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In both the definite descriptions—“the Budapest, they apply more epistemic the only way to confront manipula- round window” and “the corruption vigilance—to the statements that politi- tion is to remain alert to the linguis- of political parties”—the receiver of cal parties are corrupt and that Obama tic signals of implicitness and to keep the message is required to take some wants an economy in which everybody in mind how they can influence our information for granted, but the two lives well, because such contents are thoughts and convictions when we are kinds of information differ in one es- explicit and available to their critical as- making decisions. sential way. The information at issue sessment. The mental safeguard of ap- in the first description is the existence plying epistemic vigilance to any given Our mission, then, is to keep both of a round window, a matter of purely message is an extremely important de- eyes open to watch reality, free from objective content; by contrast, in the fense against the potential threats of manipulative conceptual frames that second description the point being pre- manipulative communication; this one may constrain our ability to determine sented as already-known information is simple step makes us freer and more in- who we are, what we want, and who that political parties are corrupt, which dependent in shaping our own beliefs, we want to be. If we want to be good is not necessarily an objective statement values, and views about the world. But citizens in this world, we have to act but a subjective impression put forth epistemic vigilance is hampered when as linguists on our own behalf, as well by the speaker. Despite this difference some of the relevant contents are taken as eagle-eyed observers of the mecha- in content, the attentional demands im- away out of our sight. Unfortunately, nisms underlying the intricate maze of posed by the two messages are largely human interactions. the same, because they both follow the same linguistic formula and can be pro- Epistemic vigilance is hampered when cessed by the brain in the same way. some of the relevant contents of a A similar linguistic formula is at message are removed from our sight. work in the next set of examples: implicit communication masks some Bibliography Are you done making this noise? of the contents that should be rendered fully available and textually traceable Cory, B., J. Romoli, F. Schwarz, and S. Crain. Will we accept an economy by the audience. 2014. Scalar implicatures vs. presuppo- where only a few of us do spec- sitions: The view from acquisition. Topoi tacularly well? This short article obviously does not 35:57–71. exhaust the wide range of linguistic Both utterances convey an implica- devices that can be devoted to conceal- Grice, H. P. 1975. Logic and conversation. In ture, but notably, these two messages ing or disguising contents in a mes- Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts, eds. P. have very different contexts and pur- sage; the goal here is simply to offer Cole and J. Morgan, pp. 41–58. New York: poses: The intent of the first sentence a small window into the crucial role Academic Press. is simply to cause the listener to stop of the linguistic packaging of adver- making noise, whereas the second tisements and how it can irreversibly Hornby, P. A. 1974. Surface structure and pre- sentence, taken from former president shape our mind and behavior. Wheth- supposition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Barack Obama’s 2015 State of the Union er true information is being provided Verbal Behavior 13:530–538. address, aims to convey a particular about a product cannot be known in political outlook and, implicitly, to offer advance; indeed, we often happen to Loftus, E. F. 1975. Leading questions and the a plan for changing the (again, implic- buy a product that does not meet our eyewitness report. Cognitive Psychology itly) unacceptable status quo. Clearly, expectations, and so we understand 7:560–572. the real intention of the speaker is not that its description in the ad does not just to hear his audience reply “No,” match reality. Often enough, though, Langford, J., and V. M. Holmes. 1979. Syntactic but to emphasize that members of his we fail to reflect thoroughly on the ad- presupposition in sentence comprehension. own party would work to improve con- vertised qualities of the product that Cognition 7:363–383. ditions that members of the opposing elude our critical evaluation because party would leave unchanged. they also elude our focus of attention. Noveck, I. A., and A. Posada. 2003. Character- izing the time course of an implicature: An Rephrasing the second sentences in Given the common use of implicit evoked potentials study. Brain and Language the last two pairs of examples to make communication in advertising, not 85:203–210. explicit the presupposition and the im- only in the forms of presupposition plicature would profoundly modify and implicature but through many Schwarz, F., and S. Tiemann. 2015. Presupposi- their effect on the audience: other devices, expecting such practic- tion projection in online processing. Journal es to disappear is simply unrealistic. of Semantics 34:61–106. Political parties are corrupted, Indeed, implicit language is part and and this corruption has indebted parcel of the overall rhetorical struc- Stalnaker, R. C. 1974. Pragmatic presupposi- lots of honest citizens. ture of an advertising message. The tions. In Semantics and Philosophy, eds. M. K. audience, however, is not completely Munitz and P. K. Unger, pp. 197–214. New I will promote an economy where subservient to the message. In truth, York: University Press. every citizen can live well. Van Dijk, T. A. 1997. What is political discourse In the reformulated versions, listen- analysis? Belgian Journal of Linguistics 11:11–52. ers pay more close attention—or, to use the term proposed by Dan Sper- Van Dijk, T. A. 2006. Discourse and manipula- ber of Central European University in tion. Discourse & Society 17:359–383. Viviana Masia is assistant professor of linguistics at Roma Tre University. Her most recent book is The Manipulative Disguise of Truth (2021, John Ben- jamins Publishing). Email: [email protected] www.americanscientist.org 2022 September–October 305

Performing Power In conflicts between animals, factors such as who won previous bouts and who is watching may play a role in the outcome. Lee Alan Dugatkin Anyone who has watched it in a very fast way, and so I pulled made up of other ravens are a different ravens (Corvus corax) being back my hand, because he came so fast. matter. Ravens who are victims of ag- ravens needs no convincing The beak is big and if it does not hit the gression are known to give defensive about how sociable and in- cheese, but your finger, it hurts.” The calls, and Bugnyar and his team have telligent they are. Thomas Bugnyar, raven looked him squarely in the eyes found that bystanders sometimes come an animal behaviorist now at the Uni- and said “aua!” which happens to be to the aid of these victims. But it seemed versity of Vienna, had certainly seen the German equivalent of “ouch!”—an to him that there was more going on his share of these remarkable birds, exclamation the raven had no doubt than a simple cry for help. “Sometimes but he never expected he’d spend the heard used by one of the many hu- when there is a beat-up, [the victim] better part of his life studying just how mans who had befriended him. “I said, seems to cry like mad .  .  . even if it is sociable and intelligent they are, nor ‘Wait a second, no, almost aua, you be- a mild beat-up . . . they seemed to me how those characteristics play into ra- haved yourself,’” says Bugnyar. “My to overdo it,” he says. “At other times, ven power structure. Then one day he interpretation was that he anticipated there is a pretty intense beat-up and visited a friend at the Konrad Lorenz my expression [‘aua’] in response to they seem to stay quiet.” He began Field Station in the Northern Aus- his behavior. He was using [a human] thinking that the composition of the trian Alps, about 230 kilometers east expression in the perfectly right con- audience of ravens who were watch- of Vienna. The friend was part of a text. His social environment at that time ing and listening might be what made team hand-raising ravens at the field was humans, and so he was trying to the difference. In 2010, Bugnyar and his station. Bugnyar recalls, “I was quite make sense of what we were doing. It graduate students Georgine Szipl and impressed by the birds, because they also illustrates quite nicely why I end- Eva Ringler decided to dig deeper. were not actually behaving like birds, ed up using vocalization as a window but more like dogs and puppies.” into what they actually think.” And, The team videotaped forced retreat Bugnyar would come to learn, into interactions in which the victim ut- Not long after that visit, Bugnyar their power structure as well. tered a defensive call and noted the joined the raven research team himself, duration and number of those calls. and one of the birds made him a true Year in and year out since his gradu- They also collected information on the believer in all things raven. The ravens ate school days, Bugnyar has returned identities of other ravens within 25 he was working with were housed in to the station to continue his now meters of the interaction. Using their pairs, and a raven in one pair had es- 25-year-long study. Armed with bin- long-term database, they then clas- caped. The other one “was all by him- oculars and tape recorders, he and his sified each bystander as kin (or not) self for a few months,” Bugnyar says, students have seen—and, just as im- to the victim or aggressor. They also “and during that time I spent every portantly, heard—thousands of power- scoured their records to see whether lunch break with him, playing with related interactions. Struggles for power a bystander had a strong social bond him, just to give him a little contact, and take many forms in ravens, including with the victim or the aggressor, as I also encouraged everyone else to in- approach–retreat sequences, in which measured by whether the two were teract with him, because he was bored.” one bird backs off as soon as another ap- mating partners or had exchanged af- proaches; forced retreats, during which filiative behaviors such as grooming. Bugnyar would occasionally give a raven retreats after being threatened; his raven friend a piece of cheese as a and true fights, when birds grapple us- Bugnyar and his colleagues found snack, and one day he had a small slice ing their very sharp beak and claws. that ravens on the wrong side of a in his pocket and reached in to get it power struggle modulated their defen- as the bird sat on his arm. “I showed From the birds’ perspective, Bugnyar sive calls depending on the nature of him the piece of cheese,” he continues, and his team of observers are not worth the audience. Victims’ call rates were “and as soon as he saw it, he went for paying any mind to. But audiences higher when potential allies—either When animals fight, social dynamics and QUICK TAKE Some animals experience winner effects other factors contribute to the outcome. (winning begets winning) or loser effects (los- These extrinsic effects include the audience, Ravens and chimpanzees both gauge their ing begets losing). The animals’ hormone levels bystanders, and previous wins and losses. reactions to a fight based upon who is watch- contribute to these winning and losing streaks. ing, and they are more likely cry for help when they have a sympathetic audience. 306 American Scientist, Volume 110

