The English lit-WPS Office(2)

TheEnglishliterature Submittedby:JanitoBongaos Submittedto:Sir,LarryBotona

TheAnglo-SaxonPeriod (449-1066BC Beowulf(epicpoem,anonymous)(c.VIIIth-XIthc.) BeowulfistheoldestsurvivingepicpoemintheEnglishlanguageandtheearliestpieceofvernacularEuropean literature.ItwaswritteninOldEnglish,thelanguageoftheSaxons.Originallyuntitled,intheXIXthcenturythepoem begantobecalledbythenameofitsScandinavianhero,whoseadventuresareitsprimaryfocus.Historicalelementsrun throughthepoem,yetboththeheroandthestoryarefiction.BeowulfwaswritteninEngland,butissetinScandinavia. Althoughitsauthorisunknown,itsthemesandsubjectmatterarerootedinGermanicheroicpoetry,inAnglo-Saxon traditionrecitedandcultivatedbyOldEnglishpoetscalledscops.Beowulfsurvivesinasinglemanuscriptdatedon paleographicalgroundstothelatetenthorearlyeleventhcentury.Themanuscriptmeasures195x130mm. Beowulfmayhavebeencomposedasanelegyforakingwhodiedintheseventhcentury,butthereislittleevidenceto indicatewhothatkingmayhavebeen.Theburialritesdescribedintheepicshowagreatsimilaritytotheevidencefound atSuttonHoo,buttoomuchremainsunknowntoformadirectcorrelationbetweenthepoemandtheburialsite.The poemmayhavebeencomposedasearlyasc.700,andevolvedthroughmanyretellingsbeforeitwaswrittendown. Whoevertheoriginalauthormayhavebeenislosttohistory.Thesolemanuscriptofthepoemdatestoc.1000. Handwritingstylerevealsthatitwasinscribedbytwodifferentpeople.Whethereitherscribeembellishedoraltered theoriginalstoryisunknown.TheearliestknownownerofthemanuscriptistheXVIthcenturyscholarLawrenceNowell. IntheXVIIthcenturyitbecamepartofRobertBruceCotton'scollectionandisthereforeknownasCottonVitelliusA. XV.In1731,itsufferedirreparabledamageinafire.ThefirsttranscriptionofthepoemwasmadebyIcelandicscholar GrimurJónssonThorkelinin1818.Sincethemanuscripthasdecayedfurther,Thorkelin'sversionishighlyprized,yetits accuracyhasbeenquestioned.

VenerableBede(672-3-735) TheVenerableBede,knownasthefatherofEnglishchurchhistory,wasbornin672or673.Hewasgivenbyhis parentstothemonasteryofSt.PeteratWearmouthattheageofseven.In681or682,themonasterywasestablished asajoint-foundationatJarrow.Bedewastransferredthereandwentontobecomeamonk,theologian,historian,and scientist.BedewaseducatedatJarrowandspenttherestofhislifeatinthemonastery.Attheageof19,Bedewas ordainedadeacon.Ordinarily,thisisapositionthat,bycanonlaw,wasonlyappointedtoapersonof25yearsofageor older,buthisscholarshipanddevotionconvincedAbbotCeofriedtomakehimadeaconsixyearsearly.Afterbeing ordainedasapriestin702-703,Bedededicatedhislifetostudyingthescriptures,teaching,andwriting.Herarelyleft themonastery. Bede'sgreatestworkwasTheEcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishPeople,whichwaswrittenin731.Thisbookfocuses ontheearlyChristianmissionstotheEnglishpeopleandthemissionaryworkofSt.AugustineofCanterbury.Itisour principlesourceforinformationaboutthisperiodinEnglishhistoryandaboutthegrowthoftheChurchinEngland.This workisnotableforintroducing\"AnnoDomini\"or\"A.D.\"asawayofdatingeventsintheChristianera. BedetookgreatcareinwritingthisbookanditbecameamodelforhistorywritingintheMiddleAges.Hewroteinan excellentLatin,wascarefulinreportingmiraculouselements,anddiscussedeventsofhistoricalimportance.Butperhaps themostimpressivepointofBede'swritingwashisuseofsources.Bedeexaminedalloftherecordsavailabletohim, securedverbalandobtainedwrittenaccountsfromreliablelivingauthorities.Heoccasionallyleftthemonasterytocopy documentsortotalktohissources.Bedewasthefirsttocompilesuchacompleteandaccuratehistoricalrecord.His otherimportanthistoricalworkistheHistoryoftheAbbots.whichwerebiographicalsketchesaboutsomeofthemonks thathemetattheWearmouthandJarrowmonasteries.

Caedmon(657-680) CædmonistheearliestEnglishpoetwhosenameisknown.AnAnglo-Saxonwhocaredfortheanimals,hewasoriginally ignorantof\"theartofsong\"butlearnedtocomposeonenightinthecourseofadream,accordingtotheVIIIth-century monkBede.Helaterbecameazealousmonkandanaccomplishedandinspirationalreligiouspoet.Cædmonisoneof twelveAnglo-Saxonpoetsidentifiedinmedievalsources,andoneofonlythreeforwhombothroughlycontemporary biographicalinformationandexamplesofliteraryoutputhavesurvived.HisstoryisrelatedintheHistoriaecclesiastica gentisAnglorum(\"EcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishPeople\")byBedewhowrote. therewasintheMonasteryofthisAbbessacertainbrotherparticularlyremarkablefortheGraceofGod,whowas wonttomakereligiousverses,sothatwhateverwasinterpretedtohimoutofscripture,hesoonafterputthesameinto poeticalexpressionsofmuchsweetnessandhumilityinEnglish,whichwashisnativelanguage.Byhisversethemindsof manywereoftenexcitedtodespisetheworld,andtoaspiretoheaven.\"Cadmon'sonlyknownsurvivingworkisCadmon's Hymn,thenine-linealliterativevernacularpraisepoeminhonourofGodwhichhesupposedlylearnedtosinginhisinitial dream.ThepoemisoneoftheearliestattestedexamplesofOldEnglishandis,withtherunicRuthwellCrossand FranksCasketinscriptions,oneofthreecandidatesfortheearliestattestedexampleofOldEnglishpoetry.Itisalso oneoftheearliestrecordedexamplesofsustainedpoetryinaGermaniclanguage.

Cynewulf(IXthcenturyAD) Cynewulf,authoroffourOldEnglishpoemspreservedinlateXth-centurymanuscripts.EleneandTheFatesofthe ApostlesareintheVercelliBook,andTheAscension(whichformsthesecondpartofatrilogy,Christ,andisalso calledChristII)andJulianaareintheExeterBook.Anepiloguetoeachpoem,askingforprayersfortheauthor, containsruniccharactersrepresentingthelettersc,y,n,(e),w,u,l,f,whicharethoughttospellhisname.Arhymed passageintheEleneshowsthatCynewulfwroteintheNorthumbrianorMerciandialect.Weknownothingelseconcerning Cynewulfwithanydegreeofcertainty.HemayhavebeenalearnedclericsinceallofthepoemsarebasedonLatin sources. Weinferfromthenatureofhispoetrythathewasofadeeplyreligiousnature,butitishazardoustodeducethe characterofapoetfromhisapparentlysubjectivework;welearnthathelivedtoanoldage,whichhefelttobea burden;that,atsometimeofhislife,hehadknownthefavourofprincesandenjoyedthegiftsofkings;hemusthave beenthethegnorscopofsomegreatlord,andnotmerelyanitinerantsingerorgleeman,assomecriticshaveheld.He wasamanoflearning,certainlyagoodLatinscholar,forsomeofhisworkisbaseduponLatinoriginals.Criticsarenot agreedastotheperiodoflifeinwhichheoccupiedhimselfwiththecompositionofreligiouspoetry,norastothe chronologicalorderofhisworks.

Notableworks 1.\"Elene\",apoemof1.321lines,isanaccountofthefindingoftheTrueCrossbySt.Helena. 2.\"TheFatesoftheApostles\".122lines,isaversifiedmartyrologydescribingthemissionanddeathofeachofthe TwelveApostles. 3.\"ChristII\"(TheAscension)isalyricalversionofahomilyontheAscensionwrittenbyPopeGregoryItheGreat.Itis partofatrilogyonChristbydifferentauthors. 4.\"Juliana\",apoemof731lines,isaretellingofaLatinproselifeofSt.Juliana,amaidenwhorejectedthesuitofa Romanprefect,Eleusius,becauseofherfaithandconsequentlywasmadetosuffernumeroustorments. AlfredtheGreat(840-899) KingAlfredtheGreatreignedinEnglanfrom871-899.Thetitle\"great\"wasgiventohimbecauseofhisgreatleadership overthelandandthepeopleheserved.ThisgreatleadershipwasshownmostthroughhisresistancetotheDanes (Vikings)astheyinvadedthenorthwestportionofEnglandtryingtoconquertheAnglo-Saxonsinthe800's.Alfredwas borntohisfather,Aethelwulf,KingofWessexandhisqueen,Osburga,in849inWantage,Berkshire,England.Hewasborn oftheroyalhouseoftheJutesofWight.Hewasthefourthsonbornandhadoneyoungersister.bremHebecameking onlyaftereachofhisolderbrothershadruledforsometime.KingAlfred'seducationasachildwasimportanttohis reign.Hedidnothaveaformaleducationandlearnedtoreadandwriteonlyafterhebecamekingin871.buthedid receivegreatinstructionthroughouthislife.Attheageoffour,AlfredwenttoseePopeLeoIVinRomeforinstruction. ThePopelateradoptedKingAlfredashisspiritualson.MostofthePope'sinstructiontoAlfredwasconcentratedon Christianityandnottheliberalarts.Thisinstructionwaswellsuitedforhisfutureroleashewouldspendmostofhis reigndefendingtheChristianAnglo-Saxons.

Intheyear871.Alfredundertookthegovernmentofthekingdomafterhisbrother,Aethelrod,hadruledinpeacefor aboutfiveyears.Aftertakingovertheland,KingAlfredwasfacedwithsomemilitarychoices.Hewasalreadysomewhat experiencedinbattlebecausehehadledseveralcampaignsagainsttheinvadingDanes.Alfreddidnotwanttogointo battle,sohekeptthepeacebypayingtributetotheDanesforfouryears.By878Alfredwasfedupwithsupportingthe Danesinhisland,soheattackedthemandwon,forcingthemtocomplytohistermsandpaytributetohim.Although Alfred'sgreatestachievementduringhisreignwasthedefeatoftheDanes,healsohadotheraccomplishments.He establishedacodeoflawbasedontheteachingsoftheBibletomaintainsocialorder.Hepushedforbettereducation andhelpedmakelearningimportantinthelivesofthepeopleofhisland.Thiswasnecessaryduringhisreignbecause educationhaddeclinedduetothefactthattheDaneswerelootingthemonasteriesandchurcheswhichwerethecenter ofeducation.Alfredbelievedthatlearning\"makeslifemorerewardingandenjoyable....theworstthingofallis ignorance\"(AlfredUniversity). II.THEMIDDLEENGLISHPERIOD(1066–1485) Wace(c.1110-1174) WacewasaNormanpoet,whowasborninJerseyandbroughtupinmainlandNormandy(hetellsusintheRomandeRou thathewastakenasachildtoCaen),endinghiscareerasCanonofBayeux.AllthatisknownofWace'slifecomes fromautobiographicalreferencesinhispoems.Heneglectedtomentionhiscomesfromautobiographicalreferencesinhis poems.Heneglectedtomentionhisbirthdate;sometimebetween1090and1110isthemostcommonlyacceptedyearofhis birth. ThenameWace,usedinJerseyuntiltheXVIthcentury,appearstohavebeenhisonlyname;surnameswerenot universallyusedatthattime.Itisspeculatedthathemayhavebeenofaristocraticorigin,ashewassenttoCaentobe educated,whichwouldhavebeenvirtuallyimpossibleformost.Hisdetailedwritingonmaritimemattersmayhave stemmedfromhisislandupbringing.Around1130WacereturnedtoCaenandtookecclesiaticalwork,possiblyasateacher. In1155,WacecompletedthefirstworkthatmentionedtheKnightsoftheRoundTable,ledbythelegendaryBritish rulerKingArthur.ThedateofWace'sdeathisuncertain.ThemostrecenteventdescribedintheRomandeRoumaybe datedto1174.IntheRou,WacealsomentionsHenrytheYoungKingasliving.Thelatterliveduntil1183,whichmeans thatWaceprobablydidnotrevisetheRouafterthatdate.

