Mass Index (BMI) Test Body composition refers primarily to the distribution of muscle and fat in the body. Body size such as height, lengths and girths are also grouped under this component. Body composition significantly affects sporting performance. Body size and composition can be considered important in sports where you have an advantage of being tall (e.g., basketball) or small (e.g., jockeys), heavy (e.g., sumo wrestling) or light (e.g., gymnastics).

SAI Khelo India Fitness Test 11 The Body Mass Index (BMI) is an indirect measure of body fatness because it is a measure of excess weight rather than excess body fat. BMI provides the ideal body weight as per a person’s height. BMI of an individual can be calculated with the help of the following formula: BMI = W(in kg) [H(in m)]2 where, W = Body weight in kilograms and H = Height in metres. Usually, a higher BMI score indicates higher levels of body fat. Example: If a person’s weight is 64.61 kg and his height is 1.63 metres, then his BMI is calculated as: BMI = 64.61 = 64.61 = 24.32 kg/m2 (1.63)2 2.6569 Hence, BMI = 24.32 kg/m2 (Normal BMI) The Body Mass Index (BMI) is a simple index of weight-for-height that is commonly used in determining whether an individual is underweight, healthy weight, overweight or obese. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), a person can be classified as underweight, overweight, and obese according to the BMI values given in the following table. Classification Body Mass Index (BMI) Underweight < 18.50 Normal range = 18.50–24.99 Overweight = 25.00–29.99 Obese ≥ 30.00  Obese class I = 30.00–34.99  Obese class II = 35.00–39.99  Obese class III ≥ 40.00 Purpose: To measure Body Mass Index (BMI) of an individual. Equipment required: Weighing machine (use only a digital scale) and Height measuring tape / Stadiometer / Measuring tape pasted on a wall. Procedure: To Measure Weight Accurately: First of all, remove the participant’s shoes and heavy clothing (if any). Place the digital scale on firm flooring (such as tile or wood) to measure the weight of the participant. (Don’t use an analog scale which is spring-loaded.) The participant should stand with both feet in the centre of the scale. Record the weight to the nearest decimal fraction (e.g., 32.1 kilograms). To Measure Height Accurately: First of all, remove the participant’s shoes, heavy clothing, hair ornaments and unbraided hair, which create problems in measurement. Take the height measurement on non-carpeted flooring and against a flat surface (such as a wall with no moulding). The participant should stand with their feet flat, together, and their back against the wall. Make sure the legs are straight, the arms are at the sides, and the shoulders are level. Also, make sure the participant is looking straight ahead in such a way that the line of sight is parallel with the floor. Measure the participant’s height while he/she stands with his/her head, shoulders, buttocks, and heels touching the flat surface (wall). Depending on the overall body shape of the participant, all points may not touch the wall. Use a flat headpiece to form a right angle with the wall and lower the headpiece until it firmly touches the crown of the head. Make sure the measurer’s eyes are at the same level as the headpiece.

12 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI Mark the point where the bottom of the headpiece meets the wall. Finally, record the height measurement to the nearest 0.1 centimetre using a metal tape to measure from the base on the floor to the marked point on the wall. Scoring: Accurately record the height to the nearest 0.1 centimetre and weight to the nearest decimal fraction. Now, calculate the BMI score using the BMI formula. Test Item 2 – Plate Tapping Test Purpose: To test or measure speed and coordination of limb movement. Equipment required: Table (adjustable height), 2 Yellow discs (20 cm in diameter), Rectangle (30 × 20 cm), Stopwatch, Measuring tape. Procedure: First of all, place the table on firm flooring. If possible, the height of the table should be adjusted so that the subject is standing comfortably in front of the discs. The two yellow discs are placed with their centres 60 cm apart on the table. The rectangle is placed equidistant between both yellow discs. Now, the subject stands in a balanced posture in front of the discs with feet flat and shoulder width apart on the ground. The non-preferred hand is placed on the centre of the rectangle and the preferred hand touches the yellow disc on the same side. The subject moves the preferred hand back and forth between the yellow discs over the non-preferred hand in the middle as quickly as possible. This action is repeated for 25 full cycles (50 taps). Scoring: The time taken to complete 25 full cycles (50 taps) is recorded. 30 cm 30 cm Plate Tapping Test Test Item 3 – Flamingo Balance Test (FBT) Purpose: To test or measure ability to balance successfully on a single leg. This single leg balance test assesses the strength of the leg, pelvic, and trunk muscles as well as static balance. Equipment required: Non-slippery and even surface, Stopwatch, Bricks or beams locally procured of a standard brick shape and height. Procedure: First of all, the subject stands on the beam or Flamingo Balance Test brick with his preferred leg. Keep the balance by holding the instructor’s hand (if required to start). While balancing on the preferred leg on the beam, the free leg is flexed at the knee and the foot of this leg is held close to the buttocks. Now, start the stopwatch/timer as the instructor lets go of the participant/subject. Try to keep this position for as long as possible. The stopwatch is paused each time the subject loses balance (either by falling off the beam or letting go of the foot being held). Resuming when the subject is in position and timing until he /she loses balance, count the total number of falls in 60 seconds of balancing. Scoring: The total number of falls in 60 seconds of balancing is recorded. If there are more than 15 falls in the first 30 seconds, the test is terminated.

SAI Khelo India Fitness Test 13 Test Item 4 – Partial Curl-up Test Purpose: To measure or access abdominal muscular strength and endurance of the abdominals and hip-flexors (which are important for back support and core stability). Equipment required: A flat, clean, cushioned surface or Gym/Yoga mat with two parallel strips (6 inches apart), Marking tape (for 6 inches parallel strips), Stopwatch, Recording sheets, Pen/Marker. Procedure: After warming up, the subject lies on his/her back on a cushioned, flat, clean surface with his/her knees flexed, usually at 90° and his/her feet about 12 inches (approx.) from his/her buttocks. The arms are extended and are rested on the sides, parallel to the body, in such a way that the palms face downward. The head is in a neutral position. Now, the subject raises the trunk in a smooth motion, keeping the arms in position, and curls up at the desired amount (at least 6 inches above/along the ground towards the parallel strip). Then the trunk is lowered back to the floor so that the shoulder blades touch the floor. One complete curl-up is completed and is continued for 30 seconds. There is no pause in the up or down position; the curl-ups should be continuous with the abdominal muscles engaged throughout. Scoring: Record the maximum number of curl-ups in 30 seconds. The completion of one complete curl-up is counted as one. Only correctly performed curl-ups should be counted—the sit up is not counted if the shoulders are not raised up two inches, the head touches the mat, or the heels come off the mat.   Partial Curl-up Test for 30 seconds Test Item 5 – Push-ups (for Boys) and Modified Push-ups (for Girls) Tests Purpose: To measure upper body strength, endurance and trunk stability. Equipment required: Flat, clean, cushioned surface or Gym/Yoga mat. Procedure: After warming up, a standard push-up begins with the hands and toes touching the floor, the body and legs in a straight line, feet slightly apart, and the arms at shoulder width apart, extended and at a right angle to the body. Push-ups Test (For Boys) Modified Push-ups Test (For Girls)

14 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI Keeping the back and knees straight, the subject/participant lowers the body to a predetermined point, to touch some other object, or until there is a 90° angle at the elbows, then comes back to the initial/starting position with the arms extended (Note: In Modified Push-up Test for girls, only the push-up technique is modified with both the knees resting on the floor). Repeating this process, the test continues until exhaustion, or until they can do no more in rhythm or have reached the target number of push-ups. Scoring: The total number of correctly completed push-ups is recorded. Test Item 6 – Sit and Reach Test Purpose: To measure flexibility of the lower back and hamstring muscles. Equipment required: Flat, clean, cushioned surface or Gym mat, Sit and Reach Box with inscribed centimetre/mm gradations on top panel with the following dimensions: 12″ × 12″ (Sides), 12″ × 10″ (Front and Back), 12″ × 21″ (Top). [Note: It is crucial that the vertical plane against which the subject’s feet will be placed is exactly at the 23 cm mark.] Procedure: First of all, remove the shoes while performing the test. After warming up, the subject sits on the floor with legs stretched out straight ahead (the distance of the feet should be according to the width of the shoulders). From this position, the soles of the feet are placed flat against the Sit and Reach Box, whereas both knees should be locked and pressed flat to the floor (the tester may assist by holding them down). Now, with the palm facing downwards and the hands on top of each other (fish pose), the subject stretches the hands forward and reaches towards the box by flexing at the waist with the hands together to reach the maximum distance along the measuring line of the box at the top panel. The subject holds the position for one to two seconds while the distance is recorded and measured in inches (or centimetres) by a ruler or length scale. The purpose is to reach as far as possible. Make sure there are no jerky actions or quick movements during the test. The test or trial is repeated if: (i) the hands reach out unevenly, or (ii) the knees are flexed at the time of doing the test. Scoring: The score is the farthest point reached on the trial measured to the nearest centimetre. The score is recorded (the difference between the initial position and the final position), in cm and mm, as the distance reached by the hand. Sit and Reach Test Sit and Reach Box