When a raven is losing a fight, it alters its behavior based on who is watching. If there are al- Nature Picture Library / Alamy Stock Photo lies in the audience, it will cry for help, but if the crowd is allied with its opponent, it may stay silent so as not to draw further attention to the battle. Ravens are one of several animals that high-ranking observers who often in- take the crowd into account in their struggles for power. tervened and broke up fights. kin or those with whom the victim had more or less, about the nature of the at- Chimps and ravens are hardly alone a strong bond—were audience mem- tack.” Just like the ravens. He began to when it comes to the role an audience bers. When the audience was made think that the nature of the audience was plays in power dynamics. Audience up of individuals who had a history of the key to these vocalizations. “If you are effects have been found in Japanese prosocial behaviors with the aggressor, being attacked . . . [often] the only way quail (Coturnix japonica), fiddler crabs victims, who might suffer by drawing to get out of it is to get someone else to (Uca maracoani), zebrafish (Danio re- even more attention to their predica- join and that may turn the tide. If the rio), and Siamese fighting fish (Betta ment, reduced their call rates. [victim’s] scream recruits help, then it re- splendens). In fighting fish, it gets par- ally matters who is nearby. Especially if ticularly interesting. A male’s testos- Ethologists have come to learn that it is the alpha male, who does not toler- terone level changes when he is being paying attention to who is in the au- ate violence among others.” watched, and some work suggests that dience is just one of the many tools fighting males change their behavioral that animals use to help them acquire Zuberbühler teamed up with Kate repertoire if a female, but not another power. Gathering intel in all its forms Slocombe of the University of York in male, is watching, and that all of these is favored by natural selection. England to analyze 84 chimp power changes are mediated by whether a struggles. They found that when fights male knows those in the audience. Gauging the Crowd involved only mildly aggressive inter- Klaus Zuberbühler of the University of actions, the animals took no account Audience effects are just one of a class St. Andrews studies the behavior and of whether an audience was present. of power-related phenomena called ex- neuroscience of nonhuman primate When contests involved severe aggres- trinsic effects. In contrast to intrinsic ef- communication. When in the early 2000s sion, victims’ screams were longer and fects, such as size and weight, extrinsic he began studying chimpanzees (Pan more intense when an audience was effects incorporate various aspects of troglodytes) at the Budongo Conserva- nearby—but only when at least one the experience and the social environ- tion Field Station in Uganda, one thing of the audience members held a rank ment of those seeking power. In addi- became obvious very quickly: Chim- in the dominance hierarchy that was tion to audience and bystander effects, panzee power struggles are loud. Both equal to or above the rank of the ag- two other types of extrinsic effects are aggressors and victims scream, and Zu- gressor. This strategy seems to pay off: winner effects and loser effects. Winner berbühler observed that “depending on Victims that emitted longer and more effects occur when an animal’s chance who is listening, they tend to exaggerate, intense screams received support from of winning a contest for power increases as a function of prior wins. When the probability of losing increases as a func- www.americanscientist.org 2022 September–October 307

Chimpanzees live in hierarchical communities. When they skirmish, the ape on the losing Karl Ammann / Nature Picture Library side assesses the audience. If a chimpanzee of higher rank than its aggressor is watching, the losing chimp is more likely to vocalize, and may even play up the severity of the attack so that what he called a refractory period, dur- the observer will intervene. ing which they avoided aggressive in- teractions with anyone. Schuett had tion of prior losses, loser effects are in Copperheads are solitary creatures, read about such behaviors in other play. Of the two, loser effects seem to be except in the late summer and then species—mostly fish—when he was more common, and ethologists such as again in the spring, when they gather in doing this work in the early 1980s, but Gordon Schuett, codirector of the Chir- large mating aggregations. When they in those studies the effect lasted hours, icahua Desert Museum in New Mexico, fight, copperheads live up to their spe- whereas for his snakes the refractory have turned to copperhead snakes to cies name, which translates from Latin period seemed to last a week or more. better understand just why that is. roughly as “twisted fishhook.” During contests, males contort themselves in ev- Schuett ran a series of experiments Losing Streak ery conceivable way, angling for lever- in which two copperhead males were Most teenagers want to turn their age. Power contests typically begin with paired near a female during the late basements into game rooms, not labo- challenge displays, including ascend, in summer mating season. In the first of ratories housing dozens of venomous which a snake rises up from the ground, these experiments, neither male had snakes that they’ve caught. But most and sway, in which it undulates back had a recent losing experience, but one teenagers are not budding herpetolo- and forth. If the challenge displays don’t male was about 10 percent larger than gists like Schuett was back in the day. settle the contest, a male sometimes tries the other. Thirty-two such triads were “I was very fascinated with venomous to hook his opponent, positioning himself formed, and the larger male won ev- snakes as a young boy,” Schuett says. above and around the other snake. If ery single time, subsequently court- “I was collecting rattlesnakes when I he is successful, the opponent is often ing and guarding the female. The next was 15.” Soon, he was not only milk- forced to the ground. If snakes are si- day, Schuett took 10 of the winners and ing the rattlesnakes for their venom, multaneously hooking each other, they 10 of the losers and pitted each one but as a high school student was read- intertwine and stiffen, eventually sepa- against a similar-sized male who had ing the primary scientific literature on rating, with one male emerging as the no prior fighting experience. What he all things venomous snake. victor and the other showing submissive discovered was that copperheads don’t behavior and retreating. go on winning streaks: First-round At age 16, Schuett became obsessed winners were no more likely to win with power dynamics in copperhead Initially, Schuett watched these than were their opponents. But losing snakes (Agkistrodon contortrix). “I was ut- power struggles from behind a blind is very bad news. Males who lost in terly struck by male–male combat [and in the lab, but he soon realized that the first round were never the first to thought,] ‘I’m going to try and do that in was unnecessary: “They didn’t care if challenge their next opponent, and in my basement.’ . . . And lo and behold, I I was there,” he says, laughing. “When each and every fight, they retreated. was able to get them into combat.” Four they wanted to fight or court, they The winner then courted and guarded decades later, he’s still enthralled by did.” As he watched, it struck him that the female. When Schuett ran the same power struggles in venomous snakes. losers not only retreated, but went into sort of experiment seven days after a loser had lost, he found very similar results. Losing begat more losing. 308 American Scientist, Volume 110