Notableworks 1.\"TheRomandeBrut\"(1155,aromance). 2.\"TheRomandeRou\"(1160-1174,aversechronicle).Amongsomeotherofhisworkstherearethefollowing,theyearof whichisunknown.Theyallarealsowritteninverse: 3.\"ThehistoryoftheirruptionoftheDanesintoEnglandandthenorthernprovincesofFrance\". 4.\"TheRomanceofWilliamLongespee\". 5.\"TheRomanceofDukeRichardI,sonofWilliamLongespee\". 6.\"AContinuationoftheHistoryoftheDukesofNormandy\". 7.\"TheOriginoftheFeastoftheConceptionoftheVirgin\".8.\"TheLifeofS.Nicholas\". 9.\"TheRomanceduChevallierauLion\". SirThomasMalory(1410(14)-1471) TheEnglishauthorSirThomasMalory(activeXVthcentury)wroteLeMorteDarthuroneofthemostpopular,famous andinfluentialproseversionofthelegendsofKingArthurofthemedievalperiod.Theworkwasthefirstfull-length bookinEnglishabouttheadventuresofKingArthurandtheKnightsoftheRoundTable.AlthoughLeMorteDarthur (alsoknownasLeMorted'Arthur)isuniversallyacceptedasaECmasterpieceofimaginativeliterature,somuchmystery surroundstheidentityoftheauthor(thatis,whichoneofseveralSirThomasMalorysoftheXVthcenturyactually wroteit)thatanyonedefinitivebiographyseemsimprudent.Theonlydirectinformationextantconcerningtheauthoris thataSirThomasMalorycompletedthebookwhilehewasa\"knight-prisoner\"intheninthyearofEdwardIV'sreign, fromMarch4,1469,toMarch3,1470.Alltherestisconjecture.AlthoughseveralotherThomasMaloryswere suggested,themostseriouscandidatewasidentifiedbyGeorgeL.KittredgeattheendoftheXIXthcenturyasSir ThomasMalory,Knight,ofNew-boldRevel,Warwickshire.ThisThomasMalory,who,astherecordshows,ledanactive andcolorfullife,hasbeenacceptedastheauthorofLeMorteDarthurbymostscholars.

Malory'sexactdateofbirthisunknown(probablyaroundtheyear1410-1414).BornintoanEnglishgentryfamily,Sir ThomasMaloryspenthisfirstcoupleofdecadesinquietobscurity,asidefromcampaigningattheSiegeofCalaisin1436. By1441hehadbeenknighted,andhaddevelopedagrowinginterestinpolitics.In1445hebecameMPforhiscountyand overthenextfewyearsdevelopedastartlingtalentforlawlessness.In1444hehadbeenchargedwithassaultand theft,andin1450MalorytriedtoambushandmurdertheDukeofBuckingham.HeallegedlyrapedJoanSmithnotonce buttwice,stolegoodsfromherhusband,extortedmoney,pilferedcattle,anddestroyedtheDukeofBuckingham's huntinglodge.In1451MalorywasimprisonedatColeshill,butescapedtwodayslaterbyswimmingthemoatatnight.He thentwiceraidedCombeAbbeyalongsideabandofoutlaws,stealingagreatdealofmoneyandharassingthemonks. Malorywascapturedin1452andthrownintoaLondonprisonwherehespenteightyearsawaitingtrial.Afterhewas bailedout,hewascaughtstealinghorsesandplacedinaColchesterjail,butfoughthiswaythroughtheguardsand escaped.HewasrecapturedandreturnedtotheLondonprison,butwasfreedbyroyalpardonin1460.However,by1468 MalorywasbackinNewgateprison,wherehewoulddiein1471.WhileinNewgateheturnedtowriting,creatingthe immortal\"LeMorteD'Arthur\",whichwouldwinhimThetitle.\"LeMorteD'arthur\"(also\"LeMorteDarthur\")istakenfrom theepilogueofWilliamCaxton'slandmarkillustratededitionof1485.Theepiloguetellsusthat\"thisbookwasended theninthyearofthereignofKingEdwardtheFourth(either1469or1470),bySirThomasMaleore(oneofthevariant spellingsofMalory) GeoffreyChaucer(c.1343-1400) CalledthefatherofEnglishpoetry.GeoffreyChaucerisrankedasoneofthegreatestpoetsofthelateMiddleAges. ChaucermadeacrucialcontributiontoEnglishliteratureinusingEnglishatatimewhenmuchcourtpoetrywasstill writteninAnglo-NormanorLatin.Hisbest-knownworksareTheCanterburyTalesandTroilusandCriseyde.

TheexactdateandplaceofGeoffreyChaucer'sbirtharenotknown.Theevidencesuggests,however,thathewasborn about1343,orayearortwoearlier,inhisparents'houselocatedonThamesStreet,London,England.Chaucer'sfamily wasofthebourgeoisclass.TheydescendedfromanaffluentfamilywhomadetheirmoneyintheLondonwinetrade. GeoffreyChaucerisbelievedtohaveattendedtheSt.Paul'sCathedralSchool,whereheprobablyfirstbecame acquaintedwiththeinfluentialwritingofVirgilandOvid. In1359-1360ChaucerwenttoFrancewithEdwardIII'sarmyduringtheHundredYears'War.Hewascapturedinthe ArdennesandreturnedtoEnglandafterthetreatyofBrétignyin1360.Thereisnocertaininformationofhislifefrom 1361untilc.1366,whenheperhapsmarriedPhilippaRoet,whosesisterKatharinewasformanyyearsthemistressandlater thethirdwifeofJohnofGaunt,anotherofthesonsofEdwardIII,andapowerfulpatron.Thismarriageconveniently helpedfurtherChaucer'scareerintheEnglishcourt. Between1367and1378Chaucermadeseveraljourneysabroadondiplomaticandcommercialmissions.In1385helosthis employmentandrent-freehome,andmovedtoKentwherehewasappointedasjusticeofthepeace.Hewasalso electedtoParliament.ThiswasaperiodofgreatcreativityforChaucer,duringwhichheproducedmostofhisbest poetry,amongothersTroilusandCressida(c.1385),basedonalovestorybyBoccaccio. InDecemberof1386,hewasdeprivedofallofthispoliticalinfluencewhenhispatron,JohnofGaunt,leftthecountry onamilitaryexpeditionforSpainandtheDukeofGloucesterreplacedhim.Itisassumedthatitwasduringthisperiod ofunemploymentthatChaucerplannedoutandstartedwritingTheCanterburyTales.thecrowningachievementof Chaucer'slife.WhenJohnofGauntreturnedtoEnglandin1389,hewasgivenanewgovernmentpost,andChaucerlived aprosperouslifefromthenon.Heservedasclerkuntilheresignedin1391.Foratimethereafterheservedasdeputy foresterfortheroyalforestatNorthPetherton,England.Thekinggrantedhimapensionoftwentypoundsin1394,and in1397anannualcaskofwinewasaddedtothisgrant.KingHenryIV(1553-1610)renewedandincreasedthesegrantsin 1399.

ThelegendaryXIVth.centuryEnglishpoetGeoffreyChaucerdiedOctober25,1400ofinLondon,England.Hediedof unknowncausesandwas60yearsoldatthetime.TheCanterburyTaleswasleftunfinishedwhenhedied.Geoffrey ChaucerwasburiedinWestminsterAbbey.HisgravestonebecamethecenterofwhatwastobecalledPoet'sComer. Notableworks 1.Translationof\"RomandelaRose\"(TheRomauntoftheRose)(1360).2.TranslationofBoethius\"Consolationof Philosophy\"asBoece(c.1380). 3.\"TheBookoftheDuchess\"(c.1369). 4.\"TheHouseofFame\"(c.1374-1385). 5.\"TheParliamentofFowls\"(c.1380).6.\"AnelidaandArcite\"(c.1380). 7.\"Palamon\"(1380-1386).8.\"TroilusandCressida\"(c.1385).9.\"TheCanterburyTales\",acollectionofstoriesmostly writteninverse(c.1386) 8.\"TroilusandCressida\"(c.1385). 9.\"TheCanterburyTales\",acollectionofstoriesmostlywritteninverse(c.1386). 10.\"TheLegendofGoodWomen\"(c.1387-1394). 11.\"TreatiseontheAstrolabe\",medievalessay(1391). Shortpoems 12.\"AnABC\"(c.1375).13.\"TheComplaintuntoPity\"(c.1376). 14.\"AComplainttoHisLady\"(c.1376). 15.\"TheComplaintofMars\"(c.1376). 16.\"TheComplaintofVenus\"(c.1376). 17.\"ToRosemounde\"(c.1381). 18.\"WomanlyNoblesse\"(c.1385).19.\"ChaucersWordesuntoAdam,HisOwneScriveyn\"(c.1385). 20.\"TheFormerAge\"(c.1387). 21.\"Fortune\"(c.1388)..22.\"Truth\"(c.1389). 23.\"Gentilesse\"(c.1391).

24.\"LakofStedfastnesse\"(c.1393). 25.\"LenvoydeChauceraScogan\"(c.1395). 26.\"LenvoydeChauceraBukton\"(c.1396). 27.\"TheComplaintofChaucertohisPurse\"(c.1399).28.\"Proverbs\"(c.1399). JohnGower(?1330-1408) FewdetailsareknownofGower'searlylife.HewasprobablybornintoaprominentYorkshirefamilywhichheld propertiesinKent,Yorkshire,NorfolkandSuffolk.ItisthoughtthathepracticedlawinoraroundLondon.Whilein London,hebecamecloselyassociatedwiththenobilityofhisday.HewasapparentlypersonallyacquaintedwithRichard II:intheprologueofthefirsteditionoftheConfessioAmantis,hetellshowtheking,chancingtomeethimonthe Thames(probablycirca1385),invitedhimaboardtheroyalbarge,andthattheirconversationthenresultedinacommission fortheworkthatwouldbecometheConfessioAmantis.LaterinlifehisallegianceswitchedtothefutureHenryIV,to whomlatereditionsoftheConfessioAmantiswerededicated.Muchofthisisbasedoncircumstantialratherthan documentaryevidence,andthehistoryofrevisionsoftheConfessioAmantis,includingthedifferentdedications,isyetto befullyunderstood. Gower'sfriendshipwithChaucerisalsowelldocumented.WhenChaucerwassentasadiplomattoItalyin1378,Gower wasoneofthementowhomhegavepowerofattorneyoverhisaffairsinEngland.Thetwopoetsalsopaidoneanother complimentsintheirverse:ChaucerdedicatedhisTroilusandCriseydeinparttomoralGower\",andGowerreciprocated byplacingaspeechinpraiseofChaucerinthemouthofVenusattheendoftheConfessioAmantis.QaAtsomepoint duringtheearly1370s,hetookupresidenceinroomsprovidedbythePrioryofStMaryOverie(nowSouthwark Cathedral).In1398,whilelivinghere,hemarried,probablyforthesecondtime:hiswife,AgnesGroundolf,wastosurvive him.Inhislastyears,andpossiblyasearlyas1400,hebecameblind.Afterhisdeathin1408,Gowerwasinterredinan ostentatioustombinthePriorychurch(nowSouthwarkCathedral),whichremainstoday.

Gower'sconsiderablelearningisattestedbyhiswritingwithaccomplishmentinthreelanguages.InFrenchhewrotehis CinkanteBalades(writteninAnglo-Normanbefore1374)andhisfirstlarge-scalework,theMirourdel'Omme(Speculum Meditantis).anallegorywrittenc.1376-1378,inoctosyllabics.concernedwithfallenman,hisvirtuesandvices.Hissecond majorworkwastheLatinVoxClamantis(c.1376-1381),anapocalypticpoemofsevenbooksin10,265linesofelegiac couplets,containingreflectionsonthedisturbancesoftheearlyyearsofRichardIIandthePeasants'Revoltof1381.In Englishhewrotethepoem\"InPraiseofPeace\"in55stanzasofrhyme-royal,aswellashisprincipalwork,theConfessio Amantis,whichexistsinthreemanuscriptversions.Thefirstofthree(published1390),andthemostcommonlyattested, contains141storiesinoctosyllabiccoupletswhicharehandledwithametricalsophisticationandskillunsurpassedin English. Theframeworkofthepoemistheconfessionofalover,Amans,toGenius,apriestofVenus;theconfessortellshim exemplarystoriesofbehaviourandfortuneinlove,organizedundertheheadingoftheSevenDeadlySins(usuallygiven asPride,Envy,Anger,Sloth,Covetousness,GluttonyandLust)anddrawingwidelyonclassicalstory(mostprominently Ovid)andmedievalromance.Thereareeightbooks:oneforeachofthesins,andone(Book7)whichgivesan encyclopaedicaccountofphilosophyandmorals.ThisworkisasinterestingforitsPrologueandadmirableEpologue,and foritsexchangesbetweenthepriestandlover,asitisforthenarrativesthemselves. SeveraloftheexemplarytalesareparalleledbystoriesinTheCanterburyTalesandotherworksbyChaucer.Upto theXVIIthcenturyalmosteverywriterwhopraisedChaucercoupledhisnamewithGower's.However,unlikeChaucer's work,hisvoluminouspoemsreflectthepastandscarcelyhintofthefuture.