SAI Khelo India Fitness Test 15 Test Item 7 – 600 M Run / Walk Test Purpose: To measure cardiovascular endurance/Cardiovascular fitness. Equipment required: 200 or 400 metres of flat and even running track/playground with 1.22 metres (minimum 1 metre) width and a marked starting and finish line, Stopwatch (1 per lane), Whistle, Marker cone, Lime powder, Measuring tape. Procedure: The test involves running or walking 600 metres at the 600 M Run / Walk Test fastest possible pace (or in the shortest time possible). For doing this test, a running track, oval or straight, is marked and a stopwatch is used to measure the time of the run. The test is performed after warming up. Participants should start from a stationary standing position at the signal “Ready, Start” and as they cross the finishing line, elapsed time should be announced to them. Walking is permitted, but the objective is to cover 600 metres of distance in the shortest possible time. Scoring: The score is the time completion (run or walk) in minutes (m), seconds (s) and milliseconds (ms) i.e., the time taken to complete 600 metres run or walk is recorded in minutes, seconds and milliseconds. The time starts from the starting line and finishes when the chest crosses the finish line. Test Item 8 – 50 M Dash Test / 50 M Standing Start Test / 50 M Sprint Test Purpose: To measure acceleration and speed of the subject. Equipment required: Measuring tape (to mark the track), Cone markers, Stopwatch, Flat and clear surface of at least 60 metres. Procedure: The test involves running a single maximum sprint over 50 metres with the time recorded. A thorough warm-up should be given, including some practice starts and accelerations. The subject starts from a stationary standing position (hands cannot touch the ground) with one foot in front of the other in such a way that the front foot must be on or behind the starting line. Once the subject is ready and motionless, the tester/starter gives the instructions “set” then “go.” The starting position should be static (a dead start). The tester should provide hints to the subject for maximising speed (such as keeping low and driving hard with the arms and legs) and the subject should be encouraged to continue running hard through the finishing line. Two trials are allowed and the best time is recorded to the nearest two decimal places. Scoring: The score is the minimum time recorded in one of the trials, between the first movement if a stopwatch is used or when the timing system is triggered, and finishes when the chest crosses the finishing line.   50 M Dash Test

16 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI VIVA VOCE Q. 1. What do you mean by test? BMI of an individual can be calculated with the help of the following formula: Ans. A test, may be called as a tool, a question, a set of questions, or an examination, which is used W(in kg) to measure a particular characteristic or a set of BMI = [H(in m)]2 particular characteristics of an individual or a group of individuals. where, W = Body weight in kilograms and Q. 2. What do you mean by measurement? H = Height in meters. Ans. Measurement is the process of administrating a Q. 9. What does the Plate Tapping Test measure? test to obtain quantitative data. It can also be said that measurement aids the evaluation process, Ans. The Plate Tapping Test measures speed and in which various tools and techniques are used coordination of limb movement of children. in the collection of data. Thus, “measurement is a process by which the level of performance, Q. 10. What is the distance between the centres of fitness, ability, knowledge, personality and the yellow discs in the Plate Tapping Test? skills are measured with the help of various standard tests.” Ans. 60 cm. Q. 3. What do you mean by physical fitness? Q. 11. How can the score of Plate Tapping Test be recorded? Ans. Physical fitness (or simply fitness) is a state of health and wellbeing, and more specifically, the Ans. By recording the time taken to complete 25 full ability to perform physical activity and sports. cycles (50 taps). It encompasses a wide range of abilities. Q. 12. What does the Flamingo Balance Test assess? Q. 4. What is the importance of Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) for the children in the Ans. Flamingo Balance Test measures the ability to age group of 5–8 years? balance successfully on a single leg. This single leg balance test assesses the strength of the Ans. In the age group of 5–8 years, Fundamental leg, pelvic, and trunk muscles as well as Static Movement Skills (FMS) are important for balance. controlling the body in various situations. FMS provide the building blocks for many physical Q. 13. What does the Partial Curl-up Test measure? activities, such as playing games, dance, and sport. Ans. Partial Curl-up Test measures the abdominal muscular strength and endurance of the Q. 5. Define body composition. abdominals and hip-flexors (which are important for back support and core stability). Ans. Body composition refers primarily to the distribution of muscle and fat in the body. Body Q. 14. What does the Push-ups (for Boys) Test size such as height, lengths and girths are also measure? grouped under this component. Ans. Push-ups (for Boys) Test measures upper body Q. 6. What does BMI stand for? strength, endurance and trunk stability. Ans. BMI stands for Body Mass Index. Q. 15. What is the purpose of Sit and Reach Test? Q. 7. What is the Body Mass Index (BMI)? Ans. The purpose of Sit and Reach Test is to measure flexibility of the lower back and hamstring Ans. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is an indirect muscles. measure of body fatness because it is a measure of excess weight rather than excess body fat. Q. 16. What does the 600 M Run/Walk Test measure? Q. 8. How is the Body Mass Index (BMI) calculated? Ans. 600 M Run/Walk Test measures cardiovascular endurance/Cardiovascular fitness. Ans. BMI is defined as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in metres.

Part–B GAMES / SPORTS



Athletics 4 37 UNIT Athletics INTRODUCTION History—The word “athletics” is derived from the Greek word athlon which means ‘prize’ or athlos which means ‘competition’. Initially, the term was used to describe athletic contests in general—i.e., sporting competition based primarily on human physical feats. The word ‘athlete’ denotes a person who takes part in such contests which involve physical activity. Athletic contests in running, walking, jumping, and throwing are among the oldest of all sports and their roots are prehistoric. Athletic events or athletics were depicted in Ancient Egyptian tombs in Saqqara, with high illustrations of running at the Heb Sed festival and high Athletes in Action jumping appearing in tombs from as early as of 2250 BC. The most common types of athletics competitions are race and walking. The simplicity of the competitions that eliminates the need for any expensive equipment, makes athletics one of the most commonly competed sports in the world. Athletics is mostly an individual sport, with the exception of relay races and competitions which combine athletes’ performances for a team score, such as cross country. Organised athletics are traced back to the first Ancient Olympic Games held in 776 BC. The first (ancient) Olympic Games were held in Greece where foot race was the only event. The activities of running, jumping, throwing can be traced to the primitive times. Later these activities took the shape of competitive activities. Athletics was festival of Greek people. There are mainly two kinds of events—Track and Field because running is done on a particular path that is called ‘Track’. Other events which are conducted in open and grassy area are called ‘Field’ events. Thus, these events are called Track and Field events. Instead of athletics, the people of ancient Greece used to call it track and field. In 12th century, in England, track and field was named as athletics. Now- a-days, athletics are considered major sports at world level. Until 1928, women were not allowed to participate in athletics in Olympics. The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), formally known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation (from 1912 to 2001), is the world level governing body which controls all the activities related to athletics. On 6th April 1896, Greeks hosted the first Modern Olympic Games at Athens. In 1912, sixteen countries formed International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF). The IAAF is the world level governing body which controls all the activities related to athletics. The athletics meeting forms the backbone of the modern Summer Olympics, and other leading international meetings include the IAAF World Championships and World Indoor Championships, and athletes with a physical disability compete at the Summer Paralympics and the IPC Athletics World Championships. 37