Schuett wondered what would males that they should shut 100 a happen if he paired a snake that had down the quest for power percent of focal mouse winners recently lost against an opponent and wait for better times. that was 10 percent smaller. Would 70 the size advantage compensate for Winner Takes All the prior loss? The answer was a re- Cathy Marler knew of the sounding no: The losers lost again. work on loser effects in 50 bb Lose once in the battle for copperhead copperheads. Indeed, she power, and the effects linger and cre- could find many examples ate a serious fitness cost. of loser effects in the animal 20 But why would it be adaptive to behavior literature. But what b effectively shut down the quest for of winner effects? Marler, a power for a week when the whole professor of psychology at 0 mating season lasts for only a month? the University of Wisconsin, home unfamiliar home unfamiliar One possibility is that the life span of a occasionally came across cage cage cage cage copperhead is long enough that things such effects in her work, 3 prior wins handled controls might get better at some point down but any boost from win- the road, so it pays to temporarily shut ning seemed short-lived. down. “If you engage in combat and Although it was true that California mice experience a winner effect and are more become the loser,” says Schuett, “in some mathematical models likely to win future fights if they have at least three vic- theory you have lost one-quarter of the suggested that loser effects tories under their belts. This extrinsic factor is more pro- mating season. If you lose again, you were more likely to evolve nounced when fighting in their home cage, but winning may never want to engage in court- than winner effects, Marler mice are also more likely to continue winning than control ship again that season. I think they felt something was missing. mice even in unfamiliar environments. (From M. J. Fux- can only manage that burden because It just didn’t make sense jager, et al. Hormones and Behavior 56.) these animals can live 25 or 30 years.” to her that winner effects Schuett next asked what was caus- should be transient when they seemed arginine-vasopressin (AVP), which is ing loser effects in real time. That is, at so important in helping animals gauge known to promote aggression in male, the physiological level, what was mak- the social environment and determine but not female, mammals. ing losers more likely to lose again? To when to ramp up aggression. To dig deeper into AVP’s role in find out, he and his colleagues again Marler’s work focused on the behav- shaping aggression and the path to put pairs of males together near a fe- ior of two mouse species: the California power in these two species, Marler con- male and waited until one male was mouse (Peromyscus californicus) and the ducted a cross-fostering study. Cross- the clear winner. At that point, they white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leuco- fostering experiments with two species separated the males and took a blood pus). It is hard to imagine two species involves raising the offspring of indi- sample from each. For comparison, that are so closely related but have such viduals of Species A in the nest of Spe- cies B, and vice versa. If offspring be- have like their foster parents when they Ravens on the wrong side of a power mature, it suggests that the develop- mental milieu strongly affects behavior. struggle modulated their defensive calls Together with Janet Bester-Meredith (now an associate professor of biology at Seattle Pacific University), Marler depending on the nature of the audience: raised 24 white-footed pups with Cali- fornia foster parents, and 14 California Their call rates were higher when pups with white-footed foster parents. When foster offspring were about sev- potential allies were audience members. en months old, they were tested in stan- dard aggression tests that had been de- veloped for rodents. The mice generally behaved more like their foster parents than their biological parents. The stron- they also ran two controls: In the first, different social systems. Both look like gest effects were found in California they took a blood sample from a lone your standard mouse, but California males, who showed much lower levels male; and in the second, they placed a mice are monogamous, whereas white- of aggression when they grew up in single male and a female in the arena, footed mice are polygamous, and male the nest of white-footed foster parents. then took a blood sample from the and female California mice provide This change was partly due to the effect male. Analysis of the samples revealed more parental care than their white- of cross-fostering on AVP brain recep- that plasma corticosterone, a key stress footed counterparts. California males tors, as foster California males had both hormone, was significantly higher are also more aggressive to intruders fewer and smaller cells at AVP recep- in losers than in winners or control than are white-footed males, which tors. These results suggest that the road males, suggesting that increases in may in part be due to their having more to power can be rerouted when normal stress hormones might signal to loser brain receptor sites for a hormone called developmental patterns are altered. www.americanscientist.org 2022 September–October 309

200 loser call winner call Joseph R. Waas 190 subject heart rate (beats per minute) 180 170 160 150 100 male female Male little blue penguins extend their flippers and give a “triumph call” (left) when they win a er opponents), and after each win they fight. This victory cry causes bystanders’ hearts to race (right). When a losing penguin cries in de- received an injection of testosterone. feat, however, male eavesdroppers are unfazed, but females still experience a spike in their heart Two control groups were also tested. rate. This bystander effect draws even unintentional audience members into the drama of the In the first, males that had experienced fight. (Graph from S. C. Mouterde, et al. Animal Behaviour 83.) three wins in a row were injected with saline, to make certain that it was an In the early 2000s, with an under- linked to increased levels of testosterone injection of testosterone, not just any standing of some of the basics of pow- in males coming off a string of wins. To- injection, that was causing a winner ef- er in both Peromyscus species, Marler, gether with two of her students at the fect. In the second group, males experi- working with a team of students, set time, Matt Fuxjager (now at Brown Uni- enced three wins, but no injections. The her sights on examining winner effects. versity) and Elizabeth Becker (now at St. testosterone injections appeared to be a In these experiments, a male and fe- Joseph’s University), Marler was even power elixir, as white-footed mice that male were housed together in a cage, able to pinpoint the brain circuitry asso- won three times and received testoster- and the male was given zero, one, two, ciated with changes in testosterone and one each time showed the same winner or three winning experiences. The win- winning. But winner effects and the rise effect that had seemed, until that point, ning experiences were provided by in testosterone depend, as many power- to be reserved for California mice. allowing the resident male to interact related things do, on place and owner- with a smaller, weaker, semisedated ship. When Fuxjager and Marler ran a Eavesdropper Anxiety male placed in his cage. Next, a healthy similar experiment but had the males The extrinsic effects of animals fight- intruder, about the same size as the resi- fight outside their territory, the winner ing for dominance reach beyond the dent male, was placed in the resident’s effect and associated rise in testosterone immediate participants to any by- cage. Marler and her team observed were much less pronounced. standers within earshot, which leads the fights, and when the contests were us to ethologist Joseph Waas, of the over, they drew blood samples. Fuxjager and Marler thought more University of Waikato in New Zea- about the differences in winner effects land, lying flat in penguin poop night In white-footed mice, although win- between California mice and white- after night in a New Zealand cave. ners had lower stress hormone levels footed mice, and the role that testos- than losers, no winner effects were un- terone plays in mediating these ef- Waas, a birder to his core, was finish- covered; even when a male had just fects. Was it the case that white-footed ing up his undergraduate work at Trent come off three wins in a row, it did not mice, which showed no winner effects, University, in his native Canada, and affect his chances of winning against a lacked the physiological machinery to was on the hunt for what to do next. healthy intruder, and winning had no mount a winner effect, or could it be John Warham, a pioneer in the study of measurable effect on testosterone lev- that they have that machinery, but just penguin biology, suggested that Waas els. In California mice, which rely more don’t produce enough testosterone to check out a colony of little blue pen- heavily on aggression in their quest for kick it into gear? They began to wonder guins (Eudyptula minor) on the eastern power than do white-footed mice, win- what might happen if they experimen- side of Banks Peninsula on New Zea- ning matters—but only when it’s win- tally increased testosterone levels in land’s South Island. “I went . . . and ning on a grand scale. Males with one white-footed mice to the levels typically they just fascinated me,” Waas recalls. or two prior wins were no more likely to seen in California mice displaying win- “It seemed so cool these penguins lived defeat an intruder than were males with ner effects. Could they mimic the win- in caves and in burrow communities no winning experience. But if a Califor- ner effects found in California mice? and were active at night. And so I start- nia mouse had really been on a roll and ed working on their vocal repertoire.” had had three wins, he was likely to beat Fuxjager and Marler tested 37 white- any intruder who entered his domain. footed mice in three groups. In one The smallest of all penguins, stand- This “third time’s the charm” effect was group, males experienced three wins ing only about a foot tall, little blues are (by being matched against much small- 310 American Scientist, Volume 110

