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Rules of Play - Game Design Fundamentals Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman



Table of Contents Table of Contents Rules of Play - Game Design Fundamentals .............................................................................................................1 Foreword ....................................................................................................................................................................................1 Preface.........................................................................................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: What Is This Book About? .......................................................................................................... 1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 Establishing a Critical Discourse.....................................................................................................................2 Ways of Looking .......................................................................................................................................................3 Game Design Schemas ......................................................................................................................... 4 Game Design Fundamentals ................................................................................................................. 5 Further Readings ................................................................................................................................................6 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2: The Design Process ...................................................................................................................................1 Iterative Design..........................................................................................................................................................1 Commissions....................................................................................................................................................... 2 Game Design Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 3 Creation .......................................................................................................................................... 4 Modification ................................................................................................................................... 5 Analysis........................................................................................................................................................ 7 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................... 8 The Design and Testing of the Board Game- Lord of the Rings....................................................................9 Design Process ...................................................................................................................................................9 Scripted Game System ...........................................................................................................................................10 Playtesting ......................................................................................................................................................... 11 More Changes...................................................................................................................................................12 The Road Goes Ever On ..................................................................................................................... 13 Unit 1: Core Concepts ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter List ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 How does play happen? ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 3: Meaningful Play............................................................................................................................................................... 1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 Introducing Meaningful Play..................................................................................................................................1 Meaning and Play ................................................................................................................................. 2 Two Kinds of Meaningful Play.................................................................................................................................................... 3 Discernable ..................................................................................................................................................4 Integrated...................................................................................................................................................... 5 Summary .............................................................................................................................................................6 Chapter 4: Design ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Introducing Design............................................................................................................................................................1 Some Definitions of Design....................................................................................................................................2 Design and Meaning ............................................................................................................................. 4 Semiotics: A Brief Overview..................................................................................................................................4 Four Semiotic Concepts ....................................................................................................................................5 A Sign Represents Something Other Than Itself ...............................................................................................6 Signs Are Interpreted .................................................................................................................................. 7 Meaning Results When a Sign Is Interpreted........................................................................................ 7 i

Chapter 4: Design Context Shapes Interpretation...........................................................................................................................8 Summary............................................................................................................................................................10 Chapter 5: Systems .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Introducing Systems.............................................................................................................................. 1 The Elements of a System .............................................................................................................................................. 2 Framing Systems........................................................................................................................................................4 Open and Closed Systems .......................................................................................................................................5 Summary..............................................................................................................................................................6 Chapter 6: Interactivity.................................................................................................................................................1 Introducing Interactivity ....................................................................................................................... 1 Defining Interactivity.........................................................................................................................................1 A Multivalent Model of Interactivity...............................................................................................................3 But Is it \"Designed\" Interaction? .......................................................................................................... 4 Interaction and Choice.......................................................................................................................................5 Choice Molecules ......................................................................................................................................................7 Anatomy of a Choice ............................................................................................................................ 8 Space of Possibility..........................................................................................................................................10 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 12 Summary............................................................................................................................................................13 Chapter 7: Defining Games........................................................................................................................................................ 1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 Play and Game...........................................................................................................................................................2 Comparing Definitions.......................................................................................................................... 3 Definition 1: David Parlett ............................................................................................................. 4 Definition 2: Clark C. Abt..............................................................................................................................................4 Definition 3: Johann Huizinga........................................................................................................ 5 Definition 4: Roger Caillois ........................................................................................................... 6 Definition 5: Bernard Suits.............................................................................................................................................6 Definition 6: Chris Crawford.......................................................................................................... 7 Definition 7: Greg Costikyan ......................................................................................................... 8 Definition 8: Elliot Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith.............................................................................8 A Comparison ........................................................................................................................................... 10 Our Definition...................................................................................................................................................11 The Puzzle of Puzzles......................................................................................................................................11 Role-Playing Games ........................................................................................................................... 12 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14 Summary............................................................................................................................................................14 Chapter 8: Defining Digital Games..................................................................................................................................1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 The Computer Is Not a Computer..........................................................................................................................1 What Can It Do? ................................................................................................................................... 2 Integration.................................................................................................................................................... 6 Summary..............................................................................................................................................................7 Chapter 9: The Magic Circle .......................................................................................................................... 1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 Boundaries ............................................................................................................................................ 2 ii