38 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI In Indian history, the first athletic meet was held in the year 1925 at New Delhi. The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) was established in 1927. India joined the IAAF in 1946. Amateur Athletic Federation of India (AAFI) was founded at Bangalore (now Bengaluru) in 1946 by the initiative of Prof. G.D. Sondhi and Maharaja Yadvindra Singh. This federation started organising athletic competitions from 1948 onwards. In later years, there have been successful athletes like Flying Sikh ‘Milkha Singh’, Grubachan Singh Randhava, P.T. Usha, Shiny Wilson, MD Valsamma, Vandana Rao, Jyotirmoyee Sikdar, Anju Boddy George, Soma Biswas, Krishna Poonia, Dutte Chand, Hima Das, Neeraj Chopra, Kamalpreet Kaur. Classification of Athletics Events There are three types of event which are included in athletics: 1. Track Events 2. Field Events 3. Combined Events 1. Track Events: The running events are called track events which are measured against time. Following events are included in track events: (a) Sprint Races : 100 m, 200 m, 400 m (b) Middle Distance Races : 800 m, 1500 m (c) Long Distance Races : 3000 m, 5000 m, 10000 m Marathon Race (42.195 km), 20 km walk and 50 km walk (d) Hurdle Races : 100 m, 110 m, 400 m (e) Relay Races : 4 × 100 m, 4 × 400 m ( f ) Steeplechase Race : 3000 m 2. Field Events: The jumping and the throwing events are called field events which are measured against distance or height. Field events are sub-divided into two types: (a) Throwing Events : Shot put, Discus throw, Hammer throw and Javelin throw (b) Jumping Events : Broad jump, High jump, Triple jump and Pole vault 3. Combined Events: These events are the combination of some track and field events, i.e., Decathlon for men and Heptathlon for women. (a) Decathlon Events : 100 m, Broad jump, Shot put, High jump, 400 m, 110 m hurdles, Discus throw, Pole vault, Javelin throw and 1500 m (b) Heptathlon Events : 100 m hurdles, Broad jump, Shot put, High jump, 200 m, Javelin throw and 800 m TRACK EVENTS Running events up to 10000 m in distance are conducted on a 400 m track which is outdoors during summer competition and indoors during the winter. The track is made with a rubber surface to improve grip and lessen the risk of slipping in poor weather conditions. The track is an elongated oval shape, consisting of a semi-circle at either end and two straight segments joining the semi-circles together. Track events can be divided into three main categories: events that require running on a track over a defined distance, running events with obstacles placed on the track, and relay events. While track events generally refer to events held within the stadium, other distance events that require running on roads have been included in the roster. Track events are generally not complicated—you run from point A to point B in the quickest time possible. However, those not familiar with athletics may wonder what the difference is between the events, other than the distance involved. Track events include a wide range of races for runners. The shorter races are called sprints and they include 60 m (indoors only), 100 m, 200 m and 400 m. Middle-distance races are the 800 m and 1500 m. Long distance races

Athletics 39 are 3000 m, 5000 m and 10000 m, the marathon and cross country races. Most of this 42.195 km race (marathon) is run on public roads, with only the last part being run on an athletics track. Other events are the hurdles, including the 110 m high hurdles (100 m for women) and 400 m hurdles, the relay events, the most common of which are the 4 × 100 m relay and the 4 × 400 m relay and the steeplechase–3000 m consists of 28 barriers (hurdles) and 7 water jumps. In the relay races, runners carry a baton and pass it to the next range as they finish their part of the race. Following events are included in track events: •• Sprint Races or Short Distance Races—100 m, 200 m, 400 m •• Middle Distance Races—800 m, 1500 m •• Long Distance Races—3000 m, 5000 m, 10000 m, marathon (42.195 km), and cross country races •• Hurdle Races—100 m, 110 m, 400 m •• Relay Races—4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m •• Steeplechase—3000 m TRACK MARKING Track is the running path where athlete competes against time. It consists of 2 straights and 2 curves. Thus, it is oval in shape. It can be made of various types of surfaces like grass, cinder and synthetic (tartan) etc. There are two types of tracks: 1. 400 m track (Standard track) 2. 200 m track (Practice track) All track markings must be in accordance with the IAAF’s standard track of 400 m. A standard track (400 m track), oval in shape, consists of two straights and two curves. The straights of the track should be in north and south directions. The straights of a standard track may vary from 70 m to 90 m, but in international competitions 80 m straight is preferred. A standard track has 8 lanes. The width of each lane is 1.22 m. As per the standard 400 m track, athletes run 30 cm off the border line and 20 cm off the non-border line. Track Marking Measurements for Standard Track (400 m Track): Standard track (400 m) = 2 straights + 2 curves But 2 straights = 80 m + 80 m = 160 m \\ 2 curves = 400 m – 160 m = 240 m ⇒ c = 2pr ... [where ‘c’ is circumference and ‘r’ is radius of curves] ⇒ r = c = 240 = 240 ¥ 7 1680 = 38.18 m 2p 2 ¥ 22 = 44 2 ¥ 22 7 Running radius (r) = 38.18 m Marking radius = 38.18 m – 30 cm = 38.18 – 0.3 m = 37.88 m Track marking measurements for a 400 m and 200 m tracks Straight Length For 400 m For 200 m Curves 2 (80 m + 80 m = 160 m) 2 (40 m + 40 m = 80 m) Running Radius 2 (120 m + 120 m = 240 m) 2 (60 + 60 = 120 m) Marking Radius for the 1st Lane 240 ÷ 2p = 240 × 7/44 = 38.18 m 120 ÷ 2p = 120 × 7/44 = 19.09 m 38.18 – 0.30 = 37.88 m (Bordered track) 18.79 m 38.18 – 0.20 = 37.98 m (Non-bordered track)

40 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI Staggers Staggers are the lines marked for starting positions of running in each lane of the track except first lane, so that each runner in his/her lane covers the equal distance from start to finish while running in different lanes. Thus, stagger is the distance given to each lane (except first lane) compensate the excess distance due to increase in radius of each out lane. Staggers are given in 200 m, 400 m, 800 m etc. races. To find the staggers for different lanes in 200 m and 400 m races, the following formulas are used: For 400 m track: The formula for calculating stagger is: [W (n – 1) – 0.10] × 2p (in metres) where, W = Width of lane (1.22 m for international competitions) n = Lane number (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th) p (pie) = 22 = 3.14 7 For 200 m track: The formula for calculating stagger is: [W (n – 1) – 0.10] × p (in metres) where, W = Width of lane (1.22 m for international competitions) n = Lane number (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th) p (pie) = 22 = 3.14 7 Staggers for 200 m and 400 m tracks Lanes 400 m 200 m 1st Lane 0 (zero) 0 (zero) 2nd Lane 7.04 m 3.52 m 3rd Lane 14.71 m 7.35 m 4th Lane 22.38 m 11.19 m 5th Lane 30.05 m 15.02 m 6th Lane 37.71 m 18.86 m 7th Lane 45.38 m 22.69 m 8th Lane 53.05 m 26.52 m For example, stagger for lane 3 will be [1.22(3 – 1) – 0.10] × 2 × 22 = 14.71 m. 7

Athletics 41 Standard Track (400 m) SHORT, MIDDLE AND LONG DISTANCE RACES Short distances races are called sprints. They include 100 m, 200 m and 400 m. Middle distance races include 800 m and 1500 m. Long distance races include 3000 m, 5000 m, 10000 m, the marathon and cross country races. In sprints, sitting start or crouch start is employed and starting block is used, which helps the runner in taking a good start. Three signals or commands are given by the starter such as ‘on your mark’, ‘set’ and ‘gun shot’. GENERAL RULES 1. Starting Lines—100 m, 100 m hurdles for women, 110 m hurdles (men) lines are marked backward from the finish line. 2. The start and finish of the race shall be measured from the edge of the starting line farther from the finish to the edge of the finish line. 3. Commands used are ‘on your mark’, ‘set’ and then the gun is shot in the air. 4. If the competitor starts movement before the gun is shot, it shall be a false start. 5. If the competitor commits a false start, he shall be disqualified. 6. The time is taken from the fire of the electronic gun to the time when the competitor touches his torso with the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line. 7. Every competitor must be provided with two chest numbers which must be worn on the chest and the back. 8. In all the races upto 400 m, runners run in particular allotted lanes. Each competitor shall keep within her/his own lane, else they are disqualified. 9. Starting blocks shall be used upto 400 m races. In case of relay, 4 × 200 m and 4 × 400 m only the first runner is allowed to use starting blocks. These blocks shall not be used for any other race.