Notableworks 1.\"Mirourdel'Omme,orSpeculumHominis,orSpeculumMeditantis\"(French,c.1376-1379). 2.\"VoxClamantis\"(Latin,c.1377-1381). 3.\"ConfessioAmantis\"(English,c.1386-1393).. 4.\"Traité\"(French,1397). 5.\"CinkanteBalades\"(French,1399-1400).6.\"Inpraiseofpeace\"(English,c.1400). WilliamLangland(c.1330-c.1386) WilliamLanglandisthegenerallyacceptedauthorofthemedievalallegoricalpoemPiersPlowman.Heisafigureof whomthereisnomentionincontemporaryrecordseverythingwrittenabouthislifeiseducatedconjecturebasedon Langland'stextsandlaterallusions.Langlandwasbornsometimearound1330.IntheB-TextofPiersPlowman,composed around1377. Imaginationsayshehasfollowedhim\"thisfiveandfortywinters.\"IntheDublinmanuscript(D.4.1),anoteinafifteenth- centuryhandclaimsthatLangland'sfatherwasone\"StacydeRokayle.\"Inmid-sixteenthcentury,BaleinhisIllustris

MajorisBritanniaewrotethatLanglandwasfrom\"MortymersClibury\"(nowCleoburyMortimer)inShropshirenearthe MalvernHillswherePiersPlowmanopens.Therewasahamletnamed\"Langley\"nearby,whichmayexplainhislastname. Thepoetwaseducated,inferredbothfromhisowntestimonyandthequalityofhiswriting,butitisnotknownwhere.He seemstohavetakenso-called\"minororders\"inthechurch,but,perhapsbecausehehadmarried,hadnevertakenthe \"greaterorders\".InPiersPlowman,hementions\"Kytte(Kitty,endearmentforKatherine)myWyfandKalotte (endearmentforNicolette?)mydaughter.\"Atsomepoint,LanglandmovedtoLondon,wherehemadeastarvingwageasa \"singer\"ofmassesandasaclerkcopyinglegaldocuments.Hehadthereputationofamanwhodidnotbowtohis superiors,aman\"loathetoreverencelordsorladies,oranysoulelse\". III.THEBEGINNINGOFMODERNENGLISH(1485–1603) SirThomasMore(1478-1535) ThomasMorewasborninLondononFebruary7.1478,sonofSirJohnMore,aprominentjudge.HewaseducatedatSt Anthony'sSchoolinLondon.AsayouthheservedasapageinthehouseholdofArchbishopMorton,whoanticipatedMore wouldbecomea\"marvellousman\".MorewentontostudyatOxfordwherehewrotecomediesandstudiedGreekand Latinliterature.OneofhisfirstworkswasanEnglishtranslationofaLatinbiographyoftheItalianhumanistPicodella Mirandola.Around1494MorereturnedtoLondontostudylawandbecameabarristerin1501.Yethedidnotautomatically followinhisfather'sfootsteps,beingtombetweenamonasticcallingandalifeofcivilservice.WhileatLincoln'sInn, hedeterminedtobecomeamonkandsubjectedhimselftothedisciplineoftheCarthusians,livingatanearbymonastery andtakingpartofthemonasticlife.Theprayer,fasting,andpenancehabitsstayedwithhimfortherestofhislife. More'sdesireformonasticismwasfinallyovercomebyhissenseofdutytoservehiscountryinthefieldofpolitics.He enteredParliamentin1504,andmarriedforthefirsttimein1504or1505,toJaneColt.Theyhadfourchildren: Margaret,Elizabeth,Cicely,andJohn.

MorebecameaclosefriendwithDesideriusErasmusduringthelatter'sfirstvisittoEnglandin1499.Itwasthebeginning ofalifelongfriendshipandcorrespondence.TheyproducedLatintranslationsofLucian'sworks,printedatParisin1506, duringErasmussecondvisit.OnErasmus'thirdvisit,in1509,hewroteEncomiumMoriae,orPraiseofFolly(1509),dedicating ittoMore.OneofMore'sfirstactsinParliamenthadbeentourgeadecreaseinaproposedappropriationforKingHenry VII.Inrevenge,theKinghadimprisonedMore'sfatherandnotreleasedhimuntilafinewaspaid,andMorehimselfhad withdrawnfrompubliclife.AfterthedeathoftheKingin1509,Morebecameactiveoncemore.In1510,hewasappointed oneofthetwounder-sheriffsofLondon.Inthiscapacity,hegainedareputationforbeingapatrontothepoor.In1511, More'sfirstwifediedinchildbirth.Moresoonmarriedagain,toAliceMiddleton.Theydidnothavechildren. Duringthenextdecade,MoreattractedtheattentionofKingHenryVIII.In1515heaccompaniedadelegationto Flanderstohelpcleardisputesaboutthewooltrade.Utopiaopenswithareferencetothisverydelegation.Utopiawas beguninMay1515,Morestartedbywritingtheintroductionandthedescriptionofthesocietywhichwouldbecomethe secondhalfofthework.OnhisreturntoEnglandhewrotethe\"dialogueofcounsel\",completingtheworkin1516. MoreaccompaniedtheKingandcourttotheFieldoftheClothofGold.In1518hebecameamemberofthePrivy Council,andwasknightedin1521.MorehelpedHenryVIIIinwritinghisDefenceoftheSevenSacraments,garneredHenry's favour,andwasmadeSpeakeroftheHouseofCommonsin1523andChancelloroftheDuchyofLancasterin1525.As Speaker,Morehelpedestablishtheparliamentaryprivilegeoffreespeech.HerefusedtoendorseKingHenryVIII'splan todivorceKatherineofAragón(1527).Nevertheless,in1529,MorebecameLordChancellor,thefirstlaymanyettohold thepost. Whilehisworkinthelawcourtswasexemplary,hisfallcamequickly.Heresignedin1532,citingillhealth,butthe reasonwasprobablyhisdisapprovalofHenry'sstancetowardthechurch.HerefusedtoattendthecoronationofAnne BoleyninJune1533,amatterwhichdidnotescapetheKing'snotice.PiusXIin1935.Utopia(infull:Deoptimoreip.staty, dequenouainsulaViopia,libellusuereaureus,necminussalutarisquamfestiuus)isaworkoffictionandpolitical philosophybyThomasMorepublishedin1516.Theworkseemstohavebeenpopular,ifmisunderstood:theintroductionof More'sEpigramsof1518mentionsamanwhodidnotregardMoreasagoodwriter.ThewordUtopiaovertookMore'sshort workandhasbeenusedeversincetodescribethiskindofimaginarysocietywithmanyunusualideasbeingcontemplated. MostscholarsseeUtopiaassomekindofcommentorcriticismofcontemporaryEuropeansociety,fortheevilsofMore's dayarelaidoutinBookIandinmanywaysapparentlysolvedinBookII.Indeed,Utopiahasmanyofthecharacteristics ofsatire.andtherearemanyjokesandsatiricalasidessuchashowhonestpeopleareinEurope,buttheseareusually contrastedwiththesimple,uncomplicatedsocietyoftheUtopians.

Notableworks 1.\"ARuefulLamentation\"(1503). 2.\"TheWordsofFortunetothePeople\"(c.1504). 3.\"PageantofLife\",or\"PageantVerses\"(1496-1504?). 4.\"AMerryJest\"(1516). 5.\"12PropertiesofaLover\",(1510).6.\"12RulesofSpiritualBattle\"(c.1510). 7.\"12WeaponsofSpiritualBattle\".(1510). 8.\"TheLifeofPicodellaMirandola\"(1510). 9.\"TheHistoryofKingRichardtheThird\"(c.1513-1518) 10.\"Utopia\"(1516). 11.\"TheFourLastThings\"(c.1522).12.\"ADialogueConcerningHeresies\"(1528-1529). EdmundSpenser(c.1552-1599) EdmundSpenserisrecognisedasoneofthepremiercraftsmenofModernEnglishverseinitsinfancy,andoneofthe greatestpoetsintheEnglishLiterature,bestknownforhisTheFaerieQueen.EdmundSpenserwasborninEast Smithfield.Londonaroundtheyear1552thoughthereissomeambiguityastotheexactdateofhisbirth.Asayoungboy, hewaseducatedinLondonattheMerchantTaylor'sSchoolandmatriculatedasasizaraPembrokeCollege,Cambridge. InJuly1580,SpenserwenttoIrelandintheserviceofthenewlyappointedLordDeputy,ArthurGrey,XIVthBaron GreydeWilton.ThenheservedwiththeEnglishforcesduringtheSecondDesmondRebellion.Afterthedefeatofthe nativeIrishhewasawardedlandsinCountyCork. Throughhispoetry,Spenserhopedtosecureaplaceatcourt,whichhevisitedinRaleigh'scompanytodeliverhismost famouswork,TheFaerieQueene,anincompleteEnglishepicpoem.Thefirsthalfwaspublishedin1590,andasecond installmentwaspublishedin1596.TheFaerieQueeneisnotableforitsform:itwasthefirstworkwritteninSpenserian stanzaandisoneofthelongestpoemsintheEnglishlanguage.Itisanallegoricalwork,andcanberead(asSpenser presumablyintended)onseverallevelsofallegory,includingaspraiseofQueenElizabethI.Inacompletelyallegorical

context,thepoemfollowsseveralknightsinanexaminationofseveralvirtues.InSpenser's\"ALetteroftheAuthors,\" hestatesthattheentireepicpoemis\"cloudilyenwrappedinallegoricaldevices,\"andthattheaimofpublishingThe FaerieQueenewasto\"fashionagentlemanornoblepersoninvirtuousandgentlediscipline\". LoItheman,whoseMusewhilomedidmaske,Astimehertaught,inlowlyShepheardsweeds.Amnowenforstafar vnfittertaske.FortrumpetssternetochaungemineOatenreeds,AndsingofKnightsandLadiesgentledeeds;aWhose prayseshauingsleptinsilencelong,Me,alltoomeane,thesacredMuseareedsToblazonbroademongstherlearned throng:Fiercewarresandfaithfulllouesshallmoralizemysong. HenryHoward,EarlofSurrey(1517-1547) HenryHoward,EarlofSurreywasanEnglisharistocrat,andoneofthefoundersofEnglishRenaissancepoetry. SurreyisknownasanimportantinnovatorinthedevelopmentofEnglishverse.Togetherwithhisfriendandmentor ThomasWyatt,SurreyiscreditedwithadaptingtoEnglishthePetrarchansonnet,whichbecamethedominantsonnetform oftheElizabethanperiod,andtheformemployedbyShakespeare.Heisalsoheraldedascomposingthefirstblankverse inEnglish,inhistranslationofBooksIIandIVofVirgil'sAeneid.Healsoauthorednumerouspoems,sonnets,andelegies, themostfamousofwhich,\"Wyattrestethhere,\"memorializeshisfriend,withwhosenameandcriticalreputationhehas beeninextricablylinked. HenryHowardwasbornin1517intothemostinfluentialaristocraticfamilyinEngland.HisfatherwasthethirdDukeof NorfolkandhismotherwasLadyElizabethStafford,daughteroftheDukeofBuckingham.FouryearsbeforeSurrey's birthhisfatherandgrandfatherhaddefeatedtheScotsinbattleatFloddenField,therebyestablishingtheHowardsas theundisputedmilitaryleadersofthecountry.Thefamily.alsoassumedaleadershippositionindefendingthefeudal rightsandresponsibilitiestheoldconservativenobility.WhenhisgrandfatherdiedandhisfatherbecameDukeNorfolk, youngHenrywasgrantedthetitleofEarlofSurrey.ThefamilythenmovefromSurrey'sbirthplaceinHunsdon, Hertfordshire,toKenninghall,Norfolk,whereSurreywastutoredintheclassicsandinreligiousconservatismbyJohn Clerke,anOxfordscholar.