as cute as can be. But they’re loud. Re- soaked nights was the “triumph call” marked all the birds, so for a lot of birds ally loud. “There would be these peri- made by males. First described in grey- we knew their age and sex, and they ods of time,” Waas says, “when all the lag geese (Anser anser) by ethologist also constructed artificial burrows.” calling would die down and then one and Nobel laureate Konrad Lorenz, the bird or maybe two birds would then call triumph call in little blue penguins is Working with Solveig Mouterde, a and then you would get this incredible a high-pitched inhalation paired with veterinary graduate student at the Uni- contagious effect until everyone started a bray-sounding exhalation that is re- versity of Waikato, Waas did just that. calling.” His early work was in the cave peated over and over. But it was the They worked with 27 males and 16 fe- males who were incubating eggs alone When male little blue penguins heard at their artificial burrows (both males the triumph calls of ght winners, their and females incubate eggs) while their heart rates shot up. These eavesdroppers partners were off foraging in the ocean. The egg was gently removed and put were clearly nervous when those in into an incubator, and an artificial egg power were nearby. was placed in its stead. The artificial egg had sensors that recorded the bird’s colonies, where penguins nest about two context of the call, not its auditory dy- pulse and so, indirectly, its heart rate. to three meters apart, usually up against namics, that really struck Waas: At the Next, they put a microphone near the the wall of the cave. Because they are end of an aggressive interaction, the nest they were working with that night, nocturnal, Waas needed to be as well, winner often stood up with its flippers so that they could record the vocaliza- arriving at the colony at dusk, in time extended and “belted out this [triumph tions of the penguin after it heard a to watch the penguins return from the display] vocalization,” while “the loser speaker 5 meters away broadcast the ocean and waddle to their caves. He’d [would go] into a low walk or a low sounds of a fight, followed by the tri- follow hot on their trail, with a tape run . . . directly away from the winner.” umph call made by the winner or the recorder and a camera hooked up to a And sometimes it was doubly spectac- calls made by the loser of the fight. night-vision scope in hand, and stay in ular: If a female was on the nest of the the cave with the penguins until 4 a.m. male who was making a triumph call, When males heard the triumph calls Then back to Christchurch for a bit of she sometimes joined in. of winners, their heart rate shot up by sleep, to start the whole round trip over more than 30 beats per second com- again the next day. Waas knew he was not the only one pared with typical baseline values. No impressed by triumph calls—other such burst was found when they heard It was not easy work. “The main penguins, not only the male who had the calls of losers. These eavesdrop- cave I worked at is in Qtanerito Bay,” just lost to the caller, were clearly pay- pers were clearly nervous when those Waas notes. “There are two areas, an ing attention to these shouts of power in power were nearby. And they acted upper [cave] area that had maybe a as well. Exactly why, and what these like it, too, as they were much more hundred birds . . . and then there was eavesdropping penguins might be likely to vocalize themselves in re- a lower cave, where you had to get on doing with the information from the sponse to hearing the sounds of a loser, your belly and crawl, which wasn’t call, he didn’t know. Waas began to who would presumably be a weaker very pleasant as the actual base of the think he might be able to record these potential opponent, than the call of a cave is made of dried guano and pen- triumph calls and conduct playback winner. For their part, females showed guin feathers.” experiments in which he could con- increased heart rates when they heard trol what was heard so he could study winners or losers, and never vocalized In addition to vocalizations, Waas power and possible eavesdropping after hearing playbacks, suggesting was also interested in power dynam- effects. But the cave he was working they were generally agitated by fight- ics in these tiny penguins. Lying on his in was just too chaotic to control who ing and wanted no part of any of it. stomach in the lower cave, what he saw would hear what, so he turned to an- and heard fascinated and frustrated other colony near the cave, where pen- Eavesdropping and audience him: birds fighting, interlocking bills, guins lived outside in burrows. effects—and, to a lesser extent, winner and flipping one another, as Waas says, and loser effects—tell us that experi- “almost like a judo throw.” His mind This burrowing colony was in the ence with others matters in the struggle was soon racing with ideas, but how middle of a farm owned by two of for power. These extrinsic factors do was he going to design an experiment? Waas’s friends, Francis and Shireen more than show that size is not every- “What was I going to do?” he says. “I Helps. “They are alternative farmers,” thing in the quest for power in animals: couldn’t set up fights between pen- Waas explains, “and they made a real They demonstrate the subtle and com- guins, so I put it on the back burner.” effort to maintain an area of their farm plex nature of that quest. to protect the colony.” Equally impor- One thing Waas could not help hear- tant in the eyes of an ethologist, “they (References are available online.) ing over and over on all those guano- Lee Alan Dugatkin is a behavioral ecologist and historian of science in the biology department at the University of Louisville. This article is excerpted and adapted with permission from Power in the Wild: The Subtle and Not-So-Subtle Ways Animals Strive for Control over Others, published by the University of Chicago Press, © 2022 by Lee Alan Dugatkin. Email: [email protected] www.americanscientist.org 2022 September–October 311

S c i e n t i s t s’ Nightstand The Scientists’ Nightstand, Reshaping their abilities, experienced impostor American Scientist’s books Astronomy syndrome, made research contributions section, offers reviews, review that went unnoticed, or saw credit for essays, brief excerpts, and more. Nicolle Zellner work they had done be given to male For additional books coverage, colleagues—still they persisted. But the please see our Science Culture THE SKY IS FOR EVERYONE: Women particulars of each woman’s experience blog channel, which explores how Astronomers in Their Own Words. are unique, which is part of what makes science intersects with other areas Virginia Trimble and David A. Weintraub, their stories compelling. of knowledge, entertainment, and editors. xxvi + 472 pp. Princeton Uni- society. versity Press, 2022. $29.95. In the first chapter, “Beginnings,” the book’s editors, Virginia Trimble and ALSO IN THIS ISSUE T he recipe for a woman’s career David A. Weintraub, both astronomers in astronomy includes luck and themselves, present a brisk chronologi- WONDER: Childhood and the merit in unequal amounts, spread cal history of women who contributed Lifelong Love of Science. By out unevenly over the course of a career. to the advancement of astronomy. The Frank C. Keil. Start with a childhood fascination with first ones who are mentioned made their page 314 the night sky and a desire to learn all contributions as the assistant, spouse, about it. Add the support of a mentor or sibling of a male astronomer. The ONLINE and family members, persistence, and history starts in 1663, with 16-year-old a good web page. Simmer. Take note of Catherina Elisabetha Koopman’s mar- On our Science Culture blog: any anger, frustration, disbelief, or heart- riage to astronomer Johannes Hevelius, americanscientist.org/blogs ache that may percolate to the top. Skim whom she later helped compile a cata- /science-culture it off if it appears, but keep in mind that log of the positions of 1,564 stars, and A Template for Analyzing the lessons imparted can enhance future continues with a long list of Harvard Racism in Health Care decision-making. Continue simmering Observatory’s “computers”—women In the conclusion of her book ingredients on low heat until retirement. who meticulously studied hundreds of Sickening: Anti-Black Racism and The result will be a career’s worth of thousands of photographic glass plates Health Disparities in the United highs and lows, ending with the satis- in order to categorize and classify the States, Anne Pollock sets forth faction of having advanced the field of celestial objects imaged on them. recommendations for examining astronomy socially, through mentoring events for indications of social and teaching, and scientifically, via con- Then the editors move on to women injustice. A blog post by editorial tributions to successful studies of the who were able to earn a doctorate with intern Jasmine Johnson sum- objects in our universe. thesis work in the field of astronomy. marizes these recommendations, In 1886, Winifred Edgerton Merrill illustrating them with examples Of course, it’s cliché to give a woman “opened the door” by becoming the from the book’s chapter on the a recipe, even if it’s a recipe for a suc- first American woman to receive a PhD reproductive injustice experi- cessful career. Although women in the in mathematics (with work in astron- enced by Serena Williams after field face similar challenges, their expe- omy), and in 1896 Anna Delia Lewis the birth of her daughter in 2017. riences on that career path vary greatly. became the first American woman to (For an overview of Sickening, see The autobiographical sketches of the 37 receive a PhD in astronomy proper. Flora Taylor’s review of the book, women who share their stories in The Short paragraphs describing dozens of also posted on the blog.) Sky Is for Everyone: Women Astronomers women from all over the world follow. in Their Own Words certainly show that Many of those women are celebrated 312 American Scientist, Volume 110 a multitude of paths and circumstances to this day: Maria Mitchell (1818–1889) led them to the positions they’ve held. was the first American woman to hold They’ve worked hard and thoroughly a position as a professor of astronomy; throughout their careers to justify their Annie Jump Cannon (1863–1941) was a places. Even when they lost faith in Harvard “computer” who developed a new system for classifying stars based primarily on temperature; and Nancy Grace Roman (1925–2018) became NASA’s first chief of astronomy and relativity in the Office of Space Science