42 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS 1. Start: Each race is started with a start. Sprints are short races which are run with full speed and maximum strength. These races require fast reaction time, high speed and maximum strength. Sprint has three phases: Acceleration phase, Maintain phase and Finish phase. Acceleration phase depends upon types of start. There are three types of sprint starts as mentioned below: (a) Bunch or Bullet Start: The athletes, who have short height, usually prefer this start. In this start, the distance between the blocks should be 6 to 11 inches. The front should be 12 inches behind the starting line. An athlete places both of his hands in cup shape or in bridge shape behind the starting line. Both the hands should be as apart as the shoulders of the athlete. At the signal ‘on your marks’, the athlete comes in sitting position. At the signal of ‘set’, hips are raised slightly upwards, the weight of the body comes forward. This position is unstable but very helpful to take quick start. At the signal of ‘gun shot’, the athlete starts running. The toes of the back foot are about level with the heel of the front foot. Both of the feet are placed well behind the starting line. In this start, your feet are closest together, compared to the other Bullet Start starts. Because your feet are close together, your legs and body are “bunched” together. That is why, it is called the bunched, or bullet start. (b) Medium Start: In medium start, the distance between the blocks should be 16 to 21 inches. Most of the athletes prefer this type of start. Rest of the position remains same as in bunch start. The athletes, who have average height, usually prefer such type of start. In this start, the feet are closer together than the elongated start but farther apart than the bullet start. That’s why, it is called the medium start, because it is in between the other two. (c) Elongated Start: In elongated start, the distance between the blocks should be 22 to 26 inches. It means the knee of rear leg and the heel of front should be in a line. Elongated start is usually preferred by the athletes who are very tall and who have powerful legs but hands slightly weak. In this start, your feet are spread out farther than the other two. Your back leg is stretched or elongated, behind you. 2. Running Action: After the signal of ‘gun shot’, the athlete takes thrust from starting blocks and achieves maximum speed in minimum time. To do so, the athlete should remain in bending position while running forward. His strides should not be lengthy but should be low and fast. His elbow should be bent at 90 degree angle. There should be a good coordination between his arm action and leg action. The middle portion of his body should not make much movements. The athlete should maintain his speed. It should not be retarded at any cost. 3. Finishing of the Race: Finish is considered when torso/chest region crosses the vertical edge of the finishing line. Generally, the athletes use three types of techniques to finish the race as mentioned below: (a) Run Through: This technique is generally adopted by novice athletes. In this technique, the finishing line is crossed with full speed by the athlete. This technique is easy and safe for the beginners. (b) Lunging: In this technique, the athlete bends his ‘torso’ Finishing of Race towards the finishing line in the last stride. While doing so he touches the imaginary line. This technique is adopted by experienced or well-versed athletes. (c) Shoulder Shrug: In this technique, an athlete or runner bends his one shoulder so that his torso could make an angle of 90° near the finishing line. This complete action is performed in the last stride near the finishing line. This technique is used by extraordinarily experienced athletes.

Athletics 43 HURDLE RACES Hurdling is the act of running and jumping over an obstacle at speed. In the sport of athletics, hurdling forms the basis of number track and field events which are a highly specialised form of obstacle racing. In these events, a series of barriers known as hurdles are set at precisely measured heights and distances which each athlete must pass by running over. The hurdle races consist of a track with ten hurdles in each lane, spaced evenly over the course of the track. Contestants are required to jump over each hurdle with both feet clearing the height of the hurdle bar. The hurdles are positioned in such a way that they will fall over if the runner touches them although contestants will not be disqualified for knocking hurdles down accidentally, they will be penalised for knocking them down deliberately. Contestants must stay in lane throughout the race and will be disqualified for changing lanes or obstructing another athlete. There are three types of hurdle races which commonly take place at athletics competitions. 100 m Hurdle Race (Women) The 100-metre hurdle race is specially designed for women. Generally, a runner or hurdler covers the distance of 13 m in 8 strides. The first hurdle is placed after a run-up of 13 metres from the starting line. The first three strides in hurdle race are taken like sprinting. The stride near the hurdle should be short. This short stride helps in crossing over the hurdle easily. Those hurdlers who have short stature, should not take short stride near the hurdle. The hurdles are set up so that they will fall over if bumped into by the runner, but weighted so this is disadvantageous. Fallen hurdles do not count against runners provided that they do not run into them on purpose. 110 m Hurdle Race (Men) The 110-metre hurdle race is a hurdling track and field event for men. It is included in the athletics programme at the Summer Olympic Games. In this hurdle race, the distance of first hurdle is 13.72 m, the distance of last hurdle from the end or finishing line is 14.02 m and rest of the hurdles are placed at equal distance of 9.14 m. A hurdler reaches the first hurdle of the stride increases but the last stride near the hurdle should be short. The hurdler should not take usually so high. They are positioned so that they will fall over if bumped into by the runner. Fallen hurdles do not carry a fixed time penalty for the runners, but they have a significant pull-over weight which slows down the run. While crossing the hurdle, the front leg should be straightforward, the toe of the foot should be downward and the body should be bent forward. After crossing the hurdle, the first step should be at 1.60 m, second at 2.10 m and the third step should be at 2.20 m. 400 m Hurdle (Men and Women) The hurdles are positioned and weighted so that they fall forward if bumped into with sufficient force, to prevent injury to the runners. Although there is no longer any penalty for knocking hurdles over, runners prefer to clear them cleanly, as touching them during the race slows runners down. The best male athletes can run the 400 m hurdles in a time of around 47 seconds, while the best female athletes achieve a time of around 53 seconds. In 400 m hurdle race, the hurdler faces the problem of coordinating his steps. From the starting line to the first hurdle, a hurdler usually completes the distance in 21 or 23 steps, completes the distance between hurdles in 13, 15 or 17 steps. Some hurdlers cover this distance in the beginning in 14 steps and later on they cover it in 16 steps. If the jump is taken with the right foot, it is much beneficial. Generally, the jump is taken from 2.00 m before the hurdle. After crossing the hurdles, the first step is usually placed 1.20 m forward from the hurdle. Rest of the technique remains same as in 100 m and 110 m hurdles. GENERAL RULES 1. The rules related to sprint events apply to hurdles too. 2. A competitor, who trails his foot or leg below the horizontal place of the top of any hurdle at the time of clearance, should be disqualified.

44 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI 3. A competitor, who jumps any hurdle in his or her own lane should be disqualified. 4. All races should be run in the lane allotted exclusively to the athlete. 5. Accidentally or legally knocking down the hurdle or hurdles does not disqualify the athlete. SPECIFICATIONS 1. Hurdle = 700 mm = 0.70 m Maximum length of base of a hurdle = 1200 mm = 1.22 m Maximum width of a hurdle = 70 mm Width of top bar = 10.25 mm Thickness of bar 2. Hurdle races Race Height of Distance of 1st hurdle from Distance between Distance of last hurdle the starting line hurdles hurdle from the For Men 1.067 m 13.72 m 9.14 m finishing line 110 m 0.914 m 15.00 m 35.00 m 400 m 14.02 m 0.838 m 13.00 m 8.50 m 40.00 m For Women 0.762 m 15.00 m 35.00 m 100 m 10.50 m 400 m 40.00 m 1200 mm (max.) Top end 225 mm (min.) rounded 70 mm ± 5 mm 10.25 mm Height 700 mm (max.) Hurdles FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS The fundamental skills required for hurdle races are as follows: 1. Start and Take-off: The athlete starts like a sprinter. He accelerates in his first 4 strides, then prepare to jump the first hurdle by straightening his torso in other 4 strides and take-off between 1.9 m to 2.35 m before the hurdle at full speed, keeping arms high. 2. Flight: The athlete tips his body forward and looks towards next hurdle. 3. Landing: The athlete lands about 1 m after the hurdle and immediately regains force from the ground for the next stride. The angle plays a major part in this forward movement. 4. Run between Hurdles: The athlete accelerates for 3 strides. The last stride before the next take-off is shorter and higher.

