Introduction_to_Sanskrit

j¤àyate kasyeti (he dhårta, lekhaþ nãyate, na ca j¤àyate 'kasya' iti?). 6. mandàrike yadatra vastunyeùa te vallabhaþ kathayati api tathà tat (Mandàrike, yat atra vastuni eùaþ te vallabhaþ kathayati, api tathà tat?). 12. kathaü ÷akuntaletyasya màturàkhyà? (katham, 'øakuntalà' iti asya màtuþ àkhyà?). 13. kaþ sa mahà:puruùo yen aitanmànuùamàtra-duùkaraü mahat karm ànuùñhitam? (kaþ saþ mahà:puruùaþ yena etat mànuùamàtra-duùkaram mahat karma anuùñhitam?) 21. yàdç÷o'yam tàdç÷au tàvapi (yàdç÷aþ ayam, tàdç÷au tau api). 5. Give [me] one from among those those three-ornaments which [I] bought. 7. Why speak of 'firmness'? 11. Oh, this is the decoration which I removed from my-own-person and sent to Ràkùasa. 14. Your Excellency, have [you] anyone who is going to Kusumapura or coming from there? 17. 'Minister' is now an embarrassing epithet. 18. Alas, I am quite deluded to behave toward this forest-dweller [in a way, n. sg.] appropriate-to-my-friend-Makaranda.21. This is the son-of-Kàmandakã's-friend, Màdhava, [here] to hawk human flesh. 22. [As] escort to the disciples by whose hand [he] has sent that book to Bharata's-hermitage, [he] has sent our-brother bow-in- hand [càpa:pàõi] to-drive-away-mishap. 23. And she having immediately become separated [from me] by the throng of numerous [mahant] townsfolk in-motion-upon-the-dispersal-of-the- procession, I came [here]. 24. Fool, these ascetics donate a quite different tithe, one which is prized beyond even heaps-of-jewels. 25. Thus, imagining-[use pp.]-by-his-own inclinations-the- thoughts-of-the-loved-one, the suitor is deceived. Chapter 12 Day 1 Athematic Verb Conjugations The Greek verbal system is complicated by the fact that there are two kinds of verbs: 'regular' verbs, such as lu/w, and 'mi-verbs', such as tiq/ hmi. These two classes of verbs are also called thematic and athematic. Thematic verbs use a 'theme' vowel to link the stem with the personal endings. In Greek, this vowel is e or o (e.g., lu/-e-i, lu/-o-men). Athematic verbs, on the other hand, add the personal endings directly to the stem (ti/qe-sai, e0/-qe-to). These verbs possess some other unusual features, such as a variation in vowel grade (ti/qh-mi, tiqe/-meqa) and reduplication of the root in the present stem (qe- becomes tiqe-). These are all survivals of athematic forms in the Proto- Indo-European language, where they were far more common than in Greek. Sanskrit also retains a number of athematic conjugations. The simplest class of athematic verbs in Sanskrit is Class II, in which the stem consists simply of the root. We have already seen an example of this class in the verb as (to be). Another example is dviù (hate): Person/Number Present Active Imperative Active 1st Singular dveùmi dveùàõi 2nd dvekùi dvióóhi 3rd dveùñi dveùñu 1st Dual dviùvaþ dveùàva 2nd dviùñhaþ dviùñam 3rd dviùñaþ dviùñàm 1st Plural dviùmaþ dveùàma 2nd dviùñha dviùña

3rd dviùanti dviùantu Person/Number Present Middle Imperative Middle 1st Singular dviùe dveùai 2nd dvikùe dvikùva 3rd dviùte dviùñàm 1st Dual dviùvahe dveùàvahai 2nd dviùàthe dviùàthàm 3rd dviùàte dviùàtàm 1st Plural dviùmahe dveùàmahai 2nd dvióóhve dvióóhvam 3rd dviùate dviùatàm For the most part, these forms are easy to recognize as the root (dviù) followed immediately by the usual personal endings (note, however, the unusual dual middle forms). Occasionally, the 'collision' of the root with the endings causes a change in the root (e.g., dvekùi, dvióóhve, dvióóhvam). We also see a change in the vowel grade from the basic grade dviù to the guõa grade, dveù. This occurs, as in Greek, in the singular forms of the present indicative active (dveùmi, etc.; cf. ti/qhmi), as well as some forms of the imperative. The other two classes mentioned in Coulson's chapter are formed with suffixes. Class V adds the suffix nu to the root. This becomes no in the strong grade. Here, for example, is the Present Active of su (press): 1st Singular sunomi 2nd sunoùi 3rd sunoti 1st Dual sunuvaþ, sunvaþ 2nd sunuthaþ 3rd sunutaþ 1st Plural sunumaþ, sunmaþ 2nd sunutha 3rd sunvanti Notice that nu changes to nv before the third-person plural ending, -anti. Class VIII verbs insert the suffix u before the personal endings; this becomes o in the guõa grade. Here is the present active of the common verb, kç (do): 1st Singular karomi 2nd karoùi 3rd karoti 1st Dual kurvaþ 2nd kuruthaþ 3rd kurutaþ 1st Plural kurmaþ 2nd kurutha 3rd kurvanti Notice that in a couple of forms, the u drops out, leaving only the root and the ending (e.g.,