University of Bath science, personal stories, and advice, and each chapter will resonate in one Carole Mundell is Hiroko Sherwin Chair in Extragalactic Astronomy and founding head of way or another with the reader. astrophysics at the University of Bath in the United Kingdom. In this 2016 photo, she is shown seated in the control room beneath the Lovell radio telescope in the Jodrell Bank Observatory at As I read through the book, no sin- the University of Manchester, where she earned a PhD. From The Sky Is for Everyone. gle essay stood out to me. Instead, I was affected (sometimes deeply) by in 1959; her name has been given to The chapters that follow are auto- each woman’s story in a different way, an infrared space telescope currently biographical: Each was written by a and I often felt compelled to take note in development, which is scheduled to woman who earned a PhD between of some phrase or piece of sage advice. launch no later than May 2027. 1963 and 2010 and serves as a window Themes began to emerge. Some of the into her life as a successful astronomer. women self-report their privilege (be- Other women briefly profiled in the The contributors are quite well known ing white, coming from a middle- or chapter aren’t quite as well known. Still in the field, and some are famous more upper-class family, having parents others are recognizable because they generally, though others are not. How- with a college education), acknowl- took the name of their husband (Mar- ever, all of them have broken down edge receiving the support of family tha Betz Shapley, for instance, who barriers, found ways to do notable re- members, or report having had male married Harlow Shapley, who became search (often in an unwelcoming en- mentors who provided academic and the long-serving head of Harvard Col- vironment), and have some strength career guidance. Others write of in- lege Observatory) and then continued or advantage that allowed them to fluential grade-school teachers, the to work in astronomy. However, some, do that. Many of these women were value of education, or the satisfaction such as Barbara Cherry Schwarzschild an “only” or a “first”: “the only Black of knowing that working multiple jobs (wife of Princeton stellar astronomer person in the physics classroom,” “the during their undergraduate years had Martin Schwarzschild), had a prom- only woman on the committee,” “the helped them earn their coveted posi- ising start to a career that ended with first girl from the village to go to col- tion. They write of struggles with low marriage—not an uncommon result, lege,” “the first female faculty member feelings of self-worth, poor mental regardless of whether a woman took hired into the department,” “the first health, and the premature deaths of the name of her husband. woman to lead a professional organiza- loved ones. Much of what they write tion.” These women are now making reflects grit and determination. Barriers to careers in astronomy new cracks or forcing existing cracks slowly began to fall, though, and lat- wide open as they work to help make As I read the autobiographies in or- er on in chapter 1, we learn about the astronomy accessible to anyone who der (they are arranged chronologically women astronomers who were hired would like to explore and discover. For by the year in which the memoirist re- into faculty positions through the 1990s example, Shazrene Mohamed (chap- ceived her PhD), it was striking to me and a bit about their individual careers, ter 37), who studies the environments how many of the challenges and barri- including professional leadership posi- around dying stars, has redefined and ers faced by women who earned PhDs tions they held and awards and honors restructured graduate school require- in the 1960s were still in place in the they earned. Most of them were the first ments at the University of Cape Town 2010s and continue to exist today. Car- woman hired in their department. in South Africa and helped lead an ef- ole Mundell, a researcher who focuses fort that will bring the General Assem- on black holes and gamma-ray bursts, To see so many women and their bly of the International Astronomical notes in chapter 28 that “opportuni- accomplishments described across 30 Union to Africa for the first time ever in ties do not happen without sustained pages of text is inspiring! Some of the 2024. Women astronomers from every effort from supportive families and mentions are far too brief, but perhaps continent except Antarctica share their inspiring teachers, structural changes, that is a tactic to tease the reader to and political will to remove barriers to delve more deeply into the stories of opportunity.” these trailblazers elsewhere. Whether someone has a supportive family and inspiring teachers before coming to college is outside our con- trol as faculty members, so those of us in academia (and elsewhere) need to focus on doing a better job of reducing and removing barriers. For example, we need to expand access to educa- tion in general; we need to encourage students who are interested in science to pursue science as a career; and we need to acknowledge (when making tenure decisions, for instance) the un- paid work that women and members of marginalized groups do to promote access to academic (and other) ad- vancement in STEM fields. Doing better might start with each of us choosing to maximize the advance- www.americanscientist.org 2022 September–October 313

positions as university president and In the prelude to The Sky Is for Ev- chancellor, with stops along the way at eryone, the editors paraphrase the late NASA (where she was the first female Supreme Court justice Thurgood Mar- Chief Scientist) and the National Sci- shall to posit that “we cannot know the ence Foundation (where she served as names of all of the people who fought to director for six years). In chapter 10, open doors for us, . . . nor can we know high-energy astrophysicist Catherine the names of the people who will walk Cesarsky says that she has been able through the doors we ourselves had to to be a woman, a researcher, a mother, kick and shove to get through.” Today’s and a leader without having to give female astronomers, energized by the up anything important in life, “except presence of other women in the field, sometimes the chance to take a rest.” are creating a new culture for astronomy My own advice is, above all, remem- as they challenge long-standing biases ber to rest, and heed the words of van and hierarchical traditions. No longer Dishoeck, who tells young scientists to are they “the only,” though they still enjoy life and take long vacations! may well be “the first.” Perhaps when If I have any criticism of this book, the sequel to The Sky Is for Everyone is Sara Seager, who is Class of 1941 Professor which probably seems exhaustive to written, there will be a different story of Physics and Planetary Science at the Mas- outsiders, it’s that for those who know to tell—one in which equal opportuni- sachusetts Institute of Technology, laid the the field, the book only begins to cap- ties are open to all people, no matter foundation for the field of exoplanet atmo- ture examples of the struggles and their identity. Until then, we can take spheres. Photo by Justin Knight. From The achievements of women who have left inspiration and hope from the stories Sky Is for Everyone. their mark on astronomy. There are in this book, because just as the wom- ment of our own careers, finding the plenty of other stories to tell, and I en in the book helped to reshape the grit inside ourselves to persist and at- tain a position of power that allows hope that this book is the first of many landscape of astronomy into what it is us to widen the path for others who want to pursue astronomical studies. such collections of essays. today, all of us today are reshaping the In chapter 22, molecular astrophysicist Ewine van Dishoeck advises women The book is written for readers fa- landscape for tomorrow. who aspire to be astronomers to seize opportunities when they arise and to miliar with the world of astronomy. get involved in big projects, taking a visible role and helping make them Acronyms are not always spelled out Nicolle Zellner, who is Herbert H. and Grace A. Dow happen, as she did when she took over as the scientific director of the Nether- on first use, though most can be found Trustees’ Professor in the Sciences at Albion College in lands Research School for Astronomy in the list of abbreviations at the front Michigan, was a recipient in 2021 of the Carl Sagan (NOVA) in 2007. NOVA, an alliance of of the book. In addition, the editors Medal for excellence in public communication. She is the four Dutch universities with astron- have assumed that readers will recog- cochair of the American Astronomical Society’s Com- omy programs, is now leading efforts nize how prestigious certain positions mittee on the Status of Women in Astronomy. for the implementation of the mid- infrared Extremely Large Telescope im- and appointments are. But these are ager and spectrograph (METIS) cur- rently under construction in Chile. not significant barriers to understand- ing. Readers outside of astronomy Inquiring Minds Spending time exploring bold new ideas, as Sara Seager did when she be- may find it a bit dense and repetitive. came one of the first people to study exoplanet atmospheres (chapter 33), But the human stories are compelling, can allow us to find the thing that lets us excel, as Gabriela González has done so in that respect it can be said that Elizabeth Bonawitz in the search for gravitational waves (chapter 29). A career path may not be this book, like the sky, is for everyone. linear, and that’s okay! France Córdova (chapter 17) describes herself as “a rest- Women who are currently in the WONDER: Childhood and the Lifelong less spirit” whose life’s journey has had field of astronomy will find the book Love of Science. Frank C. Keil. xvi + 315 “many branches,” an allusion to the interesting not only because they will pp. MIT Press, 2022. $35. “braided river” model for career paths learn some things about their col- in science that change and adapt to an individual’s needs and circumstances. leagues but, more importantly, because Córdova’s path took her from a ma- “Wit will let them know they are not alone jor in cultural anthropology, through hy does grandpa have ear jobs as a magazine writer and editor, to in their struggles or feelings of isola- hair?” Just a few years ago tion, nor are they alone in their desire my child was so insatiable to make meaningful contributions to to know “why” and “how” that we astronomical exploration and discov- had to cut off her questions five min- ery despite the setbacks. Men will learn utes before bedtime or we would from these women’s stories how they never get her to sleep. Now a soon- can be supportive, and they can take as to-be fourth grader, she says that she their role models the many men who dislikes school because “it’s not fun to mentored and advised the women in learn.” I am dismayed. As a scientist the book. Courses that focus on women and a parent, I have done everything in STEM fields and graduate program I can to promote a love of learning in journal clubs may want to use the book my children. Where did I go wrong? as a starting point for conversations A host of research findings indi- about what it will take to make science cate that my child’s experience is not equitable for women in particular and unique. Developmental psychologists marginalized groups in general. and educators such as Susan Engel at 314 American Scientist, Volume 110