Athletics 45 RELAY RACES Relay race, also called Relay, a track-and-field sport consisting of a set number of stages (laps), usually four, each lap run by a different member of a team. The runner finishing one lap is usually required to pass on a baton (a hollow rod) to the next runner while both are running in a marked exchange zone. In most relays, team members cover equal distances. Olympic events for both men and women are the 400-metre Changing the Baton (4 × 100-metre) and 1,600-metre (4 × 400-metre) relays. Relay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams. Typically, a team is made up of four runners of the same sex. In this, 4 athletes compete for team, each running an equal distance, by passing a baton among them. They pass the baton within the changing zone. In 4 × 100 m relay, the exchange zone is 20 m in length at 100 m, 200 m, 300 m mark. The baton must be exchanged in takeover zone only, otherwise the team will be disqualified. There is also marked an extra 10 m acceleration zone before each takeover zone. The runner about to receive the baton may start running within this accelerating zone. The entire race is run in its own lane. In 4 × 400 m relay, only the first lap and the curve of the second lap Relay Race will run in respective lanes. The second runner, having taken over baton, runs the entire bend in lane and cuts into line, i.e., first lane. Runners 3, 4 run in inner most lane as per the positions, the exchange of baton takes place. Techniques to Exchange Baton Baton is exchanged in two ways as mentioned below: 1. Non-visual method (Blind pass): It is used in 4 × 100 m relay. In this method, the athletes change the baton without seeing back. (a) Upsweep technique: In this technique, the incoming runner passes the baton with an upward pushing motion and pushes the baton as fast as possible into the hands of outgoing runner. The outgoing runner grips the baton between “V” formed by the fingers and the thumb of the receiving hand. As the baton touches the hand of the outgoing runner, the incoming runner leaves the baton. (b) Downsweep technique: In this technique, the incoming runner passes the baton with a downward forward pushing motion. The outgoing runner opens hand facing palm upward and hold it from upper one-third of the baton. 2. Visual method: It is used in distance relay races (i.e., 4 × 400 m relays). In this method, the outgoing runner turns to face the incoming runner. He takes the baton from the incoming runner while watching movement of incoming runner. FIELD EVENTS There are two kinds of field events in athletics—throwing events and jumping events. The throwing events include shotput, discus throw, javelin throw and hammer throw. The jumping events include long jump (or Broad jump), triple jump, high jump and pole vault. Throwing sports, or throwing games, are physical, human competitions where the outcome is measured by a player’s ability to throw an object. The two primary forms are throwing for distance and throwing at a given target or range. The four most prominent throwing for distance sports in track and field are: shot put throw, discus throw, javelin throw, and hammer throw. Target-based sports have two main genres: bowling and darts, each of which have a great number of variations.

46 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI THROWING EVENTS There are four different throwing events included in athletics competition which require athletes to demonstrate their power, strength and accuracy. The four events are: the hammer throw, the discus throw, the javelin throw and the shot put throw. The following general rules are applied to all the throwing events. 1. Except for the javelin, the throw must start from a stationary position inside the circle. 2. Except in the javelin, the athlete is allowed to touch the inside of the board or stopboard. 3. Fouls occur when an athlete: (a) Does not start from a stationary position within the circle. (b) Touches the top of the iron board, stopboard, or painted circle. (c) Touches anywhere outside of the circle. (d) Improperly releases the implement. (e) Leaves the circle improperly or before the implement has landed. 4. In the javelin throw, the athlete must come to a stop before a line marking the end to the runway, regardless of where the athlete releases the implement. 5. An athlete cannot tape individual fingers or multiple fingers together. 6. Tape on the wrist alone is allowed and must be shown to the chief judge before the event starts. 7. Gloves are only allowed to protect the hands during the hammer throw. 8. All hammer and discus throws must be conducted inside an enclosure/cage to ensure the safety of the spectators, officials, and athletes. HAMMER THROW The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from Tailteann around 1800 BC, which featured events such as throwing either a weight attached to a rope, a large rock on a wooden handle, or even a chariot wheel on a wooden axle. Other ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle—the root of the term “hammer throw” due to their resemblance to the tools. In 16th century England, contests involving the throwing of actual blacksmith’s Sledge hammers were recorded. The hammer implement was standardised in 1887 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event. The weight of the metal ball was set at 16 pounds (7.26 kg) while the attached wire had to measure between 1.175 m and 1.215  m. The men’s hammer Hammer Throw throw became an Olympic event in 1900. The “hammer” used in this sport is not like any of the tools also called by that name. In modern times, it consists of a metal ball attached by a steel wire to a grip. The size of the ball varies between men’s and women’s competitions. In hammer throw, the athlete tries to throw the hammer at maximum distance after rotating it while standing in throwing circle. The athlete should have long and powerful arms, power, speed and balance along with coordination. A cage is compulsorily installed around the throwing circle. GENERAL RULES 1. During the competition, the throwers are not allowed to use the circle for trial throws or warm ups. 2. Competitors can use gloves for the protection of the hands. 3. Hammer must be thrown from throwing area only. 4. The thrower must leave the circle after hammer has landed on the ground. 5. The throw has to be executed within 90 seconds. 6. Rest of the rules applied in hammer throw are same as that of throwing events.

Athletics 47 SPECIFICATIONS = 2.135 m (± 5 mm) = 1.067 m 1. Throwing circle = 34.92° Diameter of the hammer throwing circle = 6 mm (white in colour) Radius of the hammer throwing circle = 75 cm Angle of throwing sector = 5 cm Thickness of the rim of circle Extended lines on both sides of the circle = It has three parts: (1) Metal head, (2) Wire, (3) Grip Width of extended lines and white lines = 7.260 kg (for men) 2. Hammer = 4.00 kg (for women) Hammer = 1175 to 1215 mm (for men) Weight of hammer = 1160 to 1195 mm (for women) = 110 to 170 mm (for men) Length of hammer (with sphere) = 95 to 110 mm (for women) = 3 mm Diameter of hammer head = 11 cm Thickness of wire Length of grip Stop board (10 cm high) Layout of Hammer and Shot Put Throwing Circle FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS The fundamental skills of hammer throw are as follows: 1. Gripping: A right-handed thrower grips the hammer handle with the left hand and wraps the right hand over the top of the left hand to make the grip more stronger. The thrower stands at the rear of the circle, back towards the direction of the throw and feet approximately shoulder width apart.

48 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI 2. Preliminary Swings: The thrower places the hammer on the ground to the right rear and rotates the shoulders to the right so that a straight line exists between the hammer head and the thrower’s left shoulder. While taking swing, the thrower pulls the hammer upward and towards the left. When the hammer has rotated as far to the left as possible, the thrower drops his head under the arms and accelerates the hammer in its arc from left to right. The arc has a high point to the left rear of the thrower and low point to the right front of the thrower. 3. Turns: When the head of the hammer reaches its lowest point in the last preliminary swing, the thrower adjusts the arms and hammer in front of the body and rotates into the first turn. The left foot is rotated into the first turn. The left foot is rotated 180° on the heel towards the direction of the throw, and the right foot rotates 180° on the toe. The thrower then picks up the right foot, brings it fully around and places it on the ground parallel to the left. This completes one turn. The elite throwers usually perform 3 or 4 turns, whereas, the beginners perform one or two turns. 4. Releasing Hammer: After placing the right foot down at the end of the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th turn, the thrower pulls on the hammer in an upward spiral by lifting the chest and extending the legs and the back. The thrower’s pull on the hammer occurs when the hammer is in front of the body and passing through the low point of its arc. When the hammer is released, the thrower is fully extended with the left shoulder toward the direction of the throw. 5. Reverse: After releasing the hammer, the thrower concentrates on staying in the ring and not fouling the throw. This can be done by rotating on the right foot and bringing the left foot around and back to the rear. Then the thrower comes out of the circle from the rear half. DISCUS THROW As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to 708 BC. In ancient times, a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal, and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics. This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens, which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing. By the 1912 Olympics, the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2.5 m squared throwing area became the standard. The discus is launched after the thrower, starting at the back of the Discus Throw  circle, has completed one-and-a-half turns. The facility for discus throw includes a throwing circle, protective cage and landing sector. The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg (4.4 pounds) in weight and 22 cm (8 inches) in diameter in 1907. The women’s discus was among the first women’s events on the Olympic programme, being introduced in 1928. GENERAL RULES 1. Chances to throw the discus will be given by lot system to athletes. 2. Athletes cannot use their own discus. 3. An athlete cannot touch the ground beyond the circle. 4. During throw if the circle lines are touched by an athlete, it will be a foul. 5. Discus must move in clockwise direction. 6. The discus can only be thrown by an athlete when he or she will stand inside a circle which has a diameter of 2.5 m. 7. After throwing the discus, athletes should come out from the back side of the two indicators. 8. There is one chief judge and five other judges for the competition. 9. It shall be a foul throw if the competitor touches the ground outside the circle or the top of the edge of ring if he has begun the technique.