Table of Contents Table of Contents Chapter 9: The Magic Circle Enter In....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3 Temporary Worlds ....................................................................................................................................................4 The Lusory Attitude...........................................................................................................................................5 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................... 7 Summary .............................................................................................................................................................7 Chapter 10: The Primary Schemas ...........................................................................................................................1 A Conceptual Framework.................................................................................................................................1 What Is a Schema?....................................................................................................................................................2 RULES: Formal Schemas.................................................................................................................................3 PLAY: Experiential Schemas ............................................................................................................... 4 CULTURE: Contextual Schemas ......................................................................................................... 5 Summary .............................................................................................................................................................5 Commissioned Game 1 — Richard Garfield ............................................................................................................1 Rules ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 Scoring................................................................................................................................................................. 2 Design Notes ..............................................................................................................................................................3 Sibling Rivalry ............................................................................................................................... 4 Unit 2: Rules ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter List ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 11: Defining Rules.................................................................................................................................................1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 A Deck of Cards......................................................................................................................................................................... 2 Other Kinds of Rules ............................................................................................................................ 3 Qualities of Rules..............................................................................................................................................................3 Rules in Context.........................................................................................................................................................5 Summary .............................................................................................................................................................6 Chapter 12: Rules on Three Levels ................................................................................................................ 1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 Tic-Tac-What? ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Under the Hood .......................................................................................................................................................................... 2 Being a Good Sport...........................................................................................................................................................3 Three Kinds of Rules ............................................................................................................................ 4 Operational Rules ..............................................................................................................................................4 Constituative Rules........................................................................................................................................................... 4 Implicit Rules ................................................................................................................................. 4 The Rules of Chutes and Ladders....................................................................................................................4 Chutes and Ladders: Operational Rules ..................................................................................................6 Chutes and Ladders: Constituative Rules ..........................................................................................................6 Chutes and Ladders: Implicit Rules ............................................................................................... 7 The Identity of a Game ......................................................................................................................... 8 Specificity of Rules...........................................................................................................................................................9 Designing Elegant Rules...............................................................................................................................................10 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 12 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................12 iii

Chapter 13: The Rules of Digital Games ....................................................................................................... 1 Rules as a Whole............................................................................................................................................................... 1 So What Are the Rules?...........................................................................................................................................2 The Rules of Tetris............................................................................................................................................................ 3 Rules and Not Rules.............................................................................................................................. 4 Wheels Within Wheels ......................................................................................................................... 5 Constituative ................................................................................................................................................6 Operational ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Implicit ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Why Rules?.................................................................................................................................................................8 Summary..............................................................................................................................................................8 Chapter 14: Games as Emergent Systems................................................................................................................1 Introducing Emergent Systems ........................................................................................................................1 Complexity ..........................................................................................................................................................2 Messengers and Buildings .................................................................................................................... 3 Simple Complexity ............................................................................................................................... 4 What Complexity Is Not................................................................................................................................................. 5 Four Kinds of Systems .............................................................................................................................................6 Two Horrible Games.................................................................................................................................................................7 Emergence ................................................................................................................................................................... 9 Parts and the Whole ............................................................................................................................ 10 Object Interactions .................................................................................................................................... 11 Life, the Game .................................................................................................................................... 12 Bottom-Up Behaviors............................................................................................................................... 14 Emergence in Games .......................................................................................................................... 15 Designing Surprise ..................................................................................................................................................16 Engine Tuning..................................................................................................................................................................17 Second-Order Design..............................................................................................................................................19 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 20 Summary............................................................................................................................................................21 Chapter 15: Games as Systems of Uncertainty ............................................................................................. 1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 Introducing Uncertainty.............................................................................................................................. 1 Certainty, Uncertainty, and Risk..........................................................................................................................................2 The Feeling of Randomness ....................................................................................................................................3 Probability in Games............................................................................................................................. 5 Dice Probability .................................................................................................................................... 5 Chance and Game Play............................................................................................................................................7 Case Study One: Thunderstorm ................................................................................................................. 9 Thunderstorm ................................................................................................................................. 9 Case Study Two: Pig..................................................................................................................................................................................10 Pig..................................................................................................................................................................................................................10 Breakdowns in Uncertainty.............................................................................................................................12 Breakdown 1: Computer Randomness ............................................................................................. 12 Breakdown 2: Strategizing Chance ........................................................................................................13 Breakdown 3: Probability Fallacies.............................................................................................. 14 Meaningful Chance.................................................................................................................................................15 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 16 Summary............................................................................................................................................................17 iv