SurreywasagreatfavoriteofHenryVIII,andin1530hebecamethecompanionandtutorofHenryFitzroy,Dukeof Richmond,theillegitimatesonoftheking.ThenextfiveyearswerespentprimarilyinWindsor,althoughin1532Surrey andRichmondtraveledtotheContinent,wheretheytookupresidenceattheFrenchcourtforayear.Alsoin1532 SurreymarriedLadyFrancesdeVere,daughteroftheEarlofOxford;thecouplehadason,Thomas,in1536.Thatsame year,SurreyjoinedhisfatherinsuppressingthePilgrimageofGrace,arevoltinthenorthofEngland.Shortlythereafter, SurreywasimprisonedatWindsorCastleforafewmonthsafterstrikingEdwardSeymour,brotherofthequeen,within theprecinctsofthecourt:SeymourhadsuggestedthatSurreyandhisfatherweresecretlysupportiveoftherebellion. Surreymemorializedhisincarcerationinthesonnet\"WhenWindesorwallessustainedmyweariedarm.\"In1542Surreywas brieflyconfinedtoFleetPrisonforissuingachallengetoJohnàLeigh,andin1543hewasagainimprisoned,thistimefor harassingcitizensandbreakingwindows,alongwithanumberofrowdyaristocraticcompanions. WilliamShakespeare(1564-1616) TheremarkablethingaboutShakespeareisthathereallyisverygood,inspiteofallthepeoplewhosayheisverygood. RobertGravesWilliamShakespearewasbornonApril,23,1564inStratford-on-Avon.Althoughbirthanddeathdates werenotrecordedinShakespeare'stime,churchesdidrecordbaptismsandburials,usuallyafewdaysaftertheactual event.TheinfantWilliamwasbaptisedon26April1564intheparishchurchHolyTrinityofStratforduponAvon.He lived.withhisfairlywell-to-doparentsonHenlevStreet,thefirstofthefoursonsborntoJohShakespeareandMary Arden,whoalsohadfoudaughters.JohnShakespearewasalocalbusinessmanandalsoinvolvedinmunicipalaffairsas AldermanandBailiff,butadeclineinhisfortunesinhislateryearssurelyhadaneffectonWilliam.WilliamShakespeare wasprobablyeducatedattheKingEdwardIVGrammarSchoolinStratford,wherehelearnedLatinandalittleGreek andreadtheRomandramatists.Ateighteen,hemarriedAnneHathaway,awomansevenoreightyearshissenior.Together theyraisedtwodaughters:Susanna,whowasbornin1583,andJudith(whosetwinbrotherdiedinboyhood),bornin1585. LittleisknownaboutShakespeare'sactivitiesbetween1585and1592.Shakespearemayhavetaughtatschoolduringthis period,butitseemsmoreprobablethatshortlyafter1585hewenttoLondontobeginhisapprenticeshipasanactor.Due totheplague,theLondontheaterswereoftenclosedbetweenJune1592andApril1594.Duringthatperiod.Shakespeare probablyhadsomeincomefromhispatron,HenryWriothesley,earlofSouthampton,towhomhededicatedhisfirsttwo poems,VenusandAdonis(1593)andTheRapeofLucrece(1594).Thefomerwasalongnarrativepoemdepictingthe rejectionofVenusbyAdonis,hisdeath,andtheconsequentdisappearanceofbeautyfromtheworld.

Notableworks Poetry 1.\"Venus&Adonis\"(1593). 2.\"TheRapeofLucrece\"(1594). 3.\"TheSonnetsofShakespeare\"(1609).Tragedies 4.\"TitusAndronicus\"(1594). 5.\"RomeoandJuliet\"(1597). 6.\"Hamlet\"(1603).7.\"KingLear\"(1608). 8.\"Othello\"(1622). 9.\"JuliusCaesar\"(1623). 10.\"AntonyandCleopatra\"(1623). 11.\"Coriolanus\"(1623). 12.\"TimonofAthens\"(1623). 13.\"MacbethComedies\"(1623). 14.\"Love'sLabour'sLost\"(1598). 15.\"MidsummerNight'sDream\"(1600). 16.\"MerchantofVenice\"(1600). 17.\"MuchAdoAboutNothing\"(1600). 18.\"MerryWivesofWindsor\"(1602). 19.\"TroilusandCressida\"(1609).

20.\"Pericles,PrinceofTyre\"(1609). 21.\"Tempest\"(1611). 22.\"TamingoftheShrew\"(1623). 23.\"ComedyofErrors\"(1623). 24.\"TwoGentlemenofVerona\"(1623). 25.\"AsYouLikeIt\"(1623). 26.\"TwelfthNight\"(1623). 27.\"All'sWellThatEndsWell\"(1623). 28.\"MeasureforMeasure\"(1623). 29.\"Winter'sTale\"(1623). 30\"Cymbeline\"(1623). 31.Histories 32.\"KingHenryVIPart2\"(1594). 33\"KingHenryVIPart1\"(1594). 34.\"RichardII\"(1597). 35.\"RichardIII\"(1597).35.\"KingRichardII\"(1597). 36.\"KingHenryIVPart1\"(1598). 37.\"KingHenryIVPart2\"(1600). 38.\"KingHenryV\"(1600). 39.\"KingHenryVIPart3\"(1623). 40.\"KingJohn\"(1623). 41.\"HenryVIII\"(1623). ThomasKyd(1558-1594)

ThomasKydwasanEnglishdramatist,theauthorofTheSpanishTragedy,andoneofthemostimportantfiguresinthe developmentofElizabethandrama.ThomasKydwasthesonofFrancisandAnnaKyd.InOctober1565theyoungKydwas enrolledinthenewlyfoundedMerchantTaylors'School.Here,Kydreceivedawell-roundededucation.Thereisno evidencethatKydwentontoeitheroftheEnglishuniversities.Hemayhavefollowedforatimehisfather'sprofession; twoletterswrittenbyhimareextantandhishandwritingsuggeststhetrainingofascrivener.Evidencesuggeststhatin the1580sKydbecameanimportantplaywright,butlittleisknownabouthisactivity.TheSpanishTragediewasprobably writteninthemidtolate1580s.Theearliestsurvivingeditionwasprintedin1592;thefulltitlebeing.TheSpanish Tragedie,ContainingthelamentableendofDonHoratio,andBel-imperia:withthepittifulldeathofoldeHieronimo. However,theplaywasusuallyknownsimplyas\"Hieronimo\",aftertheprotagonist.Itwasarguablythemostpopularplay ofthe\"AgeofShakespeare\"andsetnewstandardsineffectiveplotconstructionandcharacterdevelopment.In1602a versionoftheplaywith\"additions\"waspublished.TheSpanishTragedyisaworkofextraordinaryvalue,sinceitisthe earliestspecimenofeffectivestagepoetryexistinginEnglishliterature.ThesuccessofKyd'splaysextendedtoEurope. VersionsofTheSpanishTragedyandhisHamletwerepopularinGermanyandtheNetherlandsforgenerations.The influenceoftheseplaysonEuropeandramawaslargelythereasonfortheinterestinKydamongGermanscholarsinthe nineteenthcentury.Kyddiedin1594,andwasburiedon15AugustinLondon.Hewasonly35yearsofage.Theinfluenceof KydismarkedonalltheimmediatepredecessorsofShakespeare,andtheboldwayinwhichscenesofviolentcrimewere treatedonthElizabethanstageappearstobedirectlyowingtotheexampleofKyd'sinnovatingenius. Notableworks 1.\"TheSpanishTragedy\"(1584-1589?). 2.\"TheHouseholder'sPhilosophy\"(1588 3.\"TheMurderofJohnBrewen\"(1592). 4.\"Cornelia\"(1594)

ChristopherMarlowe (1564-1593) EnglishdramatistChristopherMarloweisthefatherofEnglishtragedyandinstauratorofdramaticblankverse.Hewas theeldestsonofashoemakeratCanterbury,wasborninthatcityonthe6thofFebruary1564.HewaschristenedatSt George'sChurch,Canterbury,onthe26thofFebruary,1563/4,sometwomonthsbeforeShakespeare'sbaptismat Stratford-on-Avon.ThedramatistreceivedtherudimentsofhiseducationattheKing'sSchool,Canterbury,thenwent toCambridgeasoneofArchbishopParker'sscholarsfromtheKing'sSchool,tookhisB.A.degreein1584,andthatofM.A. threeorfouryearslater.Before1587heseemstohavequittedCambridgeforLondon,whereheattachedhimselfto theLordAdmiral'sCompanyofPlayers,undertheleadershipofthefamed actorEdwardAlleyn,andalmostatoncebeganwritingforthestage.OfMarlowe'scareerinLondon,apartfromhisfour greattheatricalsuccesses,weknowhardlyanything;butheevidentlyknewThomasKyd,whosharedhisunorthodox opinions.Nashcriticizedhisverse.Greeneaffectedtoshudderathisatheism.OntheotherhandMarlowewasthe personalfriendofSirWalterRaleigh,andperhapsofthepoeticalEarlofOxford,withbothofwhom,andwithsuchmen asWalterWarnerandRobertHughesthemathematicians,ThomasHarriottthenotableastronomer,andMatthewRoyden, thedramatistissaidtohavemetinfreeconverse.Eitherthisfreeconverseorthelicentiouscharacterofsomeofthe youngHeseemsatanyratetohavebeenassociatedwithSirWalterRaleigh'sschoolofatheism,andtohaveopinions whichwerethenregardedasputtingamanoutsidecivilizedhumanity.

Notableworks Marlowe'scareerasadramatistliesbetweentheyears1587and1593,andthe fourgreatplaystowhichreferencehasbeenmadewere 1)\"TamburlainetheGreat\",aheroicepicindramaticformdividedintotwopartsoffiveactseach(1587,printedin1590); 2)\"DrFaustus\"(1588,enteredatStationers'Hall1601): 3)\"TheFamousTragedyoftheRichJewofMalta\"(datingperhapsfrom1589,actedin1592,printedin1633); 4)\"EdwardtheSecond\"(printed1594). IV.THESTUARTSANDTHEPURITANS(1603–1660) TheSeventeenthCentury,1603-1660. TheFirstStuartKings,JamesI(to1625)andCharlesI.CavaliersandPuritans.TheCivilWarandtheCommonwealth. OliverCromwell.TheDrama,to1642.TheKingJamesBible,1611.JohnDonne,1572-1631.LyricPoets.The\"Metaphysical\" religiouspoets.Cavalierpoets.Milton,1608-1674.1.JacobeanPeriod(1603-1625):Shakespeare'slaterwork,BenJonson, andJohnDonne. 2.CarolineAge(1625-1649):JohnMilton,GeorgeHerbert,RobertHerrick,the\"SonsofBen\"andotherswriteduringthe reignofCharlesIandhisCavaliers.3.CommonwealthPeriodorPuritanInterregnum(1649-1660):UnderCromwell's Puritandictatorship,JohnMiltoncontinuestowrite,butwealsofindwriterslikeAndrewMarvellandSirThomasBrowne.

JohnDonne(1572-1631) JohnDonnewasbornintoaCatholicfamilyin1572,duringastronganti-CatholicperiodinEngland.Donne'sfatherwasa prosperousLondonmerchant.Hismotherwasthegrand-nieceofCatholicmartyrThomasMore.Religionwouldplaya tumultuousandpassionateroleinJohn'slife.HeenteredOxfordUniversityatage11andlater theUniversityofCambridge,butneverreceiveddegrees.duetohisCatholicism.Atage20,Donnebeganstudyinglawat Lincoln'sInnandseemeddestinedforalegalordiplomaticcareer.Duringthe1590s,hespentmuchofhisinheritanceon women,booksandtravel.Hewrotemostofhislovelyricsanderoticpoemsduringthistime.Hisfirstbooksofpoems, \"Satires\"and\"SongsandSonnets,\"werehighlyprizedamongasmallgroupofadmirers.In1593,JohnDonne'sbrother,Henry, wasconvictedofCatholicsympathiesanddiedinprisonsoonafter.TheincidentledJohntoquestionhisCatholicfaith andinspiredsomeofhisbestwritingonreligion.Atage25,DonnewasappointedprivatesecretarytoSirThomasEgerton, LordKeeperoftheGreatSealofEngland. Onhiswaytoapromisingcareer,JohnDonnebecameaMemberofParliamentin1601.Thatsameyear,hemarried16-year- oldAnneMore,thenieceofSirEgerton.In1610,JohnDonnepublishedhisanti-Catholicpolemic\"Pseudo-Martyr,\" renouncinghisfaith.Init,heproposedtheargumentthatRomanCatholicscouldsupportJamesIwithoutcompromising theirreligiousloyaltytothepope.Thiswonhimtheking'sfavorandpatronagefrommembersoftheHouseofLords.In 1615,DonneconvertedtoAnglicanismandwasappointedRoyalChaplain.Hiselaboratemetaphors,religioussymbolismand flairfordramasoonestablishedhimasagreatpreacher.AIn1617,JohnDonne'swifediedshortlyaftergivingbirthto their12thchild.

Notableworks 1.\"Satires\"(1593). 2.\"SongsandSonnets\"(1601).3.\"DivinePoems\"(1607). 4.\"Psevdo-Martyr\"(1610). 5.\"AnAnatomyoftheWorld\"(1611).6.\"IgnatiushisConclaue\"(1611). 7.\"TheSecondAnniuersarie.OfTheProgresoftheSoule\"(1611). 8.\"AnAnatomieoftheWorld\"(1612). 9.\"DevotionsUponEmergentOccasions\"(1624)-privateprayers. 10.\"Death'sDuell\"(1632). 11.\"Ivvenilia\"(1633) 12.\"SapientiaClamitans\"(1638). 13.\"WisdomecryingouttoSinners\"(1639). 14.\"LetterstoSeverallPersonsofHonour\"(1651). 15.\"ACollectionofLetters,MadebySrTobieMathews,Kt.\"(1660). 16.\"Encania.TheFeastofDedication.CelebratedAtLincolnesInne,inaSermonthereuponAscensionday\"(1623). 17.\"ThreeSermonsUponSpeciallOccasions\"(1623). 18.\"ASermon,PreachedToTheKingsMrie.AtWhitehall\"(1625). 19.\"FiveSermonsVponSpeciallOccasions\"(1626). 20.\"ASermonOfCommemorationOfTheLadyDauers\"(1627). 21.\"SixSermonsVponSeverallOccasions\"(1634).