Athletics 49 10. When there are more than 8 competitors, each shall be allowed three trails. Out of these, best eight are selected and are given three more chances. 11. The competitor must not leave the circle until the discus has touched the sector. SPECIFICATIONS 1. Discus throwing circle = 2.5 m ± 5 mm Diameter of discus throwing circle = 34.92° Angle of throwing sector = 75 cm Extended lines on both sides of the circle = 5 cm Width of extended lines and white lines 2. Discus = 2 kg (for men) Weight of the discus = 1 kg (for women) = 219 to 221 mm (for men) Outside diameter of metal rim of discus = 180 to 182 mm (for women) = 12 mm (6 mm at the edge) Thickness of the metal rim of the discus Layout of Discus Throwing Circle FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS The fundamental skills of Discus throw are as follows: 1. Holding the Discus: To hold the discus, one is to spread his/her fingers on the discus and holds from tip of his/her fingers. 2. Initial Swings: The first and foremost function of initial swing is to prepare an athlete for the throw. The second function is to break the inertia of the discus. While rotating the right arm, the athlete takes two or three swings rotating the arm and the trunk of his/her body to establish a rhythm.

50 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI 3. Turns: As soon as the turn starts (i) Knees should be bent. (ii) The weight of the body shifts from one foot to the other and thus the heel of the foot will rise above the ground. (iii) Toe should move in the direction of throw. (iv) Shoulder should move with the lower body. (v) The rotation starts from the lower body. (vi) The discus should remain behind the body. 4. Position of Throw: In this position, the right arm holding the discus will be straightened at the elbow and its left arm bent at the knee will be in front of chest. Planting the right toe on the ground, the athlete crosses the circle a bit above the ground and touches the ground with the toe of the right foot. This foot will almost be in the centre of shoulder. 5. Throwing: Both the feet advancing in a revolving movement will be straightened at the knees. The hips will move forward; the shoulder and the trunk shall have stopped moving in the forward direction; the left arm and the shoulder will advance forward and upward; the weight of the body will be on toes of both the feet. Upper part of the body will be bent in forward direction to keep its equilibrium. JAVELIN THROW As an implement of war and hunting, javelin throwing began in Javelin Throw prehistoric times. Along with the discus, the javelin was the second throwing event in the ancient Olympic pentathlon. Records from 708 BC show two javelin competition types co-existing: throwing at a target and throwing the javelin for distance. It was the latter type from which the modern event derives. In ancient competitions, athletes would wrap an ankyle (thin leather strip) around the javelin that acted as a sling to facilitate extra distance. The javelin throw gained much popularity in Scandinavia in the late 18th century and athletes from the region are still among the most dominant throwers in men’s competitions. The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releases the javelin before the foul line. The first Olympic men’s javelin throw contest was held in 1908 and a women’s competition was introduced in 1932. The first javelins were made of various types of wood, but in the 1950s, former athlete Bud Held introduced a hollow javelin, then a metal javelin, both of which increased throwers performances. Another former athlete, Miklos Nemeth invented the rough-tailed javelin and throws reached in excess of 100 m – edging towards the limits of stadia. The distances and the increasing number of horizontal landings led the IAAF to redesign the men’s javelin to reduce distance and increase the implement’s downward pitching moment to allow for easier measurement. Rough tailed designs were banned in 1991 and all marks achieved with such javelins were removed from the record books. The women’s javelin underwent a similar redesign in 1999. The current javelin specifications are 2.6 to 2.7 m in length and 800 grams in weight for men, and between 2.2 to 2.3 m and 600 g for women. In short, the javelin throw is a throwing event where the object to be thrown is a spear-like object made of metal, fibre glass and, in some cases, carbon fibre. The facility for the javelin throw includes a runway, a throwing arc and a landing sector. The minimum length of the runway is 30 m and the maximum 36.5 m. It is marked by two parallel white lines 5 cm wide and 4 m apart. GENERAL RULES 1. Order of throw must be determined by draw. 2. Javelin must be thrown from above shoulder height. 3. It must strike the ground with front tip.

Athletics 51 4. It is a foul if thrower touches the marking throwing arc with any part of his body or limbs. 5. The thrower must not leave the runway till the javelin has touched the ground. 6. For competitions with more than eight throwers, each thrower gets three trials. 7. If a thrower’s foot touches or crosses the throw line, he receives a foul. 8. Throwers cannot turn their backs to the field from the time they get into throwing position until the time of the javelin’s release. 9. The javelin has to be released using one hand only and it must be thrown up and over the arm in a fluid movement. 10. Throwers cannot leave the runway until after the javelin lands. SPECIFICATIONS 1. Javelin = 800–825 g (for men); 600–625 g (for women) Javelin weight = 260–270 cm (for men); 220–230 cm (for women) Javelin length = 250–330 mm (for men); 250–330 mm (for women) Length of metal head (nail) = 25–30 mm (for men); 20–25 mm (for women) Diameter of shaft = 150–160 mm (for men); 140–150 mm (for women) Width of cord 2. Runway = 7 cm Thickness of arc line = 30 m Runway length = 4m Runway width = 28.96° ≈ 29° Angle of throwing sector = 75 cm Length of the side lines (both sides) 5 cm ⇐ 5 cm 30 m Layout of Javelin Throw FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS The fundamental skills of Javelin throw are as follows: 1. The Grip: The firmness of the grip is most important feature of throw. It is very important for the thrower to grip the javelin behind the edge of the binding (cord) with the first and second fingers, or the first finger and thumb, or the second finger and thumb. 2. The Carry: The javelin is carried above the shoulder of the throwing arm.

52 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI 3. The Approach Run: The approach run develops the required momentum for a perfect and impressive throw. The strides will gradually increase in length and the delivery strides smoothly and rhythmically. 4. The Withdrawal Stride: During this part of run, place the javelin, throwing arm and shoulder, into an optimum position behind him before reading the delivery stride, this establishes optimum range to develop the force for the release and javelin alignment, within the first two strides the withdrawal has to be completed. 5. The Impulse Stride (Cross Over Stride): It is the 3rd stride in five stride foot work pattern, in this phase of the stride the thrower adopts optimum backward leaning position. 6. The Delivery: Total performance depends upon this phase. As the javelin is released, the hand and forearm must follow throw in the line of flight to avoid any possibility of a change in direction. 7. The Reverse Action: The reverse action must be done by the thrower to check the forward momentum to avoid foul on throwing line. SHOT PUT THROW The shot put is a throwing event involving putting (throwing in a pushing motion) a spherical object—the shot— as far as possible. The athlete who throws the shot is called shot putter. The genesis of the shot put can be traced to prehistoric Shot Put Throw competitions with rocks in the middle ages the stone put was known in Scotland and the Steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland. In the 17th century, cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to the modern sport. The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and required that competitors take legal throws within a square throwing area of seven feet (2.13 m) on each side. This was amended to a circle area with a seven-foot diameter in 1906, and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds (7.26 kg). Throwing technique was also refined over this period, with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side-step and throw technique arising in the United States in 1876. Shot Putters are generally the largest and most explosive athletes on a team. The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896 and a women’s competition using a 4 kg (8.82 lb) shot was added in 1948. Further throwing techniques have arisen since the post-war era: in the 1950s Parry O’Brien popularised the 180-degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the “glide,” breaking the world record 17 times along the way, while Aleksandr Baryshnikov and Brian Oldfield introduced the “spin” or rotational technique in 1976. The shot is made of different kinds of materials depending on its intended use. Materials used include sand, iron, cast iron, solid steel, stainless steel, brass, and synthetic materials like polyvinyl. Some metals are more dense than others making the size of the shot vary. For example, different materials are used to make indoor and outdoor shot—because damage to surroundings must be taken into account—so the latter are smaller. There are various size and weight standards for the implement that depend on the age and gender of the competitors as well as the national customs of the governing body. GENERAL RULES 1. Shot must be “put” instead of “thrown” from the shoulder with one hand only, from a circle. 2. The thrower must not bring the shot behind the shoulder line. 3. The fingers are slightly spread apart with the thumb for support. 4. The hand will be bent back in the cocked position when holding the shot. It looks like you are caring a pizza.