Table of Contents Table of Contents Chapter 16: Games as Information Theory Systems..................................................................................................1 Introducing \"Information\"..................................................................................................................... 1 Information Theory...................................................................................................................................................2 Probability and Guesswork...............................................................................................................................4 Noise in the Channel.................................................................................................................................................5 Redundancy in the System ......................................................................................................................................7 Balancing Act.................................................................................................................................................................................................................9 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................... 9 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................10 Chapter 17: Games as Systems of Information.......................................................................................................1 Introducing a Different Kind of Information............................................................................................. 1 Perfect and Imperfect Information...................................................................................................................2 Enchanted Information ......................................................................................................................................4 Each turn, Enchanted ............................................................................................................................ 6 Hiding and Revealing Systems ........................................................................................................................7 Summary .............................................................................................................................................................8 Chapter 18: Games as Cybernetic Systems .............................................................................................................1 Introducing Cybernetic Systems......................................................................................................................1 Elements of a Cybernetic System ......................................................................................................... 2 Feedback Systems in Games..........................................................................................................................................5 Positive and Negative Basketball...........................................................................................................................6 Racing Loops ........................................................................................................................................ 7 Positive Feedback in a Game.........................................................................................................................................9 Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment ......................................................................................................... 10 A Simple Die Roll ...................................................................................................................................................................11 Putting Feedback to Use ..................................................................................................................... 12 Afterword: Don't Forget the Participant ............................................................................................. 13 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................15 Chapter 19: Games as Game Theory Systems .............................................................................................. 1 Introducing Game Theory?...............................................................................................................................1 Decision Trees ...................................................................................................................................... 2 Strategies in Game Theory .............................................................................................................................................5 Game Theory Games ............................................................................................................................ 6 Cake Division ....................................................................................................................................... 9 Playing for Pennies ............................................................................................................................. 11 The Prisoner's Dilemma.........................................................................................................................................12 Game Theory and Game Design..........................................................................................................................13 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................15 Chapter 20: Games as Systems of Conflict ..............................................................................................................1 Introducing Conflict..................................................................................................................................................1 Conflict Case Studies ...............................................................................................................................................2 Centipede...................................................................................................................................................... 2 Joust ............................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Gauntlet .......................................................................................................................................... 4 Competition and Cooperation..................................................................................................................... 6 New Games.................................................................................................................................................................8 v

Chapter 20: Games as Systems of Conflict The Goal of a Game......................................................................................................................................................... 9 The Level Playing Field of Conflict ................................................................................................... 11 Pig Redux ..........................................................................................................................................................................13 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14 Summary............................................................................................................................................................15 Chapter 21: Breaking the Rules ..................................................................................................................... 1 Introducing Rule-Breaking ................................................................................................................... 1 Kinds of Rule-Breaking ........................................................................................................................ 2 Player Types .......................................................................................................................................................2 Standard Players.........................................................................................................................................................3 Dedicated Players ......................................................................................................................................................3 Unsportsmanlike Players..................................................................................................................................5 Degenerate Strategies................................................................................................................................................5 Degenerate Strategy Ecosystems ............................................................................................................... 7 Cheats and Spoil-Sports.....................................................................................................................................8 Five Player Types Compared..................................................................................................................................9 Sanctioned Violations: Professional Sports.......................................................................................................10 Sanctioned Cheating: Illuminati.......................................................................................................... 11 Hacks, Cheats, and Mods: Digital Rule-Breaking .................................................................................. 13 Easter Eggs........................................................................................................................................................13 Cheat Codes ..............................................................................................................................................................13 Game Guides and Walkthroughs.............................................................................................................13 Workarounds ................................................................................................................................ 14 True Cheating ............................................................................................................................................14 Hacks ..................................................................................................................................................................14 Spoil-Sport Hacking .................................................................................................................................14 Rule-Breaking as a Game Design Practice ............................................................................................. 15 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 17 Summary............................................................................................................................................................17 Commissioned Game 2 — Ironclad...................................................................................................................................1 A game for 2 players.................................................................................................................................................1 Rules ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 Playing Ironclad: The Spectacle of Mechanical Destruction........................................................................2 Playing Ironclad: The Technique of Scholarly Discourse........................................................................ 4 Design Notes ..............................................................................................................................................................6 Ironclad.................................................................................................................................................................6 Unit 3: Play ....................................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter List....................................................................................................................................................................................1 Chapter 22: Defining Play .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 Introducing Play..........................................................................................................................................................................1 What Is Play?......................................................................................................................................................2 A General Definition of Play..................................................................................................................................4 Play is free movement within a more rigid structure...................................................................... 4 Transformative Play..................................................................................................................................................................5 Being Playful ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Ludic Activities...................................................................................................................................................7 Game Play ........................................................................................................................................................................... 9 vi