BenJonson(1572-1637) BenjaminJonson(Ben)wasanEnglishRenaissancedramatist,poetandactor.AcontemporaryofWilliamShakespeare,heis bestknownforhissatiricalplays,particularlyVolpone,TheAlchemist,andBartholomewFair,whichareconsideredhis best,andhislyricpoems.Amanofvastreadingandaseeminglyinsatiableappetiteforcontroversy,Jonsonhadgreat influenceonJacobeaandCarolineplaywrightsandpoets. JonsonattendedschoolinSt.Martin'sLane,anwaslaterpaidforbyafriendtogotoWestminsterSchool.Onleavingit, JonsonwasoncethoughttohavegoneontotheUniversityofCambridge,butJonsonhimselfcontradictsthis,sayingthat hedidnotgotouniversity,butwasputtoatrade,probablybricklaying,immediately:alegendrecordedbyThomasFuller indicatesthatheworkedonagardenwallinLincoln'sInn.Hesoonhadenoughofthetradeandspentsometimeinthe LowCountriesasavolunteerwiththeregimentsofFrancisVere.InconversationswithpoetWilliamDrummondof Hawthornden,subsequentlypublishedastheHawthorndenManuscripts,JonsonreportsthatwhileintheNetherlandshe killedanopponentinsinglecombatandstrippedhimofhisweapons. JonsonmarriedawomanwhomhedescribedtoDrummondas\"ashrew,yethonest.\"Hiswifehasnotbeendefinitively identified,butsheissometimesidentifiedastheAnnLewiswhomarriedaBenjaminJonsonatStMagnus-the-Martyr,near LondonBridge.TheregistersofSt.Martin'sChurchstatethathiseldestdaughterMarydiedinNovember1593,whenshe wassixmonthsold.HiseldestsonBenjamindiedoftheplaguetenyearslateragedseven(Jonson'sepitaphtohimOnMy FirstSonnewaswrittenshortlyafter),andasecondBenjamindiedin1635.ForfiveyearsduringthisperiodJonsonlived separatelyfromhiswife,enjoyingthehospitalityofLordAubigny.Bysummer1597Jonsonhadbeguntowriteoriginal playsfortheAdmiral'sMen;in1598hewasmentionedasoneof\"thebestfortragedy.\"Noneofhisearlytragedies

survives,however.Anundatedcomedy,TheCaseisAltered,maybehisearliestsurvivingplay. In1597aplaywhichheco-wrotewithThomasNashe,TheIsleofDogs,wassuppressedaftercausinggreatoffence. ArrestwarrantsforJonsonandNashewereissuedbyQueenElizabethI'sso-calledinterrogator,RichardTopcliffe. JonsonwasjailedinMarshalseaPrisonandchargedwith\"Leudeandmutynousbehavior\",whileNashemanagedtoescape toGreatYarmouth.Ayearlater,Jonsonwasagainbrieflyimprisoned,thistimeinNewgatePrison,forkillingGabriel Spenserinaduelon22September1598inHogsdenFields(todaypartofHoxton).Triedonachargeofmanslaughter, Jonsonpleadedguiltybutwasreleasedbybenefitofclergy,alegalploythroughwhichhegainedleniencybyrecitinga briefbibleverse(theneck-verse).WhileingaolJonsonconvertedtoCatholicism,possiblythroughtheinfluenceof fellow-prisonerFatherThomasWright,aJesuitpriest. Notableworks 1.\"ATaleofaTub\",comedy(performed1633;printed1640). 2.\"TheIsleofDogs\",comedy(1597,withThomasNashe;lost). 3.\"TheCaseisAltered\",comedy(ca.1597-1598;printed1609). 4.\"EveryManinHisHumour\",comedy(performed1598:printed1601). 5.\"EveryManoutofHisHumour\",comedy(performed1599;printed1600). 6.\"Cynthia'sRevels\"(performed1600;printed1601). 7.\"ThePoetaster\",comedy(performed1601:printed1602). 8.\"SejanusHisFall,tragedy(performed1603;printed1605). 9.\"Volpone\",comedy(c.1605-1606:printed1607). 10.\"Epicoene,ortheSilentWoman\",comedy(performed1609;printed1616). 11.\"TheAlchemist\",comedy(performed1610;printed1612). 12.\"CatilineHisConspiracy\",tragedy(performedandprinted1611). 13.\"BartholomewFair\",comedy(performed31October1614;printed1631). 14.\"TheDevilisanAss\",comedy(performed1616;printed1631). 15.\"TheStapleofNews\",comedy(performedFeb.1626;printed1631). 16.\"TheNewInn,orTheLightHeart\",comedy(printed1631).

17.\"TheMagneticLady,orHumorsReconciled\",comedy(printed1641). 18.\"TheSadShepherd\".pastoral(c.1637,printed1641),unfinished. 19.\"MortimerhisFall\".history(printed1641),afragment. 20.\"Masques\"(1609-1635).21.\"Love'sWelcomeatBolsover\"(30July1634;printed1641). 22.\"Epigrams\"(1612).23.\"TheForest\"(1616),including\"ToPenshurst\". 24.\"ADiscourseofLove\"(1618). 25.\"Barclay'sArgenis\",translatedbyJonson(1623). 26.\"TheExecrationagainstVulcan\"(1640). 27.\"Horace'sArtofPoetry\",translatedbyJonson(1640). 28.\"Underwoods\"(1640). 29.\"EnglishGrammar\"(1640).30.\"OnMyFirstSonne\"(1616),elegy.. 31.\"ToCelia\"(DrinktoMeOnlyWithThineEyes),poem. JohnMilton(1608-1674) Agoodbookisthepreciouslife-bloodofamaster-spirit,embalmedandtreasureduponpurposetoalifebeyondlife. JohnMiltonbJohnMiltonwasbornonBreadStreet,London,on9December1608,asthesonofthecomposerJohn MiltonandhiswifeSarahJeffrey.HewaseducatedatSt.Paul'sSchool,thenatChrist'sCollege,Cambridge.Whileat Cambridgehewroteanumberofhiswell-knownshorterEnglishpoems,amongthemOntheMorningofChrist'sNativity, hisEpitaphontheadmirableDramatickPoet,W.Shakespeare,hisfirstpoemtoappearinprint,L'Allegro,Johnwrote

sevenoreightpoemsinLatinwhileinschool,butneveratthistimeseriouslyconsideredacareerofawriter.Hereada greatdealevenbeyondhisschoolworkaspreparationforacareerintheChurchorperhapspolitics.Afterfinishinghis formalschooling,hetookatouroftheContinent.UponhisreturntoEngland,Johnwasplanningoutpoeticepicsand tragediesthathewantedtowrite,aswritingbegantointeresthimmoreandmore.QIn1640,hebeganacampaignof pamphletsagainsttheauthorityofthebishops,whichmanypeopleatthattimeresented.In1642,Johnmarriedawoman namedMaryPowell.Shewas17.Johnwas34.Eventhoughtheywereestrangedformostoftheirmarriage,sheborehim threedaughtersandasonbeforeherdeathin1652.Theyear1652wasoneofmanypersonallossesforMilton.In February,Miltonlosthissight.Thispromptedhimtowritethesonnet\"WhenIConsiderHowMyLightisSpent\".InMay, 1652,Marygavebirthtoadaughter,Deborah,anddiedafewdays later.InJune,oneyear-oldJohndied.Miltonlatermarriedtwicemore:KatherineWoodcockin1656,whodiedgivingbirth in1658,andElizabethMinshullin1662.Miltonbecameblindbutblindnesshelpedhimtostimulatehisverbalrichness.\"He sacrificedhissight,andthenherememberedhisfirstdesire,thatofbeingapoct,\"Borgeswroteinoneofhislectures. Duringhisbriefsecondmarriage,Miltonbegan. Notableworks 1.\"AccidenceCommencedGrammar\",aLatingrammarbook(1669). 2.\"Animadversions\",thethirdofJohnMilton'santiprelaticaltracts(1641). 3.\"AnApology\",thefinalofhisantiprelaticaltractswhichcriticizethestructureoftheChurchofEngland(1642). 4.\"Areopagitica:ASpeechofMrJohnMiltonforthelibertyofunlicensedprinting,totheParliamentofEngland\".prose polemicaltractagainstcensorship(1644). 5.\"ArtofLogic\",aderivativetreatiseintheRamisttradition(1672). 6.\"ABriefHistoryofMoscovia\"(1682). 7.\"BriefNotesuponaLateSermon\"(1660). 8.\"CharacteroftheLongParliament\"(1681). 9.\"Colasterion\",atract(1645). 10.\"ACompleteCollectionoftheHistorical,PoliticalandMiscellaneousWorks...bothEnglishandLatin\"(1694-1698). 11.\"Comus\",amasqueperformedwithmusicbyHenryLawes(1637). 12.\"ConsiderationsTouchingtheLikeliestMeanstoRemoveHirelingsoutoftheChurch\"(1659). 13.\"DefensiopropopuloAnglicano\",aLatinpolemic(1651). 14.\"DefensioProSe\",apoliticaltract(1655).

15.\"DefensioSecunda\",apoliticaltract(1654). 16.\"TheDoctrineandDisciplineofDivorce\"(1643).Thistract(fulltitle:\"The Qdoctrineanddisciplineofdivorce,restor'dtothegoodofbothsexesfromthebondageofcanonlawandother mistakestoChristianfreedom,guidedbytheruleofcharity\")wasaresponsetoMilton'sownexperienceofmarriage breakdown.Divorcecouldonlybegrantedbyparliament;forordinarypeopletheonlyoptionwasajudicialseparation grantedbytheecclesiasticalcourts,butthisdidnotpermitremarriage. 17.\"Eikonoklastes\",atractate(1649). 18.\"EpistolaeFamiliaresandProlusiones\",letters(1674). 19.\"HistoryofBritain\",unfinishedprosework(1670). 20.\"TheJudgementofMartinBucerConcerningDivorce\",translationsofpro-divorceargumentsfromMartinBucer'sDe RegnoChristi(1644). 21.\"Lycidas\"(1638)elegywaswritteninmemoryofEdwardKing,ayoungercontemporaryofMiltonatChrist'sCollege whohadgoneontobecomeaFellow,andwhodrownedatseain1637. 22.\"ObservationsupontheArticlesofPeacewiththeIrishRebels\"(1649). 23.\"ParadiseLost\",anepicpoeminblankverse(1667). 24.\"ParadiseRegained\"towhichisaddedSamsonAgonistes,ashorterepicsupplementtoParadiseLost(1671).25.\"Poems ofMr.JohnMilton,BothEnglishandLatin...\"(1646). 26.\"TheReadyandEasyWayToEstablishaFreeCommonwealth\",atractate(1660).

V.RESTORATIONLITERATURE(1660-1700) TheRestorationPeriod,fromtheRestorationofCharlesIIin1660tothedeathofDrydenin1700.CharlesII,1660- 1685.JamesII,1685-1688.PepysDiary.TheRestorationDrama.Dryden,1631-1700.JohnBunyan,\"Pilgrim'sProgress.\"1678. ThisperiodmarkstheBritishking'srestorationtothethroneafteralongperiodofPuritandominationinEngland.Its symptomsincludethedominanceofFrenchandClassicalinfluencesonpoetryanddrama.SamplewritersincludeJohn Dryden,JohnBunyan,SirWilliamTemple,SamuelPepys,andWilliamWycherley. JohnDryden(1631-1700) AfterJohnDonneandJohnMilton,JohnDrydenwasthegreatestEnglishpoetoftheXVIIthcentury.AfterWilliam ShakespeareandBenJonson,hewasthegreatestplaywright.Andhehasnopeerasawriterofprose,especiallyliterary criticism,andasatranslator.HedominatedtheliterarylifeofRestorationEnglandtosuchapointthattheperiodcame tobeknowninliterarycirclesastheAgeofDryden.WalterScottcalledhim\"GloriousJohn.\"JohnDrydenwasbornat Aldwinkle,Northamptonshire,England,onAugust19,1631.Hewastheeldestof14children.HecameofaPuritanfamily, whichhadbeenforyearsveryactiveinthepoliticalworld.OnbothsidesDryden'sfamilywereoftheParliamentary party.DrydenreceivedaclassicaleducationatWestminsterSchoolwhiletherehisfirstpublishedworkappeared.This wasanelegycontributedin1649tothe\"LachrymaMusarum\",acollectionoftributesinmemoryofHenry,LordHastings. HeenteredTrinityCollege,Cambridge,18May.1650,beingelectedtoascholarshipon2October.Hegraduatedas BachelorofArts,January,1654,andafterinheritingfromhisfatherasmallestateworth£60annually,heretumedto Cambridge,livingthereuntil1655.ThenhemovedtoLondonin1657tocommencehiscareerasaprofessionalwriter. WhilelivinginLondonDrydenstartedworkingwiththecivilserviceandbeganinearnestwritingplaysofheroictragedy andsatiresofvaryingsuccess.