Athletics 53 5. The thrower may touch the inside of the rim or stop board. 6. While delivering the shot eyes should be towards ceiling. 7. Punch the shot away from the neck. 8. At the start of throw, the shot must touch very close to his chin, held with tips of the fingers. 9. The thrower, after releasing the shot, must leave the circle from rear half only after the ball has touched the ground. Finish the punch with a flip of the wrist. The throw must fall within the marked sector area. 10. Each competitor gets 3 chances to throw and qualify. 11. The best 8 throwers are given 3 more attempts. Keep the elbow high at all times. Lowering the elbow can cause the shot to be thrown like a baseball and could result in an injury. 12. While flag indicates the right throw whereas the red flag means it is a foul throw. 13. If the athlete leaves the throwing circle before the shot lands, it is a foul. 14. All throws must fall within the landing area. The landing area forms a throwing sector of 34.92°. SPECIFICATIONS 1. Shot put throwing circle = 2.135 m (± 5 mm) Diameter of throwing circle = Concrete Inside surface of the circle = 34.92° Angle of throwing sector = 75 cm Length of side lines = 5 cm Thickness of side line 2. Shot ball = 7.26 kg (for men); 4.00 kg (for women) Weight of the shot ball = 110–130 mm (for men); 95–110 mm (for women) Diameter of the shot ball 3. Stop board = 1.21 m (± 0.01 m) Length of stop board = 11.2–30 cm Width of stop board 8 Ground level 14–26 mm 1.20–1.22 m Measurement of Stop Board (Shot Put) FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS The fundamental skills of shot put throw are as follows: 1. Parry O’Brien Technique In all putting techniques, the goal is to release the shot with maximum forward velocity at an angle of approximately 40°. At present, the most common and widely used technique in shot put is back facing technique known as Parry O’Brien. The thrower starts at the back of the circle facing the back. The style

54 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI involved a 180-degree turn (rather than the usual 90-degree turn) across the ring, getting more speed and momentum into the action. It was in 1951 that Parry O’Brien altered the glide technique, and this enhanced its effectiveness to a great extent. In the “Parry O’Brien style” or the “Parry O’Brien glide”, the shot putter faces the back of the circle, beginning with a crouching position, and proceeds with kicking his leading leg to the front of the circle, while the other leg follows in a “gliding” motion. As the thrower crosses the circle, the wrapped up body posture now gradually unfurls with the twisting of the hips, followed by the shoulders, while holding the leading arm upright. The momentum of the throw is inherent in the “glide” or the linear movement of the legs across the circle and the gradual unwinding of the body, helping in creating maximum torque. (a) Hold: The shot should rest at the base of the middle three fingers, the thumb and little finger support at the sides. Palm should not touch the ball. (b) Carry: The shot is placed against the neck in the hollow formed near the joint of collar bone. (c) The Stance: The thrower takes up position facing a full 180° away from the direction of throw. Right foot is firmly placed and left foot must be 10–15 cm laterally to the left of the right heel with the toes in contact with surface of the circle. Left arm must be extended forward and upward. (d) Glide: The thrower flexes his right leg and makes ‘T’ shape position (trunk and swinging leg are almost parallel to ground) then ‘crouch’ (left leg is brought towards the right leg). To begin the glide, the thrower then shifts the body weight. The left leg swings backward towards the stop board, followed by powerful thrust from the right leg in the throwing direction. As the right foot is grounded at the centre of the circle, rotation at the hips takes place at this stage. (e) Delivery: All movements must occur in the direction of the line of the ball. Any deviation means a loss of effective force. (f) The Reverse: The shot putter must bring the right foot, taking place of left foot and body weight will shift on it with a little jump from left leg. This prevents from falling forward. 2. Disco-put or Rotational Style (a) Initial Position: Gripping of the shot will be same as in Parry ‘O’ Brien style. The power’s break will be towards the throwing direction. The shot will be caught tightly under the chin and elbow should be in upward direction. The upper body will move to the left side and then to right side. While doing so, the knees of both legs should be bent. (b) Rotation: In this position, the body weight will be on both feet. After one swing, the body will start moving towards left. The body weight will transfer the left foot. In this position, face will be towards the throwing direction. The toe action of right foot will move up to 90°. The right foot will come into the centre of the bole and left foot will be towards the stop board. (c) Final Phase: In the final phase, the right foot will make an angle of 125° in the centre of the circle. The right leg should be right. The left foot will be near the stop board. At this time, the shot should be put with full force. (d) Reverse: In reverse, the right foot comes near the stop board for making a good balance of the body and for putting maximum force. The reverse action should be very fast for stopping the rotational movement, otherwise it may be foul. After that, thrower should come out of the circle from the rear half of the circle. JUMPING EVENTS There are four jumping events in field athletics: high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault. There are four main principles which are applied to all jumping events: •• Starting Run: This is the period of time where the athlete gathers speed for the take off. The faster the athlete runs, the more force there is to be converted into the jump. •• Take off: This is the transition between the run and the jump with the athlete propelling their body into the air. In the case of the triple jump, the propulsion of the body is delayed with a hop, step and jump preceding the take off.

Athletics 55 •• Flight: This is the period of time when the body is airborne, sending them horizontally away from the starting point in the long jump or triple jump and vertically over the bar in the high jump. •• Landing: This is the point at which the athlete finishes the jump marking the distance (in the case of the long jump and triple jump) that they have travelled through the air. The landing area is a sand pit for the long jump and triple jump and a mattress for the high jump and pole vault. HIGH JUMP The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century. Further competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised. The men’s high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women’s competition soon followed in 1928. Jumping technique has played a significant role in the history of the event. High jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late 19th century, using either the Scissors, Easter cut-off or Western roll technique. The Straddle technique became prominent in the mid-20th High Jump century, but Dick Fosbury overturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head-first technique in the late 1960s—the Fosbury Flop—which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics. This technique has become the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 1980s onwards. The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912. In the high jump event, the athlete gets a running start and must jump over a bar without knocking it over. They land on a big soft cushion. Like many track and field events, there is a key element to doing well in this sport, which in this case is being able to jump high, but technique is very important as well. Timing and leaving your feet at the right point as well as how you bend your body as you go over the bar are all important. There have been many techniques used for high jumping over the years, but the current, and most successful, is called the Fosbury Flop. The Fosbury Flop technique involves leading with your head over the bar (vs. leading with your feet) and twisting such that your back is to the ground and closest the bar as you go over it. Jumpers then land on their back. GENERAL RULES 1. High jumper’s shoes can have a maximum thickness of 13 millimetres in the sole and 19 millimetres in the heel. The runway is at least 15 metres long. Competitors may place as many as two markers along the runway. The crossbar is 4 metres long. 2. The Game Committee will establish the qualifying height standard at the meet. 3. The athlete will get three consecutive attempts to make the height. 4. Once the athlete has achieved the qualifying standard, he will not jump that height again and must wait for the bar to be raised. 5. If an athlete misses all the three attempts at the height, he will not continue in the event. 6. The posts cannot be moved during the competition unless the referee says the takeoff or landing pit is unsuitable. 7. The athlete must take off from one foot. 8. Ties will be broken in favour of the athlete with the fewest misses at the height at which the tie occurs. Further ties will be broken by the lowest number of total misses throughout the competition. 9. If a tie remains after applying the above tie breakers, and it concerns the winner of the competition, the stalemate will be broken by a jump off. The jump off height begins at the last clearance of the tied athletes. This height is raised if both athletes clear, and lowered if both miss. This shall continue until one athlete clears and the other does not.