Table of Contents Table of Contents Chapter 22: Defining Play Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................11 Chapter 23: Games as the Play of Experience............................................................................................... 1 Introducing Experience .....................................................................................................................................1 Qualities of Experience .....................................................................................................................................2 Designing Interactive Experiences ....................................................................................................... 4 The Core Mechanic...................................................................................................................................................4 Core Mechanics in Context.....................................................................................................................................5 Tag...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Verbal Tennis ................................................................................................................................. 5 LOOP................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 Breaking Out of Breakout.................................................................................................................................7 Variations on a Core Mechanic ..............................................................................................................................8 Timed Play ..................................................................................................................................... 8 Breakthru...................................................................................................................................................... 9 Steering, Catching, and Invisible Bricks .................................................................................................9 Breaking Out ................................................................................................................................ 10 Repetitive Play ............................................................................................................................. 10 Putting It All Together ....................................................................................................................................12 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................15 Chapter 24: Games as the Play of Pleasure .............................................................................................................1 Introducing the Play of Pleasure......................................................................................................................1 Rule-Bound .........................................................................................................................................................2 Autotelic Play........................................................................................................................................ 3 Enter. Play. Stay.................................................................................................................................... 5 Typologies of Pleasure .............................................................................................................................................6 Game Flow ................................................................................................................................................................................... 8 Sculpting Desire.......................................................................................................................................................11 Patterns of Pleasure.................................................................................................................................................13 The Role of the Goal ..............................................................................................................................................................14 Goals Within Goals.........................................................................................................................................................15 Conditioned Pleasure .......................................................................................................................... 17 Rewards and Schedules ..........................................................................................................................................18 Boredom and Anxiety: Flow Redux ................................................................................................... 22 Anxiety and Boredom on the High Seas........................................................................................................................24 Meaningful Pleasure ........................................................................................................................... 26 Against \"Addiction\".........................................................................................................................................29 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 31 Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................32 Chapter 25: Games as the Play of Meaning .................................................................................................. 1 Introducing the Play of Meaning .......................................................................................................... 1 Two Kinds of Representation ............................................................................................................... 2 Systems of Meaning..................................................................................................................................................2 System and Context .............................................................................................................................. 3 Emergent Representations .................................................................................................................... 4 The Context of Meaning ...................................................................................................................................5 Down the Rabbit Hole .......................................................................................................................... 6 In the Queen's Court.............................................................................................................................. 7 vii

Chapter 25: Games as the Play of Meaning Framing Play ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8 Metacommunication and Play........................................................................................................................................................9 Captured by the Game......................................................................................................................... 10 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 11 Summary............................................................................................................................................................12 Chapter 26: Games as Narrative Play............................................................................................................ 1 Overview .....................................................................................................................................................................1 Introducing Narrative Play......................................................................................................................................................1 Narrative Tensions .............................................................................................................................................2 A Framework for \"Narrative\" ............................................................................................................... 4 Thunderstorm ......................................................................................................................................................5 Two Structures for Narrative Play.........................................................................................................................7 Narrative Goals...................................................................................................................................................9 Confict................................................................................................................................................. 11 Uncertainty ........................................................................................................................................................12 Core Mechanics .................................................................................................................................. 13 Narrative Space........................................................................................................................................................14 Digital Game Spaces...............................................................................................................................................16 Spaces of Adventure ........................................................................................................................... 20 Narrative Descriptors................................................................................................................................ 22 Worlds and Stories ..................................................................................................................................................25 Crafting Game Narratives......................................................................................................................... 27 Games as Narrative Systems.................................................................................................................................28 Cutscenes ............................................................................................................................................ 30 Retelling Game Stories ....................................................................................................................... 35 The Replay................................................................................................................................................................36 Recams.......................................................................................................................................................................37 Games Within Games ......................................................................................................................... 38 Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 39 Summary............................................................................................................................................................40 Chapter 27: Games as the Play of Simulation .........................................................................................................1 Introducing Simulation ......................................................................................................................... 1 Defining \"Simulation\"........................................................................................................................... 2 Game and Non-Game Simulations ....................................................................................................... 3 Meaningful Play and Simulation........................................................................................................... 5 Procedural Representation .................................................................................................................... 7 Represented Conflict...............................................................................................................................................11 Procedural Characters............................................................................................................................... 15 Designing Simulations.............................................................................................................................. 19 Learning from Wargames ................................................................................................................... 22 The Field of Battle .............................................................................................................................. 23 Simulation in Context ......................................................................................................................... 25 A Balanced Approach......................................................................................................................................26 The Value of Reality...............................................................................................................................................28 Framing the Simulation....................................................................................................................... 29 The Immersive Fallacy........................................................................................................................ 31 Metacommunicative.................................................................................................................................. 32 Remediating Games................................................................................................................................................33 The Character of Character.............................................................................................................................34 viii