On1December1663DrydenmarriedthedaughteroftheEarlofBerkshire,LadyElizabethHoward,withwhomhehad threesons.ElizabethwasthesisterofhisfriendSirRobertHoward.TheHowardfamilywasofconsiderablemeansand hadlongsupportedtheroyalistcause.Theyoungplaywright'sreputationgrewquickly,andin1668,only10yearsafterhis movetoLondon,DrydenwasappointedPoetLaureateofEngland.Thatsameyear,heagreedtowriteexclusivelyfor ThomasKilligrew'stheatricalcompanyandbecameashareholder.Drydentriedhishandatopera,oneofhiseffortsbeing thearrangementofMilton's\"ParadiseLost\"foramusicalsetting.Someofthisworkwascomposedbythecelebrated Englishman,HenryPurcell.DrydenandDavenanttogetherrewrote\"TheTempest\",givingCalibanandArieleachasister forsomeunknownreason.\"RomeoandJuliet\",revisedbyDrydenandhisbrother-in-lawJamesHoward,hadahappyending. andwasperformedonalternatenightswiththeoriginalplay.InpoetryDrydenachievedsomething,whatwasneitherthe emotionalexcitementwefindintheRomanticpoets,northeintellectualcomplexitiesofthemetaphysicalpoets.His subject-matterwasoftenfactual,andheaimedatexpressinghisthoughtsinthemostpreciseandconcentratedway. Althoughheusedformalpoeticstructuressuchasheroicstanzasandheroiccouplets,hetriedtoachievetherhythmsof speech.JohnDrydendiedon12May1700frominflammationcausedbygout.HewasburiedinthePoet'sCornerof WestminsterAbbey,London,England,nearbytohislongtimefriendWilliamCongreve.Drydenwasagoodplaywrightand poet,afinetranslator,asolidcritic,andanexcellentsatiristwhoseworksarestillworthyofmuchadmiration. Notableworks 1.\"UpontheDeathofLordHastings\",firstpoem(1649). 2.\"HeroicStanzasonthedeathofOliverCromwell\",firstimportantwork(1658). 3.\"AstraeaRedux\",afull-blownthenewregimeofKingCharlesII(1660).royalistpanegyricinwhichDrydenwelcomes 4.\"TheWildGallant\",firstplaywasafailurewhenfirstpresented(1663). 5.\"TheIndianQueen\",whichheco-authoredwithSirRobertHowardandwhichservedashisinitialattempttofounda newtheatricalgenre,theheroictragedy(1664). 6.\"TheIndianEmperor\"(1665)anEnglishRestorationerastageplay,aheroicdramawrittenbyJohnDrydenthatwas firstperformedintheSpringof1665. 7.\"TheTempest,orTheEnchantedIsland\",acomedyadaptedbyJohnDrydenandWilliamD'AvenantfromShakespeare's

comedy(1667). 8.\"SecretLove,orTheMaidenQueen\",atragicomedy(1667). 9.\"EssayofDramaticPoesy\"(1668).Itwasprobablywrittenduringtheplagueyearof1666.Drydentakesupthesubject thatPhilipSidneyhadsetforthinhisDefenceofPoesie(1580)andattemptstojustifydramaasalegitimateformof \"poetry\"comparabletotheepic,aswellasdefendEnglishdramaagainstthatoftheancientsandtheFrench. 10.\"AnEvening'sLove,orTheMockAstrologer\",acomedyinprose(1668). 11.\"TyrannickLove\",atragedyinrhymedcouplets(1669). 12.\"TheConquestofGranada\",astageplay,atwo-parttragedy(1670). WilliamWycherley(c.1640-1715) WilliamWycherleywasanEnglishdramatistoftheRestorationperiod,bestknownfortheplaysTheCountryWifeand ThePlainDealer.HewasbornatClive.ShropshirenearShrewsbury.wherehisfamilywassettledonamoderateestate ofabout£600ayear.WycherleyspentsomeyearsofhisadolescenceinFrance,wherehewassent,atfifteen,tobe educatedintheheartofthe\"precious\"circleonthebanksoftheCharente.WhileinFrance.Wycherleyconvertedto RomanCatholicism.HereturnedtoEnglandshortlybeforetherestorationofKingCharlesII,andlivedatQueen's College,OxfordwhereThomasBarlowwasprovost.UnderBarlow'sinfluence.WycherleyreturnedtotheChurchof England.Wycherleyonlylivedintheprovost'slodgings:hedoesnotseemtohavematriculatedortakenadegree. WycherleyleftOxfordandtookupresidenceattheInnerTemple,butgavelittleattentiontothestudyoflaw. Pleasureandthestagewerehisonlyinterests.Hisplay,LoveinaWood,wasproducedearlyin1671attheTheatreRoyal, DruryLane.Itwaspublishedthenextyear.ThoughWycherleyboastedofhavingwrittentheplayatthe-ageof nineteen,beforegoingtoOxford,thisisprobablyuntrue.Itis,however,histwolastcomedies-TheCountryWifeand ThePlainDealerthatsustainWycherley'sreputation.TheCountryWife,producedin1672or1673and

publishedin1675,isfullofwit,ingenuity,highspiritsandconventionalhumour.ItwasafterthesuccessofThePlain DealerthattheturningpointcameinWycherley'scareer.ThegreatdreamofallthemenabouttowninCharles'stime, asWycherley'splaysallshow,wastomarryawidow,youngandhandsome,apeer'sdaughterifpossiblebutinanyevent rich,andspendhermoneyuponwineandwomen.Whiletalkingtoafriendinabookseller'sshopatTunbridge,Wycherley heardThePlainDealeraskedforbyaladywho,inthepersonofthecountessofDroghedaansweredallthe requirements.Anintroductionensued,thenlove-making,thenmarriage-asecretmarriage,probablyin1680,for,fearingto losetheking'spatronageandtheincometherefrom.Wycherleystillthoughtitpolitictopassasabachelor.Butthe newsofhismarriagereachedtheroyalearsandWycherleylosttheroyalfavourforever.Thewifedied,however,in theyearafterhermarriageandlefthimthewholeofherfortune.Butthetitletothepropertywasdisputed:the costsofthelitigationwereheavy-soheavythathisfatherwasunable(orelsehewasunwilling)tocometohisaid; andtheresultofhismarryingtherich,beautifulandtitledwidowwasthatthepoetwasthrownintotheFleetprison. Thereheremainedforsevenyears,beingfinallyreleasedbytheliberalityofJamesII.Otherdebtsstilltroubled Wycherley,however,andheneverwasreleasedfromhisembarrassments,notevenaftersucceedingtoalifeestatein thefamilyproperty.IcomingtoWycherley'sdeath,wecometotheworstallegationthathaseverbeenmad Notableworks 1.\"TheMulberry-Garden\"(1668). 2.\"TheRehearsal\"(1671). 3.\"Marriageàlamode\"(1672). 4.\"TheCountryWife\"(1675). 5.\"ThePlain-Dealer\"(1676). 6.\"TheManofMode\"(1676). 7.\"TheRover\"(1677). 8.\"Sodom\"(1684). 9.\"Bellamira\"(1687).. 10.\"Love'sLastShift\"(1696). 11.\"TheRelapse\"(1696).

12.\"TheWayoftheWorld\"(1700). 13.\"TheRecruitingOfficer\"(1706).. 14.\"TheBeauxStratagem\"(1707). 15.\"ABoldStrokeforaWife\"(1717). JohnBunyan(1628-1688) JohnBunyan(28November162831August1688)wasanEnglishChristianwriterandpreacher.whoiswellknownforhis bookThePilgrim'sProgress.HewasborninNovember,1628.atElstow,alittlevillageinBedfordshire(England).He camefromaworkingclassfamily,andheunderstoodpoverty.firsthand.Bunyanwrotewithsomeexaggerationofhis modestorigins,\"Mydescentwasofalowandinconsiderablegeneration,myfather'shousebeingofthatrankthatis meanestandmostdespisedofallthefamiliesoftheland.\"Althoughtodayheisregardedasaliterarygenius,hehad littleformaleducation.Attheageof16,thisroughandprofaneyoungmanenlistedinthearmyofParliament,andsaw activedutyduringtheEnglishCivilWar.AfterthecivilwarwaswonbytheParliamentarians,Bunyanreturnedtohis formertrade. In1647,attheageof19,hemarriedayoungwoman,whopersuadedhimtoattendchurchwithherregularly,wherehe heardtheGospel.Afterdeepandprolongedsoulstruggle,hemadeacompletesurrendertoChrist,andwasconverted, afterwhichhewasbaptizedandjoinedtheBaptistchurchofBedford.Soon,hebegantopreachthereandalsointhe surroundingvillages,whichcausedthepeopletorecognizeinhimelementsofleadershipaswellasabilityasan expositoroftheScriptures.Hewasalsoknownasanadeptlinguist,hewroteaseriesofbooksaboutreligion.

Notableworks 1.\"ProfitableMeditations\"(1661). 2.\"IWillPraywiththeSpirit\"(1663). 3.\"ChristianBehavior\"(1663). 4.\"TheHolyCity\"(1665). 5.\"TheResurrectionoftheDead\"(1665). 6.\"GraceAbounding\",anautobiography(1666). 7.\"LifeandDeathofMr.Badman\"(1680). 8.\"TheHolyWar\"(1682). 9.\"Pilgrim'sProgress,SecondPart\"(1684). SamuelPepys(1633-1703) SamuelPepyswasbornonFebruary23,1633.thesonofaLondontailor,andfifthofelevenchildren.Hefirstattended theHuntingdonFreeSchool,andthenSt.Paul'sSchool.HeenteredTrinityCollege,Cambridge,in1650,butshortly transferredtoMagdaleneCollege,Cambridge,graduatingB.A.in1653.In1654,PepysbecamesecretarytoSirEdward Montagu,laterEarlofSandwich,adistantrelative.Soonafter,PepysbecameaclerkoftheExchequer,andmarried ElizabethSt.Michelin1655.In1660,PepyswasmadeClerkoftheKing'sShipstotheNavyBoard.OnJanuary1,1660,at theageof27,PepysbeganhisDiary.ItwaswrittenintheshorthandsystemestablishedbyThomasShelton,andcovered nineyearsnotonlyofPepyslife,butofLondonevents.ThepassagesonthePlague(1665-1666),TheGreatFireof

London(1666),andthearrivaloftheDutchfleet(1665-1667)areinvaluable firsthandaccountstohistorians.Pepysstoppedwritinghisdiaryinthespringof1669attheageof36,hiseyesighthad gottenworse,andhefearedlosinghissightaltogether.Thefollowing34yearsbroughthimmoreappointmentsand acclaim.PepysbecameaMemberofParliamentandSecretaryoftheAdmiraltyin1673,andtookpartinorganizingthe navyduringthewarwiththeDutchin1672-1674.In1679,PepyswasaccusedofgivingnavalsecretstotheFrenchinthe PopishPlot,andhewasimprisonedintheTowerforsixweeks.Pepyswassoonclearedofcharges,however,andwas reinstatedasSecretarytotheAdmiraltyin1684.HeservedasPresidentoftheRoyalSocietyfrom1684-1686, andretiredfrompublicservicein1689attheaccessionofKingWilliamIII.In1690,PepyspublishedhisMemoirsofthe RoyalNavy.Afterthis,Pepysspentmostofhistimebuildingandcatalogingalibraryofhisown.In1701,whenhishealth begantofail,hemovedtoClampham,wherehecompletedhiscollectionof3,000books.WhenPepysdiedonMay26, 1703,hislibrary,includinghisDiary,wasbequeathedtohisnephewJohnJackson,andsubsequentlytoMagdalenCollege- undertheconditionthatthecontentswouldneverbealtered.SamuelPepyswaslaidtorestinSt.Olave'sChurch.Hart Street.TheDiarywasfirstpartiallydecipheredin1819,andpublishedin1825. VI.THEAUGUSTANAGE(1700-1750) PSEUDO-CLASSICLITERATURE,Swift,1667-1745.Addison,1672-1719.Steele,1672-1729.Pope,1688-1744.Defoe,1661- 1731.\"RobinsonCrusoe\",1718-1720.Richardson,1689-1761,\"Pamela\".1740.Fielding,1707-1754.Sterne. ThisperiodismarkedbytheimitationofVirgilandHorace'sliteratureinEnglishletters-pseudo-classical(orthe neoclassical)period.TheprincipalEnglishwritersincludeAddison,Steele,Swift,andAlexanderPope.JonathanSwift wrotesatiresinverseandprose.Heisbest-knownfortheextendedproseworkGulliver'sTravels,inwhichafantastic accountofaseriesoftravelsisthevehicleforsatirizingfamiliarEnglishinstitutions,suchasreligion,politicsandlaw. Anotherwriterwhousesprosefiction,thistimemuchmorenaturalistic,toexploreotherquestionsofpoliticsor economicsisDanielDefoe,authorofRobinsonCrusoeandMollFlanders. ThefirstEnglishnovelisgenerallyacceptedtobePamela(1740),bySamuelRichardson:thisnoveltakestheformofa seriesofletters;Pamela,avirtuoushousemaidresiststheadvancesofherrichemployer,whoeventuallymarriesher. Richardson'sworkwasalmostatoncesatirizedbyHenryFieldinginJosephAndrews(Josephisdepictedasthebrotherof Richardson'sPamelaAndrews)andTomJones.