kurmaþ). One further perculiarity of athematic verbs is that the middle participle ends in -àna, not -amàna. It is not necessary to memorize all the irregular formations mentioned by Coulson. The bottom line is that some verbs behave 'strangely' in the absence of a thematic vowel, and that certain patterns in this behavior (such as variation of vowel grade) can be discerned. We will see more craziness in the lessons to come! Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary dhanam wealth bhåmi f. ground; fit object haste, speed vegaþ brå (II bravãti) say, tell Reading Vocabulary proper name having elevations, bumpy Agastyaþ how much udghàtin ascetics' grove kiyant giving up, sacrificing, tapo-vanam liberality parityàgaþ bestow (as a free gift) actor, player prasàdã~kç rein, bridle bharataþ distinction ra÷mi m. in particular vi÷eùaþ restraint, tightening vi÷eùa~taþ saüyamanam àp (V àpnoti) obtain, get mandi~bhå slacken Exercise 1 8. kimanyadbravãtu (kim anyat bravãtu?) 12. tatkimityudàsate bharatàþ (tat kim iti udàsate bharatàþ?) 16. saüpratyagastyà÷ramasya panthànaü bråhi (saüprati Agastya-à÷ramasya panthànam bråhi). 19. udghàtinã bhåmiriti ra÷misaüyamanàdrathasya mandãbhuto vegaþ (udghàtinã bhåmiþ iti ra÷mi-saüyamanàt rathasya mandãbhutaþ vegaþ). 20. cakravartinaü putramàpnuhi (cakravartinaü putram àpnuhi). 24. amàtya ãdç÷asyàbharaõavi÷eùasya vi÷eùataþ kumareõa svagàtràdavatàrya prasàdãkçtasya kimayaü parityàgabhåmiþ (amàtya, ãdç÷asya àbharaõa-vi÷eùasya vi÷eùataþ kumàreõa sva:gàtràt avatàrya prasàdãkçtasya kim ayam parityàga- bhåmiþ?). 1. What do you say? 4. Let the two of us just [tàvat] listen. 13. Listen to this wonderful thing. Day 2

The Gerundive Latin students will recognize this term as referring to verbal adjectives with the infix -nd- (amandus, monendus, etc.). In Latin, these adjectives perform two, unrelated functions: they can be a substitute for the gerund (ad milites monendos, for warning the soldiers), or they may indicate obligation (libri legendi, books to be read, books that must be read). The Sanskrit gerundive performs the latter function. It is marked by the suffixes ya, anãya, and tavya: Root Gerundive Meaning dà deya to be given nã neya to be led ÷ru ÷ravya/÷ràvya to be heard kç karaõãya to be done vid veditavya to be known Notice that the vowel of the verbal root frequently undergoes an 'upgrade' before these suffixes, but this is not always the case (e.g., gam, gamya). As in Latin, the gerundive may be used as the complement in a linking sentence: ahaü bhavadbhirdraùñavyaþ (aham I am to be seen by you. bhavadbhiþ draùñavyaþ). You must see me. Note that the instrumental case (rather than the dative, as in Latin) is used to express the agent. Sentences such as these can serve as substitutes for the imperative, especially if the command is negated: na draùñavyà. She is not to be looked at. Don't look at her. The gerundive may also be used as an attributive adjective: ÷laghyo nçpaþ (÷laghyaþ nçpaþ) a king to be praised a praiseworthy king In the latter use, with the suffixes -ya and -anãya, the gerundive may acquire other shades of meaning: dç÷ya such as to be seen visible Gerundives with the suffix -tavya, however, are seldom used as attributives and usually retain the sense of obligation. The gerundive sometimes occurs in impersonal constructions, which are difficult to translate into literal English. This is apt to happen with intransitive verbs, which do not normally occur in the passive: Kàmandakyàpi na khalvataþ It is certainly not to be lived by param...jãvitavyam (Kàmandakyà api na Kàmandakã any longer.

khalu ataþ param...jãvitavyam). K. should certainly not live longer. Impersonal constructions also occur in Latin (cf. Horace's famous dictum, nunc est bibendum, 'now it is to be drunk'). But in Sanskrit, one even finds a gerundive of the verb bhu (to be): tvayà sàvadhànayà bhavitavyam. It is *to be been by you watchful. You must be watchful. Notice that in this construction, adjectives that modify the agent must also be put into the instrumental case. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary kùudh f. hunger lobhaþ greed veùaþ dress, attire su:caritam good deed Reading Vocabulary àrta oppressed piõóapàtin m. mendicant pràrabdham thing undertaken, enterprise maru m. desert vinãta disciplined, modest vçùñi f. rain sthalã [dry] land utàs (II udàste) sit idle samupadi÷ (VI point out, show samupadi÷ati) sthirã~kç make firm, sustain nanu rather Exercise 2 1. bhadra bhadra na praveùñavyam. 4. amàtya tathàpi pràrabdhamaparityàjyameva (amàtya, tathà api pràrabdham a:parityàjyam eva). 6. samupadi÷a tamudde÷aü yatràste sa piõóapàt ã (samupadi÷a tam udde÷am yatra àste saþ piõóapàtã). 11. asti naþ sucarita÷ravanalobhàdanyadapi praùñavyam (asti naþ sucarita-÷ravaõa-lobhàt anyat api praùñavyam). 14. nanu bhavatãbhyàmeva øakuntalà sthirãkartavyà (nanu bhavatãbhyàm eva øakuntalà sthirãkartavyà. 17. vinãtveùaprave÷yàni tapovanàni (vinãta:veùa-prave÷yàni tapaþ- vanàni). 18. marusthalyàü yathà vçùñiþ kùudhàrte bhojanaü tathà (maru-sthalyàü yathà vçùñiþ, kùudha-àrte bhojanaü tathà). 21. tat kiyantaü kàlamasmàbhirevaü saübhçtabalairapi ÷atruvyasanamavekùamànairudàsitavyam (tat kiyantaü kàlam asmàbhiþ evaü saübhçta:balaiþ api ÷atru-vyasanam avekùamànaiþ udàsitavyam?). 23. mahàdhanatvàdbahupatnãkenànena bhavittavyam (mahà:dhana~tvàt bahu:patnã~kena anena bhavit-tavyam).