Williams College have noted that across knowledge of causal mechanisms. That to predict which pairs of blocks would the United States (and in many other knowledge is rapidly abstracted and cause a toy to play music when the countries) curiosity—defined as “spon- used to support day-to-day reasoning. blocks were placed upon the toy, sub- taneous investigation and eagerness for (For example, children draw inferences jects made successful predictions both new information”—drops precipitously about the complexity of an artifact from when the rule was that “blocks must be in children by the fourth grade. the number of functions it can perform.) the same” and when the rule was that Unfortunately, as Keil notes, “adults, “blocks must be different.” In my own In Wonder: Childhood and the Lifelong including veteran teachers, greatly un- lab, Katarina Begus and I have done ex- Love of Science, Yale psychologist Frank derestimate young children’s ability to periments in which 18-month-olds first C. Keil details the development of learn about mechanisms.” learned that certain individual objects wonder—“a spontaneous passion that always activated a toy when placed emerges early in childhood”—which The idea that young children are al- upon it, whereas certain other objects he defines as “a drive to explore, dis- ready capable of forming rich, abstract never activated the toy. Then a novel cover, and understand [that] involves causal theories of the world conflicts object was introduced and placed on creating conjectures and entertaining with our intuitions that cognitive devel- the toy together with one of the objects possibilities.” He takes us on a journey opment proceeds from the concrete to whose ability or inability to activate the from the realms of early development, the abstract. The concept of the theory- toy had already been demonstrated. when the cognitive gift of wonder building child scientist derives from the When the novel object was placed on drives common sense and scientific prominent “theory theory” of cognitive the toy along with an object known to reasoning, through the drop-off in development. (The theory theory was activate the toy, the toy would always wonder that often occurs and its sourc- put forward in the 1980s and 1990s by activate, and nothing could be learned es in the current structure of our edu- such titans in the field as Keil himself, about whether the novel object had the cational systems and broader societal Alison Gopnik, Susan Carey, Henry power to activate it. But when the novel priorities, to the pitfalls of life in a so- Wellman, and Susan Gelman. “The ba- object was placed on the toy along with ciety that devalues wonder. The book sic idea,” Gopnik says in a 2003 essay an object already known to be unable culminates with a call to action that on the topic, “is that children develop to activate it, then activation or non- includes myriad proposals through their everyday knowledge of the world activation of the toy would reveal the which we may better support wonder. by using the same cognitive devices novel object’s power. We found that the that adults use in science.”) brain activity of the toddlers increased Keil’s expertise on the psychology more in the latter circumstance than in of cognitive development is matched Developmental psychologists such the former, suggesting that they were by that of only a handful of other peo- as Elika Bergelson have pointed out tracking abstract causal principles such ple. For more than four decades he has that even infants comprehend abstract as confounding. Computational cogni- led the field, advancing our under- terms such as “uh-oh” or “all gone.” tive scientists, who use mathematical standing of commonsense knowledge. Caren Walker has shown that toddlers modeling, computer simulation, and He has described the ways in which readily reason about abstract relational behavioral experiments to study the humans construct abstract, coarse, causes: In experiments in which chil- causal representations of the world dren aged 18 to 30 months were asked and has shown how these support later reasoning, enrichment, and won- Scale models and dimensional mappings, including spatial versions of timelines, can gener- der. His research has brought broader ate interest in and discussion of scientific topics. Above, the timeline from the first appear- theories of cognitive development to ance of life on Earth to the emergence of Homo sapiens has been mapped onto the route for a bear on education, the STEM sciences, trip from Boston to Grand Central Terminal in New York City. The first cells with nuclei don’t and public policy. The book Wonder appear until New London, Connecticut, and then multicellular organisms show up in New touches on all of these areas. Haven. Dinosaurs appear around White Plains but vanish in Mamaroneck. From Wonder. Keil makes a distinction between wonder and a curiosity about facts that is satiated upon discovery. Wonder is a drive to understand causal mecha- nisms, and it feeds additional wonder as discovery unfolds. As Keil notes, children are particularly rich in won- der while they are rapidly developing a causal-mechanism understanding of the world in the preschool and early elementary school years. They engage in what Keil dubs the PHED cycle: Puz- zling, Hypothesizing, Exploring, and Discovering. Furthermore, they are sensitive to the knowledge and goals of others, and they expertly leverage their voracious appetite for question- ing. Children’s questions, particularly those that ask why and how, support the development and elaboration of a www.americanscientist.org 2022 September–October 315

computational basis of learning and in- allow our own personal and emotional ings of an internal combustion engine ference, have even shown how, in prin- motivations to cloud our reasoning. are described in an engaging narrative ciple, abstract knowledge can precede about a favorite past science teacher concrete knowledge; Noah D. Good- In many ways, Keil is like the poly- who had effective strategies for instill- man, Tomer D. Ullman, and Joshua B. maths he describes at various points ing wonder. The surprising fact that Tenenbaum have dubbed this abstract- in the book (Leonardo da Vinci and dogs do not require fruits in their diet, first learning the blessing of abstraction. Richard Feynman, among others). whereas humans—much to the dismay Constant wondering made the lives of my 8-year-old—must consume them, Thus even while children are still of these extraordinary individuals rich is one of many sprinkled into a sec- developing such cognitive capacities in mechanistic understanding across tion on embedding science prompts in as the ability to hold several ideas in many domains. Wonder for them public places. The details of how thun- their head at once (working memory), the worked against cognitive traps such as derstorms produce water that is more ability to resist a desire or impulse that the illusion of explanatory depth and nutrient-rich than regular rain sweetens is not needed in the moment (inhibi- supported the drive to develop a deep a section on how a greater understand- tion), and the ability to maintain focus mechanistic understanding of domains, ing of science can enrich our lives and on the task at hand (attention), they are which in turn supported generaliza- increase aesthetic appreciation. As I quite capable of building rich scientific tion and analogy. Keil similarly has not read, I found myself not only learning more about the psychology of wonder The book models its own principles of but also feeling greater wonder regard- instilling wonder when it frames new ing science more broadly. ideas with questions that pique curiosity. Keil builds his narrative on a rich models of the world. They reason about only a deep mastery of the mechanisms foundation of scientific sources. The myriad domains of knowledge. They of cognitive development but also a final chapter is the most hypothetical, have sophisticated intuitions about broader fascination with science and providing several proposals by which biological kinds such as growth and ill- engineering more generally, as well as we might recapture the wonder we ness, physical kinds such as forces and the humanities, history, and the arts. are all born with. Parents and teach- matter, psychological kinds such as the He calls on this depth and breadth as ers can model wonder and use open- goals and desires of other people, and he regularly extends findings from de- ended questions to engage children more. In Wonder, Keil shows the reader velopmental psychology to support in conversations about objects or the that we can support ongoing wonder his conclusions with richly detailed ex- natural world, taking care to let the by focusing on children’s abilities to amples from, for instance, the work of child influence the direction the con- form these abstractions, and by work- Maria Montessori, the scientific career versation takes. We can embed science ing with children as collaborators while of polymath Thomas Young, and con- in our communities: Psychologists we model intellectual humility, engage versations about climate change. Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, Roberta Golinkoff, in play, and encourage question-asking. and Brenna Hassinger-Das have cre- In this way, the book models its ated what they call “Thinkscapes,” us- Keil maintains that if we fail to nur- own principles of instilling wonder. ing signage to transform urban super- ture a sense of wonder in ourselves, we It frames new ideas with questions markets, bus stops, and walkways into run the risk of succumbing to misinfor- that pique the reader’s curiosity. For opportunities for engaging wonder and mation. Below the level of awareness, instance, when Keil notes that “most inviting playful learning; a playground we may continue to carry in our heads children’s spontaneous love of science that they designed included activities early intuitive theories that were incom- fades by adulthood,” he asks, “Is it a that challenged the mind while encour- plete or incorrect (an Earth-centered problem with science itself? Does in- aging interaction between caregivers view of the Solar System, for example). creasing familiarity with science and and children. Keil also notes that it is If we fail to wonder about our own be- technology lead to disenchantment?” critically important to fund basic sci- liefs, then we lose the ability to recognize When he notes that “young children ence. The ability to involve the broader when they are insufficient to account for don’t always get things right,” he asks, public in developing policies that sup- the data that surround us. Because we “What does their error tell us about port the basic sciences depends on the tend to believe we know more than we how they think and how they build creation of a scientifically literate society. actually do (a phenomenon Keil terms their knowledge and understanding?” the illusion of explanatory depth), we can Later, he asks, “Why should children A decline in wonder is not inevi- feel falsely confident even when we lack be so interested in mechanistic in- table. Keil reminds us that we can em- actual mechanistic knowledge. Such il- formation early on?” and “How can brace wonder as an enviable positive lusions make us more easily fall prey to adults come to avoid topics of such in- trait that exists in everyone. I value simplistic narratives such as those put trinsic interest to young children?” wonder deeply in my research and my forth by the pharmacological, chemi- life, and this book has given me hope cal, and vitamin supplement industries The book also delves into historical by proposing a future for my children about their products. When we don’t ex- narrative and prose. It highlights causal that will remain wonder-full. perience wonder, we are more likely to mechanisms, and it engages multiple domains of thinking. The inner work- Elizabeth Bonawitz is David J. Vitale Associate Pro- fessor of Learning Sciences at Harvard University. She is on the governing boards of the Cognitive De- velopment Society and the Children Helping Science website (childrenhelpingscience.com). 316 American Scientist, Volume 110