JonathanSwift1667-1745 JonathanSwiftwasanAnglo-Irishpoet,writerandclericwhogainedreputationasagreatpoliticalwriterandan essayist.Jonathan,whobecameDeanofSt.Patrick'sinDublin,isalsoknownforhisexcellenceinsatire.Hismost rememberedworksincludeGulliver'sTravels,AModestProposal.AnArgumentagainstAbolishingChristianityandATale ofaTub.JonathanSwiftwasbornon30November1667inDublin,IrelandtoanIrishfatherJonathanSwiftandan EnglishmotherAbigailErick.Jonathan,whowassecondchildandtheonlysonofhisparents,wasbornsevenmonths afterhisfather'sdeath. JonathanSwift'smotherlefthimwithhisfather'sfamilyandreturnedtoEngland.Afterlosinghisparent'scontact, JonathanstayedwithhisuncleGodwin,whosenthimtoKilkennyCollegeforstudies.Aftercompletingprimaryschooling. JonathanwentontostudyattheDublinUniversityin1682,andreceivedaB.A.Degreein1686.Hehadtodrophis furtherstudiesafterapoliticalclashbrokeinIreland.JonathanwasforcedtoleavetheplacandmovedtoEnglandin 1688,wherewiththehelpofhismother,hesecuredajobisecretaryofanEnglishdiplomatSirWilliamTempleatMoor Park.

Notableworks Essays,tracts,pamphlets,periodicals 1.\"AMeditationuponaBroomstick\"(1703-1710). 2.\"ACriticalEssayupontheFacultiesoftheMind\"(1707-1711). 3.\"TheBickerstaff-PartridgePapers\"(1708-1709). 4.\"AnArgumentAgainstAbolishingChristianity\"(1708-1711). 5.\"TheExaminer\"(1710). 6.\"AProposalforCorrecting,ImprovingandAscertainingtheEnglish(1712). 7.\"OntheConductoftheAllies\"(1713). 8.\"HintsTowardanEssayonConversation\"(1713). 9.\"TheIntelligencer(withThomasSheridan)\"(1719-1788). 10.\"ALettertoaYoungGentleman,LatelyEnteredintoHolyOrders\"(1720). 11.\"ALetterofAdvicetoaYoungPoet\"(1721). 12.\"Drapier'sLetters\"(1724,1725). 13.\"BonMotsdeStella\"(1726).Poems 14.\"OdetotheAthenianSociety\"(1691). 15.\"BaucisandPhilemon\"(1706-1709). 16.\"ADescriptionoftheMorning\"(1709). 17.\"ADescriptionofaCityShower\"(1710). 18.\"CademusandVanessa\"(1713).

19.\"Phillis,or,theProgressofLove\"(1719). 20.\"Stella'sbirthdaypoems\"(1719,1720,1727). 21.\"TheProgressofBeauty\"(1719-1720). 22.\"TheProgressofPoetry\"(1720). 23.\"ASatiricalElegyontheDeathofaLateFamousGeneral\"(1722). 24.\"ToQuilca,aCountryHousenotinGoodRepair\"(1725). 25.\"AdvicetotheGrubStreetVerse-writers\"(1726). 26.\"TheFurnitureofaWoman'sMind\"(1727). 27.\"OnaVeryOldGlass\"(1728). 28.\"APastoralDialogue\"(1729). 29.\"TheGrandQuestiondebatedWhetherHamilton'sBawnshouldbeturnedintoaBarrackoraMaltHouse\"(1729). 30.\"OnStephenDuck,theThresherandFavouritePoet\"(1730). 31.\"DeathandDaphne\"(1730). 32.\"ThePlaceoftheDamn'd\"(1731). 33.\"ABeautifulYoungNymphGoingtoBed\"(1731).34.\"StrephonandChloe\"(1731).

AlexanderPope(1688-1744) TheEnglishpoetAlexanderPopeisregardedasoneofthefinestpoetsandsatiristsoftheAugustanperiodandoneof themajorinfluencesonEnglishliteratureinhistimeandafter.Hewasanessayist,poet,critic,translator,andsatirist. AlexanderPopewasbornonMay21,1688,inLondon,England,toAlexanderandEdithPope.Hisfamilymovedoutof LondonandsettledinBinfield.Popehadlittleformalschoolingandeducatedhimselfthroughextensivestudyingand reading,especiallypoetry.AlthoughPopewashealthyandplumpinhisinfancy,hebecameseverelyilllaterinhis childhood,whichresultedinaslightlydisfiguredbody-henevergrewtallerthan4feet6inches.Hesufferedfrom curvatureofthespine,whichrequiredhimtowearastiffcanvasbrace.Hehadconstantheadaches.Hisphysical appearance,frequentlyridiculedbyhisenemies,undoubtedlygaveanedgetoPope'ssatire(humoraimedathuman weaknesses),buthewasalwayswarm-heartedandgenerousinhisaffectionforhismanyfriends. PopewasprecociousasachildandattractedthenoticeofanotedbooksellerwhopublishedhisPastorals(1709).The RapeoftheLock(1712)immediatelymadePopefamousasapoet.Itwasalonghumorouspoemintheclassicalstyle. Severalotherpoemswerepublishedby1717,thedateofthefirstcollectededitionofPope'sworks.Popealsoengaged inpoeticimitationsandtranslations.HisMessiah(1712)wasanimitationofVirgil.HealsodidaversionofGeoffrey Chaucer'spoetryintheEnglishofPope'sday.ButitwasPope'sversionsofHomer(Iliad,Odyssey)thatwerehisgreatest achievementasatranslator.Popealsoundertookseveraleditorialprojects.Parnell'sPoems(1721)wasfollowedbyan editionofthelateDukeofBuckingham'sWorks(1723).Then,in1725,Pope'ssixvolumesontheworksofWilliam Shakespeare(1564-1616)werepublished.Pope'seditsandexplanatorynoteswerenotoriouslycapricious.In1726and1727 thewriterJonathanSwiftwasinEnglandandaguestofPope.Togethertheypublishedthreevolumesofpoetry. RenewedcontactwithSwiftmusthavegivenadrivingforcetoPope'spoemon\"Dulness\",whichappearedasthethree- bookDunciad(1728).ClearlyPopeusedDunciadaspersonalsatiretopayoffmanyoldscores.Butitwasalsoprompted byhisdistasteforthatwholeprocessbywhichworthlesswritersgainedundeservedliteraryprominence.In1742Pope publishedafourthbooktoDunciadseparately,andhislastpublishedworkwasthefour-volumeDunciadin1743.The

Dunciadisadenseanddemandingpoem.Pope'seighteenth-centurypoeticdictionischallengingenough;evenharderarethe poem'sform,withitsparodyofpedanticscholarship,anditsreferencestodozensofforgottennames.JonathanSwift,to whomTheDunciadwasdedicated,warnedPopethat\"twenty Notableworks 1.\"Pastorals\"(1709). 2.\"AnEssayonCriticism\"(1711). 3.\"Messiah\"(1712), 4.\"TheRapeoftheLock\"(1712,enlargedin1714). 5.\"WindsorForest\"(1713). 6.\"TranslationoftheIliad\"(1715-1720). 7.\"EloisatoAbelard\"(1717). 8.\"ThreeHoursAfterMarriage,withothers\"(1717). 9.\"ElegytotheMemoryofanUnfortunateLady\"(1717) 10.\"TheWorksofShakespear,inSixVolumes\"(1723-1725). 11.\"TranslationoftheOdyssey\"(1725-1726). 12.\"PeriBathous,OrtheArtofSinkinginPoetry\"(1727). 13.\"TheDunciad\"(1728). 14.\"EssayonMan\"(1733-1734). 15.\"TheProloguetotheSatires\"(1735).

JosephAddison(1672-1719) JosephAddisonwasanEnglishessayist,poet.playwrightandpolitician.Hewasamanofletters,eldestsonofLancelot Addison.Hisnameisusuallyrememberedalongsidethatofhislong-standingfriend.RichardSteele.withwhomhefounded TheSpectatormagazine.AddisonwasborninMilston,Wiltshire,butsoonafterhisbirthhisfather,LancelotAddison,was appointedDeanofLichfieldandtheAddisonfamilymovedintothecathedralclose.HewaseducatedatCharterhouse School,wherehefirstmetRichardSteele,andatTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford.Heexcelledinclassics,beingspecially notedforhisLatinverse.andbecameaFellowofMagdalenCollege.In1693,headdressedapoemtoJohnDryden,and hisfirstmajorwork,abookofthelivesofEnglishpoets,waspublishedin1694.HistranslationofVirgil'sGeorgicswas publishedthesameyear.Dryden,LordSomersandCharlesMontagu.1stEarlofHalifaxtookaninterestinAddison'swork andobtainedforhimapensionof£300toenablehimtraveltoEuropewithaviewtodiplomaticemployment,allthe timewritingandstudyingpolitics.WhileinSwitzerlandin1702,heheardofthedeathofWilliamIII,aneventwhich losthimhispension,ashisinfluentialcontacts,HalifaxandSomers, hadlosttheiremploymentwiththeCrown.HereturnedtoEnglandattheendof1703.Formorethanayearheremained withoutemployment,buttheBattleofBlenheimin1704gavehimafreshopportunityofdistinguishinghimself.The government,morespecificallyLordTreasurerGodolphin,commissionedAddisontowriteacommemorativepoem,andhe producedTheCampaign,whichgavesuchsatisfactionthathewasforthwithappointedaCommissionerofAppealsin Halifax'sgovernment.HisnextliteraryventurewasanaccountofhistravelsinItaly,whichwasfollowedbyanopera librettotitledRosamund.In1705,withtheWhigsinpoliticalpower,AddisonwasmadeUnder-SecretaryofStateand accompaniedHalifaxonamissiontoHanover.Addison'sbiographerstatesthat\"Inthefieldofhisforeignresponsibilities Addison'sviewswerethoseofagoodWhig.HehadalwaysbelievedthatEngland'spowerdependeduponherwealth,her wealthuponhercommerce,andhercommerceuponthefreedomoftheseasandthecheckingofthepowerofFranceand Spain\".