2. With this letter I must defeat Ràkùasa. 7. His Excellency's instructions are that I should safe- guard Ràkùasa's life. 8. So let it be as it must be. 9. So one should not blame Ràkùasa in this matter. Day 3 Factitive Constructions; Correlative Adverbs Next, we will turn next to situations in which a compound can be created by joining a noun or adjective with a verb. This may sound strange, but it occurs frequently in Latin in words created with the suffix -ficare (from facio, to make): laetus happy laetificare to make happy, 'happify' English verbs in -fy (mystify, magnify, etc.) are derived from this combination. Essentially, these verbs are derived from a construction in which the noun or adjective is the secondary object of the verb 'make' (aliquem laetum facere: to make someone happy). This construction is sometimes called a factitive kernel; laetum (happy) is styled a predicate accusative. Sanskrit likewise shows both forms of the factitive construction. The verb kç may govern an object and predicate accusative: tvàmakàmaü karomi (tvàm akàmaü I will make you desire-less. karomi). The factitive construction can also be turned into a compound verb: tvàmakàmãkaromi (tvàm akàmãkaromi). I will make you desire-less. The compound is formed by changing a final a, à, i, or in to ã, and final u to å (e.g., laghåkç, make light). There is also a corresponding passive formation with bhu: akàmãbhavasi. You will become desire-less. Like English, Sanskrit combines the verb kç with an 'action noun' as a substitute for simple verbs: vandanàü karoti. He make salutation. Kç and bhu also combine with adverbs: He salutes. àviùkaroti. He makes openly. àvirbhavati. He reveals. It is made openly. It is revealed. In the previous chapter, we saw that adverbs as well as pronouns can be used to correlate

clauses. Sometimes, in fact, an adverb takes the place of a pronoun: tadetadaraõyaü yasmin vasàmi (tat etat This is the forest in which I live. araõyaü yasmin vasàmi). This is the forest where I live. tadetadaraõyaü yatra vasàmi (tat etat araõyaü yatra vasàmi). Since adverbs are invariable in form, they are less flexible in meaning than pronouns. On the other hand, more than one demonstrative adverb can answer to the same relative: yathà vayamasmastatheyamasti (yathà As we are, so she is. vayam asmaþ tathà iyam asti). yathà vayamasm'evamiyamasti(yathà vayam asmaþ evam iyam asti). Sometimes the choice of the demonstrative indicates a slight change of meaning: yadà...tadà when...then (same point of time) yadà...tataþ when...thereupon (sequence) These distinctions are not always strictly observed, however. Relatives, too, can be somewhat flexible in meaning. Yàvat, for example, can mean 'while' or 'until', depending on the context. yàvat pràõimi tavatpratikriyamicchàmi While I am [still] breathing, I want a (yàvat pràõimi tàvat pratikriyam remedy. icchàmi). I will go from this place to another place, asmàt sthànàdanyatsthànamà÷rayàmi until his intention is discovered. yàvadasya vij¤ataü cikãrùitam (asmàt sthànàt anyat sthànam à÷rayàmi yàvat asya vij¤atam cikãrùitam). With the negative particle, na, it also means 'before': na yàvadàyàti tàvattvaritamapasarpata Before he comes, escape quickly ! (na yàvat àyàti tàvat tvaritam apasarpata). Yàvat also appears in compounds with the sense 'throughout', and as a preposition meaning 'until': yàvad_ràjyam throughout the reign såryodayaü yàvat until sunrise Finally, a couple of loose ends. First the suffix vat functions much like iva to mean 'like': bràhmaõavat like a brahmin Since this is a compound formation, the word preceding vat is not declined. Thus, its role in the sentence must be inferred from the context: nçpànpitçvadapa÷yat (nçpàn pitçvat He looked on the kings as his fathers.