56 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI SPECIFICATIONS Length of runway = 15 m minimum = Recommended 20 m Width of runway = 1.22–1.25 m Upright = 1 m minimum, 2.50 m maximum Distance between two poles = 4–4.04 m Height of landing pit = 0.70–1.00 m Crossbar length = 3.98 m–4.02 m Weight of crossbar = 2–2.25 kg Diameter of crossbar = 29–30 mm Crossbar supports length = 6 cm Crossbar supports width = 4 cm Crossbar placement = 1 cm Size of landing area/pit = 5 m × 3 m or 6 m × 4 m Crossbar ends = 15–20 cm (long), 30–35 mm (wide) Distance between the end of crossbar and the upright = 10 cm 0.70–1.00 m Layout of High Jump Area TECHNIQUES OF HIGH JUMP Jumping technique plays an important role in high jumping. The most popular technique used for high jump is Fosbury Flop Technique. Some of the techniques are mentioned below: 1. Scissor Technique: In this technique, the jumper takes off from one leg/foot and scissors his legs while crossing over the crossbar, and lands on feet. This is the oldest method of high jump, but this is not used now-a-days. 2. Western Roll Technique: In this technique, the jumper rolls his body over the crossbar and lands on the back. 3. Straddle Roll Technique: In this technique, the jumper takes off with his left leg, rolls his body along its longitudinal axis to clear the crossbar and then lands with right leg and vice-versa. 4. Fosbury Flop Technique: In this technique, the jumper clears the crossbar with the back, using his body curve/arc and lands on his shoulders. This is the latest technique of high jump, used now-a-days.

Athletics 57 FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS The fundamental skills of High Jump are as follows: 1. Approach Run: The distance of the approach run mainly depends upon the high jumper. The novice jumper usually prefers Western roll. Generally, 7 to 9 steps are taken as the approach run by the jumper. In Western roll, the jumper takes 5 to 7 steps. He/she runs towards the crossbar from an angle of 45°. He/she takes last three steps very fast. In Straddle roll, his/her angle remains between 35° to 40°. He/she takes approximately 7 steps. The last 3 steps or strides are taken at a fast speed. Athletes run on a curve to lean away from the bar by creating pressure against the ground. The radius of the curved run is specific to individual athletes, and this can only be found through trial and error. However, the average for women is around 31–32 feet (9.5–10 metres), and for men it is 27–28 feet (8.3–8.6 metres), so these are good starting points for your jump. The athlete must approach the bar from the correct angle in the last 2 steps. Again, this is somewhat athlete specific but 50 degrees for the penultimate step and 40 degrees for the final step are good guidelines. The last 2 steps of the approach are the most important. The penultimate step must land flat, and on the imaginary curve line, with the hips and torso moving over this foot as quickly as possible. The last step should also be flat footed and purposely planted in a dorsiflex position. 2. Take Off: For the take off, the jumper’s take off foot should touch the ground firmly. First of all, his heel comes into the contact of ground. After that, he moves his next leg upward. At this time, the body weight comes on the take off foot. Head and chest are kept upward. In the beginning, arms remain downward and then upward. The jumper tries to go into the air. As soon as the body goes upward, the take off leg is fully extended. All athletes are different when it comes to the position of the take off foot, but generally this foot should be planted around 2-3 feet down the bar from the post or standard. Distances in front of the bar also vary greatly from athlete to athlete. However, the average for women is around 26 inches or 65 cm. For men it is further, around 48 inches or 123 cm. Use trial and error to work out the best position. 3. Position Over the Bar (Straddle Roll): After the take off, legs of the jumper are wide apart, the free leg remains high and the take off leg trails back with the knee bent. During this flight, the inside arm is kept close to the chest. The outside are reaches along and over the crossbar. At this stage, the complete body of the jumper becomes parallel to the crossbar. At this stage, the head and the outside extended arm of the jumper should be dropped down. The take off leg should be lifted up along with the rotational movement of the body. In this way, this process helps the leg to clear the bar. In the last, the inside tucked arm is completely straightened up. The Fosbury Flop is the most common way to clear the bar. This ends with the athlete landing on their upper back. To get to this position, the athlete must rotate around their vertical axis so their back is facing the bar as they clear it. To clear the bar an athlete will need to arch and then un-arch the body. The arching occurs to lift the hips above the bar, and the un-arching drops the hips, which lifts the legs in a natural reaction. The un-arching should occur as the upper legs go over the bar. 4. Landing: After crossing over the crossbar, the landing process begins. When the body starts coming downward, the foot near the crossbar also comes downward and opposite foot goes into the air. Then he makes a roll. In this way, he can save himself from any possible injury. In such landing, the landing pit should be soft and light on foot. LONG JUMP The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient Greek pentathlon contest. The athletes would take a shot run up and jumps into an area of dug up earth, with the winner being the one who jumped farthest. Small weights (Halteres) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end to gain extra momentum and distance. The modern long jump, standardised in England and the United States around 1860, bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used. Athletes sprint along a length of track that leads to a jumping board and a sandpit. The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand disturbed by the athlete’s body.

58 Comprehensive Physical Education Lab Manual—XI The athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men’s long jump competition and a women’s competition was introduced at the 1948 Summer Olympics. Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities. However, athletes must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed. In addition to the traditional long jump, a standing long jump contest requires that athletes leap from a static position without a run-up. A men’s version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912. Like many field events, the long jump involves more skill and technique than just being able to jump. First the athletes must have good speed as they sprint down the runway to prepare for the jump; next they must have very good footwork at the end of their run so they can launch as close to the line as possible Long Jump without going over the line and faulting; third they must make a good jump; and lastly they must have proper form through the air and into the landing. All of these techniques and skills must be executed to perfection to pull off a good long jump. The long jump requires jumpers to catapult forward as far as possible into a sandpit. Jumpers take a running start toward a take off board and when they reach the board they must jump forward. If a jumper’s foot crosses the end of the take off board, the jump does not count. Each jumper gets three attempts and the farthest distance is the jumper’s official score. GENERAL RULES 1. The length of the run is unlimited. 2. The take off must occur on or before the board. 3. The jump is measured from the take off line to the nearest break in the landing area made by any part of the body. 4. The number of trials varies depending upon the number of competitors. If the number of competitors is more than eight, then each one will be given three trials and best eight among them may be given additional three trials. However, if the number of competitors is less than eight, then each may be given six trials. 5. If a competitor wishes, he can have some practice trials before the beginning of the competition under the supervision of judges. Once the competition has begun, they are not allowed to use the competition or take off area. 6. Markers are provided by the organising committee to the players to mark their take off and run off points. No other substances like chalks should be used which can leave indelible marks. 7. Soon after the athlete jumps, measurement is done from the nearest point that has touched the take off point. 8. All measurements are done perpendicular to the take-off point. 9. For the trial to be legal, the wind meter reading is also important. It should show the parameters within the required specific zone. 10. The performer has to complete his jump within one minute. 11. If there is a tie between two players after scoring, chances are given to them till the time one performs better than the other and gain more points.

Athletics 59 SPECIFICATIONS = 40–45 m = 1.22 m 1. Runway Length = Wood Width = 1.22 m 2. Take off Board = 20 cm Material used = 10 cm Length = 1 to 3 m away from pit Width Deep = 9 m Fixed = 2.75 to 3 m 3. Landing Area (sandpit) = 15 inches Length Width Deep AB Runway 40–45 m Landing area (Sandpit) 2.75 –3 m A Plasticine indicator = 10 cm 1–3 m 9m B Take off board = 20 m Long Jump Area FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS The fundamental skills of High Jump are as follows: 1. Approach Run (a) The athlete starts the run up from the check mark. (b) A long jumper must acquire maximum speed before hitting the take off board. (c) The approach run should be so long so that strong foot exactly comes on the take off board. (d) A good technique on the approach and take off can increase the length of a jump immensely. (e) A 12–19 stride approach is optimal. The longer the better for experienced and conditioned athletes. ( f ) Gradual acceleration is the first key aspect. ( g) Most athletes begin the run with their left foot forward. This foot is used to push down, to start the forward movement. (h) At this point of the long jump technique the athlete should also be leaning forward. (i) After a few strides the athlete should be in the full upright sprinting position. ( j) It is vitally important to keep accelerating through the board, to convert your maximum controlled horizontal velocity, into vertical velocity. (k) The penultimate step differs from the rest as the athlete prepares to jump, for one it is longer. The foot is placed flat on the ground and the knee and ankle are flexed to lower the athlete’s centre of gravity.