From1708to1709hewasMPfortherottenboroughofLostwithiel.Addisonwasshortlyafterwardsappointedsecretary tothenewLordLieutenantofIreland,LordWharton,andKeeperoftheRecordsofthatcountry.Undertheinfluence ofWharton, III,aneventwhichlosthimhispension,ashisinfluentialcontacts,HalifaxandSomers,hadlosttheiremploymentwith theCrown.HereturnedtoEnglandattheendof1703.Formorethanayearheremainedwithoutemployment,butthe BattleofBlenheimin1704gavehimafreshopportunityofdistinguishinghimself.Thegovernment,morespecificallyLord TreasurerGodolphin,commissionedAddisontowriteacommemorativepoem,andheproducedTheCampaign,whichgave suchsatisfactionthathewasforthwithappointedaCommissionerofAppealsinHalifax'sgovernment.Hisnextliterary venturewasanaccountofhistravelsinItaly,whichwasfollowedbyanoperalibrettotitledRosamund.In1705,with theWhigsinpoliticalpower,AddisonwasmadeUnder-SecretaryofStateandaccompaniedHalifaxonamissiontoHanover. Addison'sbiographerstatesthat\"InthefieldofhisforeignresponsibilitiesAddison'sviewswerethoseofagoodWhig.He hadalwaysbelievedthatEngland'spowerdependeduponherwealth,herwealthuponhercommerce,andhercommerce uponthefreedomoftheseasandthecheckingofthepowerofFranceandSpain\".From1708to1709hewasMPforthe rottenboroughofLostwithiel.AddisonwasshortlyafterwardsappointedsecretarytothenewLordLieutenantof Ireland,LordWharton,andKeeperoftheRecordsofthatcountry.UndertheinfluenceofWharton,73hewasMemberof ParliamentintheIrishHouseofCommonsforCavanBoroughfrom1709until1713.From1710,herepresentedMalmesbury, inhishomecountyofWiltshire,holdingtheseatuntilhisdeath. HeencounteredJonathanSwiftinIrelandandremainedthereforayear.Subsequently,hehelpedfoundtheKitcatClub andrenewedhisassociationwithRichardSteele.In1709SteelebegantobringoutTheTatler,towhichAddisonbecame almostimmediatelyacontributor:thereafterhe(withSteele)startedTheSpectator,thefirstnumberofwhichappeared on1March1711.Thispaper,whichatfirstappeareddaily,waskeptup(withabreakofaboutayearandahalfwhenthe Guardiantookitsplace)until20December1714.In1713Addison'stragedyCatowasproduced,andwasreceivedwith acclamationbybothWhigsandTories.Hefollowedthiseffortwithacomedicplay,TheDrummer(hislastundertaking wasTheFreeholder,apartypaper,1715-1716).ThelatereventsinthelifeofAddisondidnotcontributetohishappiness. In1716,hemarriedtheDowagerCountessofWarwicktowhosesonhehadbeentutor,andhispoliticalcareercontinued toflourish,asheservedSecretaryofStatefortheSouthernDepartmentfrom1717to1718.However,hiscrazy governmentnewspaper,TheFreeholder,wasmuchcriticised,andAlexanderPopewasamongthosewhomadehimanobject ofderision,christeninghim\"Atticus\".Hiswifeappearstohavebeenarrogantandimperious;hisstepsontheseventhEarl wasunfriendlytohim;whileinhispubliccapacityhisinvincibleshynessmadehimoflittleuseinParliament.He eventuallyfelloutwithSteeleoverthePeerageBillof1719.In1718,Addisonwasforcedtoresignassecretaryof statebecauseofhispoorhealth,butremainedanMPuntilhisdeathatHollandHouse,Londonon17June1719,inhis 48thyear,andwasburiedinWestminsterAbbey.

Notableworks 1.\"APoemtohisMajesty\",poetry(1695). 2.\"ALetterfromItaly\"(1704). 3.\"TheCampaign\"(1704). 4.\"RemarksonSeveralPartsofItaly\",travelogue(1705 5.\"Cato\"(1713). 6.\"TheDrummer\"(1716). SirRichardSteele(pseudonymIsaacBickerstaff) (1672-1729) TheBritishessayist,dramatist,journalistandpolitician,bestknownasprincipalauthoroftheperiodicalsTheTatlerand TheSpectator,wasborninpoorcircumstancesinDublin,Ireland,inMarch1672.Theexactdateofhisbirthisnotknown, buthewasbaptizedonMarch12.Steele'snameisassociatedwiththatofJosephAddison,withwhomhecollaborated.

Steele'sfather,anattorney,diedin1676,andhismotherdiedthenextyear.Steelewasbroughtupbyhisauntanduncle, LadyKatherineMildmayandHenryGascoigne.HisextendedfamilywereinfluentialProtestantgentry,butlittleisknown ofhisparents. Atfourteen,SteelewenttotheCharterhouseSchool,wherehemetAddison.BothSteeleandAddisonwenttoOxford, SteeleenteringChristChurchin1689andtransferringtoMertonCollegein1691.HisOxfordcareerwasundistinguished, andheleftin1692withouttakingadegreeinordertovolunteerforcadetserviceunderthecommandoftheDukeof Ormonde.SteelethenservedintheLifeGuardsandlatertransferredtotheColdstreamGuards.In1695LordCutts, towhomSteelehaddedicatedapoemonthefuneralofQueenMary,becameSteele'spatron.Steelefirstservedhimas privatesecretaryandthenbecameanofficerinCutts'sregimentin1697.TwoyearslaterSteelereceivedacaptaincyina footregiment.DuringtheseyearsofmilitaryserviceinLondon,Steelebecameacquaintedwithacircleofliteraryand artisticfigures,andhebegantowrite. AconstantneedformoneydominatedmuchofSteele'slifebecausehisspendinghabitswereimpulsiveandextravagant. In1705hemarriedanelderlyandpropertiedwidow,MargaretStretch.Shediedin1706,leavinghimanannualincomeof £850,andin1707SteelemarriedMaryScurlock(died1718),the\"DearPrue\"ofaseriesofdelightfullettershe addressedtoher.Theyhadfourchildren,butonlyElizabeth,theeldestdaughter,survivedtomaturity.Steelelivedin considerablestyleafterhissecondmarriage,andhishabitscontinuedtobefree-spendingandimprovident.Heleftthe armyin1707,orperhapsearlier,andintheyearsfollowingsecuredseveralminorappointments. SteelebecameaMemberofParliamentoftheUnitedKingdomin1713,butwassoonexpelledforissuingapamphletin favouroftheHanoveriansuccession.AftertheaccessionofGeorgeItotheEnglishthronein1714,Steeleobtaineda numberofpoliticalfavors.In1715hewasknightedandwasreelectedtoParliament.Steele'sintemperancegradually underminedhishealth,andhesufferedfromgoutformanyyears.In1724stillnotoriouslyimprovident,impulsive, ostentatious,andgenerousSteelewasforcedtoretirefromLondonbecauseofhismountingdebtsandhis Notableworks 1.\"TheChristianHero\"(1701)-aprosetreatise.Inthisreformingtractandmoralmanual,Steelecontrastedthepassion anduniversalheroismofChristianitywithhisperceptionofthefalsereasoningofStoicismoftheRomanemperors.He wascriticizedforpublishingabookletaboutmoralswhenhe,himself,enjoyeddrinking.occasionaldueling,anddebauchery aroundtown. 2.\"TheFuneral,orGriefàlaMode\"(1701)aplay;acomedy.Adidacticsatireonhypocriticalundertakersanddishonest lawyers,itwaspraisedbyWilliamIII.ItwasmetwithwidesuccessandwasperformedatDruryLane,bringinghimtothe attentionoftheKingandtheWhigparty. 3.\"TheLyingLover,orTheLadies'Friendship\"(1702)-aplay;acomedy.Hecontinuedhisdidacticdramaticvision, portrayingvirtuouscharactersasmodelsforaudiencestoemulate,asopposedtothepredominantly\"immoral\"characters

ontheRestorationstage. 4.\"TheTenderHusband,orTheAccomplishedFools\"(1705)aplay;animitationofMoliere'sSicilien.Itachievedsome success,perhapsbecauseAddisonhelpedhimwriteit.76 5.\"TheCrisis\"(1706)apamphlet,attackingtheToryministryforitsunenthusiasticsupportforaProtestantsuccessorto thethrone. 6.\"TheConsciousLovers\"(1722)aplay;acomedy,basedonTerence'sAndria.ItisafineexampleofXVIIIthcentury. Sentimentalcomedy,initSteeleportrayedidealsofmaleandfemalemanners. 7.\"DearPrue\"-aseriesoflettersaddressedtohis2dwifeMaryScurlock. DanielDefoe(c.1661-1731) DanielDefoe,bornDanielFoe,wasanEnglishtrader,writer,journalist,pamphleteerandspy,whogainedfameforhis work\"RobinsonCrusoe\".Defoeisnotableforbeingoneoftheearliestproponentsofthenovel,ashehelpedto popularisetheforminBritain,andisamongthefoundersoftheEnglishnovel.Aprolificandversatilewriter,hewrote morethan500books,pamphletsandjournalsonvarioustopics(includingpolitics,crime,religion,marriage,psychologyand thesupernatural). DanielFoe,orDefoe,asheafterwardscalledhimself,wasbornintheparishofSt.Giles,Cripplegate,London.Socially, hispositiondifferedfromthatofhisgreatestcontemporariesinliterature.Byinheritanceandconvictionhewasa Dissenterinreligion;byoccupationhebelongedtothetrading,ormerchantclass.Whenhewasabouteighteen,heleft school,andsetupforhimselfinthehosierybusiness.Hetookakeeninterestinpoliticsandinsocialandpublicquestions,

andhelddecidedviews.Afewyearslaterhefailedinbusiness,andafteratimehebecameconnectedwithabrickand tilemanufactoryatTilbury.Thishasbeencalled\"themostprosperousandhonourableperiodofhislife\".Defoe'sbrief intervalofprosperitywassuddenlybroughttoanendbytheKing'sdeathin1702.Hehadpleasednobody,and,ashesays, thewhole\"worldflewathimlikeadogwithabroomathistail.\"Hewascondemnedbytheauthoritiestostandinthe pilloryatTempleBar,andimprisonedfornearlytwoyearsinNewgate.Butmisfortuneandimprisonmentwerepowerless totamehisindomitablespiritorcheckhisrestlessenergy.Defoeaimedtosetforthanddiscussthecurrentnewsnotof Englandonly,butofagreatpartofEurope.AfterDefoewasreleasedfromprisonin1704,hiscoursebecamelessopen andstraightforward. Yetitwouldbeagreatmistaketothinkofhimashabituallywillingtosacrificehisprinciplestohispersonaladvantage. Addisoncalledhima\"false,shuffling,prevaricatingrascall\";but,underallhistricksanddisguises,therewasabasisof conscienceandofstubbornintegrity.Hispositionwasoftenequivocal,hisactionsambiguous;butonthewholeheworked consistentlyforthepromotionofcivilandreligiousliberty,thecauseinwhichhebelieved;hechangedhisparty,buthe remainedessentiallyloyaltohisprinciples;and,whilehedidnotscrupletoemployfalsehood,heuseditintheservice ofwhathehonestlybelievedtobethetruth.Uptothistimehehadmadenogreatandpermanentcontributiontohis country'sliterature.Hehadwrittenmuch,andhehadprofoundlyinfluencedthemenofhisowntime.Yet,atsixtyhe published\"RobinsonCrusoe\",astorywhichpromisestodelighttheworldsolongasthespiritofmanlyadventureandthe loveofthemarveloussurviveintheheartofman. Ithasabasisoffact,foritwasfoundedontheadventuresofAlexanderSelkirk,anEnglishsailor,who,in1704,was abandonedbyhiscompanionsontheislandofJuanFernandes.Theproductionofsuchabookremainsoneofthemarvels ofliterature.ThesuccessofthebookdivertedDefoe'senergiesintoanewchannel,andhewroteanumberofother storieswhichmakehislateryearsthemostbrilliantliteraryperiodofhislife.Amongthese\"secondarynovels\",asLamb calledthem,\"TheMemoriesofaCavalier\".\"TheLifeofCaptainSingleton\".\"MollFlanders\"and\"TheHistoryofColonel Jack\",areperhapsthebestknown.Asawhole,noneofthesestoriesisequaltotheirgreatforerunner;yettheyare fullofmarvelousbitsofdescriptivewriting,andcontainsinglescenesofgreatdramaticandnarrativepower.Whenhe published\"RobinsonCrusoe\".Defoewasineasycircumstances;buttowardsthecloseofhislifehebecameagaininvolved indifficulties,andevenhisstrongandbravespiritwasatlastshakenbyrepeatedmisfortunes.Besetbypovertyand troubles,hewritestheyearbeforehisdeath: \"Iamsonearmyjourney'send,andamhasteningtotheplacewheretheweary areatrest;beitthatthepassageisroughandthedaystormy,bywhatway soeverHepleasetobringmetotheendofit,Idesiretofinishlifewiththis temperofsoulinallcases-TeDeumLaudamus\". Hismagnificentvitalitywhichhadbroughthimthroughsomuchnowatlastbroke,andhe\"diedofalethargy\"inaLondon lodging-housein1731.HewasburiedinafamousNon-conformistcemeteryinBunhillFields,London;andhisgraveisnow markedbyamonumenterectedtotheauthorof\"RobinsonCrusoe\"bythechildrenofmanylands.

Fiction Notableworks 1.\"TheConsolidatororMemoirsofSundryTransactionsfromtheWorldintheMoon\"(1705). 2.\"AtlantisMajor\"(1711). 3.\"RobinsonCrusoe\"(1719). 4.\"TheFartherAdventuresofRobinsonCrusoe\"(1719). 5.\"TheKingofPirates\"(1719). 6.\"CaptainSingleton\"(1720). 7.\"MemoirsofaCavalier\"(1720). 8.\"AJournalofthePlagueYear\"(1722). 9.\"MollFlanders\"(1722). 10.\"Roxana:TheFortunateMistress\"(1724).Non-fiction 11.\"TheStorm\"(1704). 12.\"TheFamilyInstructor\"(1715). 13.\"AGeneralHistoryofthePyrates\"(Defoe'sauthorshippseudonymousworkisdisputed)(1724). 14.\"Atourthro'thewholeislandofGreatBritain,dividedintocircuitsorofthisjournies\"(1724-1727). 15.\"ThePoliticalHistoryoftheDevil\"(1726). 16.\"TheShortestWaywiththeDissenters\"(1703). 17.\"SeriousReflectionsofRobinsonCrusoe\"(1720).