September–October 2022 Volume 31 Number 05 Sigma Xi Today A NEWSLETTER OF SIGMA XI, THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH HONOR SOCIETY Important Upcoming From the President Dates for Sigma Xi Science Is for Everybody and Helps All Fall Nominations: Who will you nominate for Sigma Xi membership I am writing this letter on the eve of my first-ever this fall? Nominations require two nominators. Sigma Xi staff can help trip to Bucharest, Romania, for a scientific meeting you find a second nominator if you need one. Visit sigmaxi.org/nominate on the future of biomaterials. At this meeting, I am or email [email protected] for more information. looking forward to connecting with friends, col- October 15: Fall leagues, and many young scientists from around deadline for Grants in Aid of the world who are thirsty for knowledge and eager Research (GIAR) applications— to help their countries. Such interactions always Undergraduate and graduate students remind me that science is about more than simple across most STEM disciplines are academic endeavors and recognitions. In fact, sci- invited to apply. Visit sigmaxi.org/giar for more entific collaboration is at the core of our ideals at information. October 28: Last chance for IFoRE Sigma Xi—”Science without barriers.” discount rates—Don’t miss out on discounts! All conference When I stand on the shore of the Danube River near Bucharest, looking registrations beyond this date will be at full registration rates. Visit northeast toward Moldova and Odessa, Ukraine, I am reminded that many experienceIFoRE.org/attend for more information. global societal problems are also scientific problems in need of brilliant sci- November 3: Assembly of Delegates at IFoRE entific solutions. How do we feed people everywhere in the world? How November 5: Student Summit at IFoRE do we address transportation, flooding, and climate problems? November 6: #SciCommSunday at IFoRE Perhaps most importantly, how do we address medical problems across November 6: STEM Art & Film Festival at IFoRE the globe? Contributions to the design of biomaterials for various medical November 7: Sigma Xi Elections— Voting begins for Society members to applications, and micro- and nanodevices for the medical and pharmaceu- elect new leaders for the upcoming fiscal year. Visit sigmaxi.org/elections22 tical industries, are leading to major new solutions to significant medical for more information. problems. No longer are the treatments for diabetes, osteoporosis, asthma, Sigma Xi Today is managed by Jason Papagan and designed by cardiac problems, cancer, and other diseases based solely on conventional Chao Hui Tu. formulations. Many of the methodological advances in biomedical sciences www.americanscientist.org will be the result of serious molecular understanding. Other significant opportunities have appeared in the medical sciences over the past 30 years with new advanced medical devices. Picture a day in the near future when insulin will be delivered only when needed, and when siRNAs for the treatment of Crohn’s disease will bypass the stomach and be delivered directly to specific cells. Imagine “intelligent” biomaterials that respond to light, temperature, pH, magnetic field, radia- tion, or even the existence of specific molecules in the body—with the ability to treat a disease before it progresses. Such developments require the collaboration of countless chemists, physicists, mathematicians, statisticians, medical doctors, and engineers— all without barriers. We need young and old, men and women, experienced and novice, and as much cultural and international diversity as possible in the medical sciences. We have to be inclusive and work together. That’s the promise that brings science back to the center of our activities. It’s what bridges the world and gives hope for solutions to societal problems. In the long run, it is the journey of discovery that matters. As the Greek poet Constantine Cavafy wrote: As you set out for Ithaca, hope your road is a long one, full of adventure, full of discovery. ... But don’t hurry the journey at all. Better if it lasts for years. Nicholas A. Peppas, ScD 2022 September–October 317

PROGRAMS Overall Winner Chloe Barreto-Massad Congratulations to the 2022 Student Research Showcase Award Winners Sigma Xi presented eight monetary awards and 14 honorable mentions across three divisions in this year’s Student Research Showcase, an annual science communica- tion competition. The virtual event included 220 student participants and over 200 total presentations. First and second prizes were awarded in the high school, under- graduate, and graduate divisions, and top presenters were named in 12 disciplines. Additional prizes were given for the top overall winner of the competition and a people’s choice award, determined by public vote outside of the judges’ evaluations. The Student Research Showcase aims to build students’ science communi- cation skills so they can convey the impact of their research to technical and nontechnical audiences. Participants submitted abstracts for entry into the com- petition in early spring. During a monthlong evaluation period, students built websites, videos, and slideshows to present their research to a panel of judges and public audiences. Judges’ evaluations were based on how well the students communicated enthusiasm for their projects; explained the significance of their research; used text, charts, and diagrams; and responded to questions. High School Division Undergraduate Division Graduate Division Sponsored by First Place ($500) First Place ($500) First Place ($500) Overall Winner ($500) Elizabeth Leon Hannah Bulgart Chloe Barreto-Massad Nova Southeastern University The Ohio State University American HeritageSchoolBoca/Delray,Florida Microbiology and Molecular Biology Cell Biology and Biochemistry Microbiology and Molecular Biology “Upregulation of Osteoclastogenesis by “Neuronal Membrane Repair Defect as a “An Investigation of the Effects of Phosphoglycerol Dihydroceramide-Containing Novel Mechanism Contributing to Aerobic and Anaerobic Environments on Vesicle of Porphyromonas gingivalis” Alzheimer Disease” Antibiotics Produced by Soil Bacteria” Second Place ($250) Second Place ($250) Second Place ($250) Mary Margarette Sanchez Zihan Gao Likhitha Selvan New York Institute of Technology University of Toronto American Heritage School, Plantation, Florida Cell Biology and Biochemistry Physiology and Immunology Physiology and Immunology “Dysplastic Cervical Pre-Cancerous “Assessment of Short-Term Patient “Unraveling the Mysteries of Cells in Pap Smears Can Be Detected by Outcomes for Varying Coronary Stent Inflammasomes in Alzheimer’s Disease” Convolutional Neural Network” Devices Reported on MAUDE Database” People’s Choice Award ($250) Sponsored by Shimadzu Sofia Ferreira University of Hawai’i at Hilo—Ecology and Evolutionary Biology “Prediction of Photogrammetry-Based Habitat Complexity Using a Trait-Based Approach on Coral Reefs in Guam” Honorable Mentions Agricultural, Soil, and Natural Resources Engineering (tie) Human Behavioral and Social Sciences Quinn Hughes and Tyler Clair George Cheng Uma Nath Minnetonka High School, Minnesota Green Level High School, North Bergen County Academies, New Jersey Cell Biology and Biochemistry Carolina Math and Computer Science Frances Lum Nesara Shree Adrit Rao The Bronx High School of Science, Jesuit High School, Oregon Palo Alto High School, California New York Henry Zhao Microbiology and Molecular Biology Chemistry Collingwood High School Annabel Tiong Nishant Lahiri Environmental Sciences Northwood High School, California Corning Painted-Post High School, Leisha Devisetti Physics and Astronomy New York The Harker School, California Jessica Schonhut-Stasik Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Geosciences Vanderbilt University Sonja Michaluk Milind Mait Physiology and Immunology Carnegie Mellon University Monta Vista High School, California Sungjoon Kang 318 Sigma Xi Today