apa÷yat). (cf. nçpàn pitçn iva apa÷yat.) Another wrinkle is the word vi÷eùaþ, which means 'distinction, difference, particularity'. As the second part of a dependent or exocentric compound, it can mean 'a particular...': strã-vi÷eùaþ a woman-distinction ratna-vi÷eùaþ a particular woman Vocabulary a special jewel Memorization Vocabulary àyus n. life tapasvin ascetic; poor, wretched para other, enemy, hostile stranger prasàdaþ graciousness, favor, free gift maïgalam welfare, auspicious omen, good luck atikram (I atikràmati) transgress, go against vah (I vahati, p.p. åóha) carry, take, marry àvir~bhå become manifest, reveal oneself àviù~kç make manifest, reveal -vat like Reading Vocabulary apade÷aþ pretense, pretext a:parikle÷aþ lack of vexation apsaras f. nymph (of heaven) a:vighna unhindered a÷okaþ a÷oka-tree àkula confused àkulã~bhå grow confused àsanam sitting, seat kathitaü thing spoken, talk, conversation kaùña~tara more grievous kàla-haraõam delay kàla-haraõam kç (to) delay tantram administration devatà divinity, god dhyànam meditation, meditating nayanam eye

patatrin bird panthan m. road, path, way parikle÷aþ vexation parigrahaþ occupation, occupying pa÷càt:tàpaþ after-pain, remorse pracchàyam shade pratyàkhyànam rejection prayogaþ performance (of play) pràvãõyam proficiency manda slow, slacken manyu m. passion, anger maraõam death Mànasam name of a lake mohaþ delusion rahas n. solitude ripu m. enemy lavaþ fragment lava÷o lava÷aþ piece by piece viklava bewildered, distressed vi÷rambhaþ- confidential, intimate kathà/kathitam conversation vetasaþ cane, reed vyasanam vice, weakness; misfortune, misery ÷àlaþ sal-tree ørãparvataþ name of a mountain saüj¤à signal saübandhin m. relative by marriage sahadharmacàrin m. lawful husband sahadharmacàriõã f. lawful wife sàmàjikaþ spectator sàra m./n. substance, property su:nayana fair-eyed sthira firm sthirã~kç make firm, sustain sthirã~bhå be[come] firm svã~kç make one's own, appropriate apanã (I apanayati) remove, take away avagam caus. avagamayati procure àkarõayati denom. give ear, listen to gerundive àkarõanãya àdà (III àdatte) take, take hold of, bring utpat (I utpatati) fly up upàlabh (I upàlabhate) reproach, blame upàs (II upàste) sit by, wait upon, honor ceùñ (I ceùñati) move, act, behave (towards), treat (loc.)

taó (X tàóayati, pass. stike, beat tàóyate) strike, beat nikçt (VI nikçntati) cut up, shred paràpat (I paràpatati) approach, arrive pratyàdi÷ (VI pratyàdi÷ati) reject; put to shame (by example) pradru (I pradravati) run (p.p. intrans.) pràp caus. pràpayati cause to reach, convey samyam (I saüyacchati) restrain, arrest samàsad caus. approach, attain, meet (samàsàdayati) a:samyak wrongly itas tataþ hither and thither tiro~bhå become hidden, vanish tåùõãm às stay silent tåùõãm bhå be[come] silent bahiþ outside bhavatu right! Exercise 3 2. bhavatu ÷çõomi tàvadàsàü vi÷rambhakathitàni (bhavatu, ÷çõomi tàvat àsàü vi÷rambha- kathitàni). 3. tåùõãü bhava yàvadàkarõayàmi (tåùõãü bhava, yàvat àkarõayàmi). 5. tadatra ÷àlapracchàye muhårtam àsanaparigrahaü karotu tàtaþ (tat atra ÷àla-pracchàye muhårtam àsana-parigrahaü karotu tàtaþ). 7. hçdaya sthirãbhava. 9. iyaü corva÷ã yàvadàyustava sahadharmacàriõã bhavatu (iyam ca Urva÷ã yàvat_àyuþ tava sahadharmacàriõã bhavatu.) 10. tadyàvacchrãparvatamupanãya lava÷o lava÷a enàü nikçtya dukþamaraõàü karomi (tat yàvat Chrãparvatam upanãya lava÷o lava÷aþ enàü nikçtya dukþa:maraõàü karomi). 13. tatra caivamanuùñheyaü yathà vadàmi (tatra ca evam anuùñheyaü yathà vadàmi). 15. gçhãtagçhasàramenaü sàputrakalatraü saüyamya rakùa tàvadyàvanmayà Vçùalàya kathyate (gçhãta:gçha-sàram enaü sà_putra:kalatraü saüyamya rakùa tàvat yàvat mayà Vçùalàya kathyate). 22. yadaivàïgurãyakadar÷anàdanuùmçtaü devena satyamådhapårvà rahasi mayà tatrabhavatã øakuntalà mohàtpratyàdiùñ' eti tadaiva pa÷càttàpamupagato devaþ (yadà eva àïgurãyaka-dar÷anàt anuùmçtaü devena 'satyam ådha:pårvà rahasi mayà tatrabhavatã øakuntalà mohàt pratyàdiùñaþ iti, tadà eva pa÷càttàpam upagataþ devaþ). 25. yàvacca saübandhino na paràpatanti tàvadvatsayà Màlatyà nagara-devatàgçhamavighnamaïgalàya gantavyam (yàvat ca saübandhinaþ na paràpatanti, tàvat vatsayà Màlatyà nagara-devatà-gçham avighna:maïgalàya gantavyam). Chapter 13 Day 1 Reduplicated Verbs In the last lesson, we saw that some Sanskrit verbs (such as dviù) add the endings directly to the root, without an intervening 'theme' vowel. One of the unusual features of such verbs is that the vowel of the root may appear in different grades (e.g., dveùmi, dvimaþ). Some athematic verbs also exhibit another peculiarity: the initial consonant and vowel of the root are reduplicated in the present stem, producing a 'stuttering' effect:

Original Root Present Stem yuj yuyuj- dih didih- dà dadà- kru÷ cukru÷- In Greek, this formation survives in the verbs di'dwmi and tiq/ hmi. Note that long vowels become short when they are reduplicated, and that the initial consonant may undergo slight changes in reduplication (e.g., cu-kru÷). The latter changes may be learned on a case-by-case basis, but Coulson does provide some general rules. For example, velar consonants such as k and h reduplicate with palatal consonants, such as c and j. Here are the present indicative and imperative forms of hu (to sacrifice): Person/Number Present Active Imperative Active 1st Singular juhomi juhavàni 2nd juhoùi juhudhi 3rd juhoti juhotu 1st Dual juhuvaþ juhavàva 2nd juhuthaþ juhutam 3rd juhutaþ juhutàm 1st Plural juhumaþ juhavàma 2nd juhutha juhuta 3rd juhvati juhvatu Person/Number Present Middle Imperative Middle 1st Singular juhve juhavai 2nd juhuùe juhuùva 3rd juhute juhutàm 1st Dual juhuvahe juhuvàvahai 2nd juhvàthe juhvàthàm 3rd juhvàte juhvàtàm 1st Plural juhumahe juhavàmahai 2nd juhudhve juhudhvam 3rd juhvate juhvatàm The original root, hu, is reduplicated with the palatal consonant, j. The root vowel is 'upgraded' to o in singular present active forms and juhotu, and to au (av) in certain imperative forms. It becomes a semivowel (v) before endings beginning with a vowel (e.g., juhv-atu). Note that the 3rd-person plural forms lose the n in their endings: thus juhvati, juhvate, juhvatu, juhvatàm. The semivowel v distinguishes them from the singular forms (e.g, junoti, juhute, etc.). Two other common verbs in this class (Class III) are dà, dadàti (give, cf. did/ wsi) and dhà, dadhàti (put, cf. ti/qhsi). Coulson mentions two other classes of verbs that show reduplication in the present stem. Class VII verbs show a nasal n after the root vowel, which becomes na in strong forms. Class IX verbs have a suffix -nà-, which becomes -nã- or -n- in its weaker grade: Root Strong Grade Weak Grade

yuj (VII), join yunakti yu¤janti krã (IX), buy krãõàti krãõãmaþ, krãõanti These and other variations can be learned on a case-by-case basis. Elsewhere in Chapter 13 we learn that Sanskrit has another demonstrative pronoun, asau (he, that). Here is a complete paradigm (cf. page 245 of the PDF): Case Masculine Neuter Feminine Nominative Singular asau adaþ asau Accusative amum adaþ amåm Instrumental amunà amunà amuyà Dative amuùmai amuùmai amuùyai Ablative amuùmàt amuùmàt amuùyàþ Genitive amuùya amuùya amuùyàþ Locative amuùmin amuùmin amuùyàm Case Masculine Neuter Feminine Nominative Dual amå amå amå Accusative amå amå amå Instrumental amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm Dative amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm Ablative amåbhyàm amåbhyàm amåbhyàm Genitive amuyoþ amuyoþ amuyoþ Locative amuyoþ amuyoþ amuyoþ Case Masculine Neuter Feminine Nominative Plural amã amåni amåþ Accusative amån amåni amåþ Instrumental amãbhiþ amãbhiþ amåbhiþ Dative amãbhyaþ amãbhyaþ amåbhyaþ Ablative amãbhyaþ amãbhyaþ amåbhyaþ Genitive amãùàm amãùàm amåùàm Locative amãùu amãùu amåùu The forms of asau are, for the most part, built on the stem amu- or ami-. Familiar pronoun-endings are used (cf. saþ). Asau is less common than saþ (he, that) and ayam (this). It often appears in conjunction with ayam to to say, 'there is', 'look at that': ayamasau mahànadyorvyatikaraþ (ayam asau There is the confluence of the two great mahà:nadyoþ vyatikaraþ) rivers. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary kàmaþ wish, desire, love -tu-kàma wanting to, anxious to