MEETINGS AND EVENTS Convergence and DEI Take Center Stage at IFoRE The theme of the inaugural International Forum on Research Excellence (IFoRE) is “Science Convergence in an Inclusive and Diverse World.” Taking place November 3–6 in Alexandria, Virginia, IFoRE attendees will take part in compelling Key Thought sessions that explore the strength of scientific research when diverse minds converge. The two thematic tracks are Convergence and Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI), and the three mission tracks are Research, Research Impacts, and STEM Education. Break- out sessions will include individual presentations, symposia, group panel discussions, and workshops. The following is a preliminary list highlighting some of the expected sessions. Visit experienceIFoRE.org for an expanded list of confirmed sessions and conference events. Schedule and agenda items are subject to change. Workshop: Science Communication and Engagement with Panel Discussion: Dismantling Barriers to STEM: People of Faith Innovative & Culturally Responsive Program Models for Robert O’Malley, PhD—American Association for the Student Preparedness & Success Advancement of Science (AAAS) Moderator: Martina Efeyini, MS—Science News Panelists: Jylana L. Sheats, PhD, MPH—Aspen Institute, Panel Discussion: Reimagining the Future of STEM Heather Arnett, PhD—University of Charleston, Gabriel Education and Workforce Development Reyes, MS—PhD candidate Moderator: Adriana Bankston—Journal of Science Policy & Governance Oral Presentation: Equity & Inclusivity in the STEMM Panelists: Wisberty J. Gordián-Vélez, Justin Lee, and Lora L. Environment: What Does It Mean and How Do We Daskalska—PhD candidates Achieve It? Allison C. Augustus-Wallace, PhD—Louisiana State Panel Discussion: Science Convergence: Engineering University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans and Medicine Moderator: Marissa Wechsler, PhD—University of Texas at Symposium: The Convergence of Data, Geometry, and San Antonio Biology: Insights from the “Shape” of Biological Data Panelists: Dimitrios Miserlis, MD—University of Texas Dhananjay Bhaskar, PhD—Yale University, Susan Leggett, Health at San Antonio, Johnny Lam, PhD—U.S. Food and PhD—Princeton University Drug Administration STEM Art and Film Festival Set for Sunday at IFoRE The STEM Art and Film Festival is one of the premier events at IFoRE, exploring and celebrating the unique intersection of art and science. Artists from across the globe will be showcasing science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) through different forms of visual and performing arts, including photography, painting, 3D visualization, videos, films, and documentaries. Especially encouraged are works of art that relate to this year’s conference theme, “Science Conver- gence in an Inclusive and Diverse World.” Now in its fourth year, the STEM Art and Film Festival returns to an in-person event after two years of virtual adapta- tion. IFoRE attendees will be able to explore the entries on display throughout the conference by visiting the STEM Art and Film Festival exhibit hall. On Sunday, November 6, the official event will open to the public with films, artists, pre- sentations, and artwork on display. Pieces will be evaluated by a panel of professional judges, as well as the public, and monetary prizes of up to $500 will be awarded in each category at the awards ceremony on Sunday afternoon. To learn more or submit work for the festival, please visit experienceIFoRE.org/stem-art- lm-festival. www.americanscientist.org 2022 September–October 319

GRANTS IN AID OF RESEARCH GIAR years of GIAR Paula E. Cushing, PhD Grant: $300 in 1986; $200 in 1987 Education level at time of the grant: Graduate student Project Description: These two small • Cushing, P. E. 1989. Possible eggsac defense in the spider grants supported the fieldwork and Uloborus glomosus (Uloboridae). Psyche 96:269–277. lab costs associated with my mas- ter’s research project, “A study of How did the grant process or the project itself influence disturbance behaviors in Uloborus you as a scientist/researcher? Receiving these competitive glomosus (Araneae; Uloboridae) as grants as a young, early career scholar gave me confidence in possible predator avoidance strate- the value of my research, my methodology, and my skills as a gies.” This project resulted in three writer and scientist. It helped me continue to pursue funding peer-reviewed publications: opportunities as a PhD student and later in my career. • Cushing, P. E., and B. D. Opell. 1990. Disturbance behav- Where are you now? I am senior curator of invertebrate zool- iors in the spider Uloborus glomosus (Araneae, Uloboridae): ogy at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science (DMNS). Possible predator avoidance strategies. Canadian Journal of I curate the Marine Invertebrate collection (primarily shells Zoology 68:1090–1097. of gastropods) as well as the Arachnology collection. When I started at the museum in 1998, the DMNS did not have an • Cushing, P. E., and B. D. Opell. 1990. The effect of time and arachnology collection. In the two decades I have been at the temperature on disturbance behaviors shown by the orb- museum, I have built and grown a significant collection whose weaving spider Uloborus glomosus (Uloboridae). Journal of data is fully accessible to the world via online data portals. Arachnology 18:87–93. Skye-Anne Tschoepe Grant: $1,000 in Fall 2020 Education level at time of the grant: Undergraduate student Project Description: Salt-laden allow for an assessment of the effectiveness of this storm water storm water runoff has infiltrated management system in Boone and contribute to our under- the South Fork New River (SFNR) standing of watershed preservation. watershed in Boone, North Carolina, as the area has become more urban. How did the grant process or the project itself influence In this study, I have created a mass- you as a scientist/researcher? It prompted me to evaluate my balance of a system designed to project through a lens of broader significance to my commu- mitigate the impact of storm water nity. Prior to engaging in this grant process, I was already cer- runoff: a constructed bioretention tain of my interest in water quality, but I had spent more time wetland. The data will allow me and energy designing the project than considering exactly to examine the salinity gradient how my project would benefit Boone and similar urban between the bioretention wetland and the adjacent SFNR watersheds. This project has enriched my understanding of throughout each season, including salt loading through the and passion for what it means to be an Earth scientist. winter and freshening through the spring and summer. Where are you now? I am in my senior year at Appalachian With the funds from the Grants in Aid of Research award, a State University, entering the more rigorous portion of my groundwater monitoring well was installed between the bio- coursework and collecting data for this project. retention wetland and the SFNR. This well allows for a more accurate representation of the loss of salt from the wetland into What is one piece of advice or tip you would give to future groundwater. In addition to electrical conductivity loggers in grant applicants? the wetland and regular hand measurements from the stream Prioritize research that will be meaningful to your commu- up and downstream of the wetland, a complete mass-balance nity, whether local, national, or global, rather than conducting of the system will be constructed. Overall, this project will research for the sake of being published. 320 Sigma Xi Today

ALEXANDRIA, VA NOV. 3–6, 2022 HYBRID EVENT An International Convergence of Diverse Scientific Minds Thursday, November 3 Asse ly of Delegates Friday, November 4 Special Guest Host: Liz Neeley Li i al C ea o s, LLC Key Thought Sessio Highlights: ZĞŐĞŶĞƌĂƟǀĞŶŐŝŶĞĞƌŝŶŐ͗ ŽŶǀĞƌŐĞŶĐĞ͕ŽŶƐŝůŝĞŶĐĞĂŶĚ:ƵƐƟĐĞ CATO LAURENCIN, MD, PHD dŚĞdŝŵĞŝƐEŽǁ͗ƌŝƟĐĂů EĞĞĚĨŽƌŝǀĞƌƐŝĨLJŝŶŐƚŚĞ^dD WƌŽĨĞƐƐŽƌŝĂƚĞ LOLA ENIOLA-ADEFESO, PHD WůƵƌŝĚŝƐĐŝƉůŝŶĂƌŝƚLJ͗dŚĞŽƌŶĞƌ ^ƚŽŶĞĨŽƌƚŚĞŝƐĐŽǀĞƌLJŽĨĸĐŝĞŶƚ ĂŶĚ^ĂĨĞEĂŶŽŵĞĚŝĐŝŶĞƐ PATRICK COUVREUR, PHD Saturday, November 5 #Stude tSu it Co u e t Sessio s O al a d Poste Resea h P ese ta o s College, G aduate S hool, & Jo s Fai Awa ds Ba uet Sunday, November 6 #S iCo Su day STEM A t & Fil Fes al REGISTER TODAY! EXPERIENCEIFORE.ORG