àkhyà (II), àkhyàti declare, tell ati: too, over-, extremely, very asau that, he Reading Vocabulary anveùin searching, in search of àj¤à command, order kàyasthaþ scribe, letter-writer Lopàmudrà proper name vyayaþ øakañadàsaþ loss; expense, extravagance ÷añha proper name ÷åla m./n. ÷ålam àruh cunning sainikaþ stake cause to mount the stake, impale soldier upabhuj (VII), upabhuïkte enjoy, consume, spend uparudh (VII), uparuõaddhi besiege, invade parici (V), paricinoti become acquainted with, recognize på (IX), punàti, punãte purify saüdhà (III), saüdhatte bring together, aim (arrow) Exercise 1 1. dehi me prativacanam. 3. kathaü ÷ånyà iv àmi prade÷àþ (katham, ÷ånyàþ iva àmi prade÷àþ). 4. eùa tamiùuü saüdadhe (eùaþ tam iùum saüdadhe) 6. ahamapyamuü vçttàntaü bhagavatyai lopàmudràyai nivedayàmi (aham api amum vçttàntam bhagavatyai Lopàmudràyai nivedayàmi). 7. sa khalu mårkhastaü yuùmàbhiratisçùñaü prabhåtamartharà÷imavàpya mahatà vyayenopabhoktumàrabdhavàn (saþ khalu mårkhaþ tam yuùmàbhiþ atisçùñam prabhåtam artha- rà÷im avàpya, mahatà vyayena upabhoktum àrabdhavàn). 9. kiü cidàkhyàtukàmàsmi (kiü cit àkhyàtu-kàmà asmi). 10. upàlapsye tàvadenam (upàlapsye tàvat enam). 13. j¤àsyathaþ khalvetat (j¤àsyathaþ khalu etat). 12. ayamasau ràjàj¤ayà ràjàpathyakàrã kàyasthaþ øakañadàsaþ ÷ålamàropayituü nãyate (ayam asau ràja-àj¤ayà ràja-àpathya-kàrã kàyasthaþ øakañadàsaþ ÷ålam àropayitum [to be impaled] nãyate). 14. puõyà÷ramadar÷anenàtmànaü punãmahe tàvat (puõi:à÷rama-dar÷anena àtmànam punãmahe tàvat). 1. Vijayà, do you recognize this ornament? 2. That fellow is certainly cunning. 6. What, are soldiers in-search-of-me invading the ascetic grove? Day 2 Much earlier in this course, we saw that the Latin supine in -u has its morphological (but not semantic) equivalent in the the absolutive form (e.g., dç÷tvà, having seen). The Latin supine in - um, also known as the 'fourth principal part', is used after verbs of motion to express purpose (e.g., eo cubitum: I go to lie down). It is descended from an Indo-European verbal noun. This form not only survived in Sanskrit, but it became the infinitive for all verbs (e.g., netum to lead). It is

typically formed by adding the suffix -tum to the guna grade of the root: Original Root Infinitive nã (lead) netum budh (learn) boddhum Variant formations are possible; these can be learned as you go along: Original Root Infinitive bhå (be) bhavitum likh (read) likhitum dç÷ (see) draùñum Some verbs may show more than one infinitive form: Original Root Infinitive nã (lead) netum, nayitum Causatives generally retain the -ay- infix (e.g., càrayitum, to cause to move). In Greek, the infinitive is (generally speaking) the only verbal noun-formation. Thus, it can be used in all the ways that a noun is used, even in the oblique cases (e.g., tou= le/gein). As we have seen, Sanskrit has other ways of turning a verb into a noun (e.g., ÷rvanam, hearing), and so the infinitive has less work to do. One of its functions is to complete the sense of certain verbs, such as want, be able, and begin. (In Latin and Greek, we call this the 'complementary' or 'prolative' infinitive.) ÷rotumicchàmi (÷rotum icchàmi) I want to hear ÷rotuü ÷aknoti he is able to hear ÷rotuü jànàti he knows how to hear ÷rotumarhati (÷rotum arhati) he is worthy to hear, he should hear The Sanskrit infinitive also corresponds to the Latin supine as an expression of purpose. It usually appears with verbs of motion: vçùalastvàü draùñumàgacchati (Vçùalaþ tvàm Vçùala is coming to see you. draùñum àgacchati). The infinitive also appears in impersonal expressions, such as yujyate or yuktam (it is proper): na yuktamanayostatra gantum (na yuktam It is not right for the two of them to go there. anayoþ tatra gantum). Note that the subject of the infinitive in such expressions goes into the genitive or instrumental case. Sanskrit has no passive infinitive. The active infinitive may take on a passive meaning if the main verb is passive: hantuü nãyate. He is taken to kill. He is taken to be killed.

kartum àrabhyate. It is begun to do. kartum ÷akyate. It is beginning to be done. Is is *possibled to do. It can be done. The infinitive may even appear in a compound: kartu-kàmaþ desire to do kartu-manas having a mind to do, intending to do It may seem odd that we are already in Chapter 13, and we have not seen finite verbs in any other tense than the present. But in Sanskrit, one can get along quite well with the present tense and the past participle. We have seen that the present indicative can be used to express intention (gacchàmi, I will go) as well as exhortation (gacchàmaþ, let's go!). The past participle can be used for any completed action (gataþ, he has gone, he went). Sanskrit does, however, have other tense forms, which will often remind you of the Greek system. The future tense is Sanskrit is formed by inserting sya or iùya between the root (in the guõa grade) and thematic personal endings. This formation corresponds to the sigmatic future in Greek (e.g., lu/sw): Verbal Root Future Form nã neùyati (he will lead) bhå bhaviùyati (he will be) kç kariùyati (he will do) dà dàsyate (he will give [middle]) The future tense in Sanskrit corresponds equally well to shall and will in English. Coulson discusses other nuances of the tense on page 175 of the PDF. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary kanyakà girl abhivçt (I), abhivartate approach, go towards, make kup, caus. kopayati for anger Reading Vocabulary etàvant this much kçta-vedin conscious of debt; grateful; Gautamã obliged gauravam proper name tuccha matimant high esteem, duty of respect øatakratu m. trifling possessing wit, sensible name of Indra

secanam (act of) sprinkling, watering ullaïgh, caus. ullaïghayati transgress, violate aticiràt after very long Exercise 2 2. tvayà saha Gautamã gamiùyati. 16. nàyamavasaro mama øatakratuü draùñum (na ayam avasaraþ mama øatakratuü draùñum). 18. aye etàstapasvikanyakàþ svapramànànuråpaiþ secanaghatairbàlapàdapebhyaþ payo dàtumita evàbhivartante (aye, etàþ tapasvi-kanyakàþ sva:pramàna-anuråpaiþ secana-ghataiþ bàla:pàdapebhyaþ payaþ dàtum itaþ eva abhivartante). 20. matimàm÷càõakyastucche prayojane kimiti candraguptaü kopayiùyati. na ca kçtavedã candragupta etàvatà gauravamullaïghayiùyati (matimàn Càõakyaþ tucche prayojane kim iti Candraguptaü kopayiùyati? na ca kçta-vedã Candraguptaþ etàvatà gauravam ullaïghayiùyati). 4. But where will you (ladies) wait for me? 5. Why, quite without giving an answer, he has started to dance. 8. After not very long the minister will restore [àruh, caus.] us to (our) former state. Day 3 In the last two chapters, we have seen how clauses may be related with the use of adverbs (e.g., yatra...tatra) and pronouns (e.g., yaþ...saþ). Typically, these words relate the subordinate clause to a particular item of information in the main clause, which is called the antecedent. Sometimes, however, the subordinate clause refers to the verbal idea of the main clause as a whole: bakulamàle upakàrinyasi yataþ svàgataü Bakula garland, you are my ally--therefore [as a bhavatyàþ (bakula-màle, upakàrinã asi, yataþ result of which], welcome to you. svàgatam bhavatyàþ). Here are relative words that perform this function, along with the equivalent English phrasing: yataþ therefore; for; because yat that, the fact that yathà how, that Yathà can be correlated with tathà to set up a clause of result (cf. Latin ita...ut, Greek ou/(tw...ws( te): bhostathàhamutpatità yathà sakala eùa Oh, I have flown up so (high) that this whole vyatikara÷cakùuùà parikùipyate (bhoþ tathà expanse is encompassed by my eye. aham utpatità yathà sakalaþ eùa vyatikaraþ cakùuùà parikùipyate). Yathà is also sometimes used as an alternative marker for indirect statements: idaü tàvatprasiddhameva yathà Now it is entirely established how [=that] bhårivasurnçpamuktavàn (idam tàvat Bhurivasu told the king.... prasiddham eva yathà Bhårivasuþ nçpam uktavàn)....

Conditional sentences in Sanskrit are marked by yadi and cet (if). The latter conjunction never appears first in its clause. Various correlatives are used in the main clause (iha, tataþ, tadà, tarhi): àrye yadi nepathyavidhànamadhyavasitaü Lady, if arrangements backstage are tadihàgamyatàm (àrye, yadi nepathya- completed, come here. vidhànam adhyavasitam, tat iha àgamyatàm). If (it means) no neglect of other duties, enter na cedanyakàryatipàtaþ pravi÷yàtra (na cet here. anya:kàri-atipàtaþ pravi÷ya atra). Yadi api and kàmam mean 'although'; they can be correlated with tathà api, punar, or tu. âdi and other words meaning 'beginning' can be placed at the end of exocentric compounds to mean 'beginning with...', 'such as', 'et cetera': indràdayaþ suràþ (Indra:àdayaþ suràþ) the gods Indra, etc. Vocabulary Indra and the other gods Memorization Vocabulary àdi m. beginning amçtam nectar, ambrosia kriyà doing; rite kùatriyaþ warrior priyam benefit, service vàc f. speech, words vedin knowing, conscious of, appreciative of arh (I), arhati be worthy; should kam, caus. kàmayate desire, be in love with kàmam admittedly, granted that, cet (enclitic) though if Reading Vocabulary atithi m. guest anucaraþ companion remorse anutàpaþ interval antaram offspring apatyam offending, guilty aparàddha past participle aparàdhin attack abhiyogaþ trustworthy àpta arrow iùu m. equipped with, possessed of upapanna

upasaügrahaþ embracing; collecting; looking after kàraõam reason kàvyam literature kumàrakaþ young man, son koùaþ treasury, resources, wealth guhya secret ghataþ pot cakùus n. eye jàta past participle born jàta-karman n. birth-ceremony j¤àtç knower, person to know tãkùõa:rasa-daþ poisoner dàsã slave girl; servant girl Devaràtaþ proper name dauhitraþ daughter's son, grandson dhurà pole, yoke, burden Nandaþ proper name nçpati m. king payas n. water para far, ultimate, supreme parigrahaþ acquisition, possession paritoùaþ satisfaction puõya auspicious, holy puràtana (f. -ã) former pçthvã, pçthivã earth pracchàdanam concealment pratikåla contrary, hostile pramàõam measure, size pràkçta (f. -à, -ã) of the people, vulgar, common bàdhà molestation, damage brahmacàrin m. student sa:bhramacàrin fellow student bhàrika burdensome bhåùaõam ornament bhraü÷aþ fall, decline sthàna-bhraü÷aþ fall from position, madhya-stha neutral manorathaþ desire mantrin m. minister yukta proper, right rahasya secret ràja-kàryam, ràjya-kàryam state affairs, state administration ràmaõãyakam loveliness, delightful aspect lakùaõam charecteristic, (auspicious) mark -vacanàt in the name of varàka (f. -ã) wretched, poor

varõaþ color, appearance vàdin speaking, talking vàsin living in, dwelling vij¤àpanà request vidhi m. injunction vidhi vat according to ritual vivakùita past participle wished to be said, meant vihàraþ (Buddhist) monastery, convent vyapade÷aþ designation, name vyàghraþ tiger øakuntaleya born of øakuntalà ÷àsanam command ÷uddhàntaþ women's apartments, household ÷çgàlaþ jackal ÷rotç m. listener, someone to listen ÷rauta derived from scripture, scriptural ÷vapàkaþ outcast saücayaþ collection, quantity satkàraþ hospitality samartha capable, able sàcivyam being minister, post of minister Siddhàrthakaþ proper name Somaràtaþ proper name ati÷i (II), ati÷ete surpass, triumph over anuj¤à (IX), anujànàti allow, give someone leave to (w. dative of verbal noun) abhidruh (IV), abhidruhyati do violence to avaj¤à (IX), avajànàti despise àdç (IV), àdriyate heed, respect, defer to, refer to àruh, caus. àropayati cause to mount, raise onto udghuù (I), udghoùati cry out ut + hà (III), ujjihãte start over, depart duù, caus. dåùayati spoil, defile pãó (X), pãóayati squeeze pé, caus. pårayati, pårõa fill, fulfill prakhyà caus. prakhyàpayati publish, proclaim pratinand (I), pratinandati receive gladly, welcome pratividhà (III), prepare against, take pratividadhàti precautions prabhà (II), prabhàti shine forth, dawn prayat (I), prayatate strive, exert oneself prayuj (VII), prayuïkte employ; perform man, caus. mànayati esteem, honor mçù, caus. marùayati overlook, excuse

vyàpé, caus. vyàpàrayati set to work, employ ÷ak (V), ÷aknoti ÷am, caus. ÷amayati be able, can ÷raddhà (III), ÷raddhatte quieten, appease satkç (VIII), satkaroti trust, believe samàsa¤j (I), samàsajati receive with hospitality, entertain spç÷ (VI), spç÷ati attach something to (+ loc.), impose upon touch anyatra elsewhere itaretara (stem form) mutual, of/to (etc.) each other kaccit? I hope that...? ciràt at long last prabhçti (+ abl.) starting with..., from..., onward, ever, since pràdurbhå become manifest, arise yat satyam what is true, truth to tell, in truth yadi evam in that case Exercise 3 5. yadi rahaùyaü tadà tiùthatuyadi na rahasyaü tarhi kathyatàm (yadi rahaùyam, tadà tiùñhatu-- yadi na rahasyam tarhi kathyatàm). 8. diùñyà suprabhàtamadya yadayaü devo dçùñaþ (diùñyà su:prabhàtam adya, yat ayam devaþ dçùñaþ). 11. bhadra siddhàrthaka kàmamaparyàptamidamasya priyasya, tathàpi gçhyatàm (bhadra Siddhàrthaka, kàmam a:paryàptam idam asya priyasya, tathà api gçhyatàm). 15. bhadre na tatparihàryaü yato vivakùitamanuktamanutàpaü janayati (bhadre, na tat parihàryaü, yataþ vivakùitam an:uktam anutàpam janayati). 17. sakhe na tàvadenàü pa÷yasi yena tvamevaü:vàdã (sakhe, na tàvat enàm pa÷yasi yena tvam evaü:vàdã). 19. na cenmunikumàrako'yam, tatko'sya vyapade÷aþ (na ced muni-kumàrakaþ ayam, tat kaþ asya vyapade÷aþ?). 21. tena hi vij¤àpyatàü madvacanàdupàdhyàyaþ Somaràto'munà÷ramavàsinaþ ÷rautena vidhinà satkçtya svayameva prave÷ayitumarhasãti (tena hi vij¤àpyatàm mad-vacanàt upàdhyàyaþ Somaràtaþ--'amun à÷rama- vàsinaþ ÷rautena vidhinà satkçtya svayam eva prave÷ayitum arhasi' iti). 22. (smartavyaü tu sausvayamasya nçpateryad aparàhinorapyanaparàddhayoriva nau kçtaprasàdaü ceùñitavàn. (smartavyam tu sausvayam asya nçpateþ, yat aparàhinoþ api an:aparàddhayoþ iva nau kçta:prasàdam ceùñitavàn). 23. he vyasanasabrahmacàrin yadi na guhyaü nàtibhàrikaü và tataþ ÷rotumicchàmi te pràõaparityagakàranam (he vyasana--sabrahmacàrin, yadi na guhyam na àtibhàrikam và, tataþ ÷rotum icchàmi te pràõa-parityaga-kàranam). 24. àrya Vaihãnare adya prabhçtyanàdçtya cànakyaü candraguptaþ svayameva ràjakàryàni kariùyatãti gçhãtàrthaþ kriyantàü prakçtayaþ (àrya Vaihãnare, 'adya prabhçti anàdçtya Cànakyam Candraguptaþ svayam eva ràja-kàryàni kariùyati iti gçhãt-àrthaþ kriyantàm prakçtayaþ). 25. vayamapyà÷ramabhàdhà yathà na bhavati tathà pryatiùyàmahe (vayam api à÷rama-bhàdhà yathà na bhavati, tathà pryatiùyàmahe). 26. kimidànãü candraguptaþ svaràjyakàryadhuràmanyatra mantriõyàtmani và samàsajya svayaü pratividhàtumasamarthaþ (kim idànãm Candraguptaþ sva:ràjya-kàrya:dhuràm anyatra mantriõi àtmani và samàsajya svayam pratividhàtum a:samarthaþ?). 27. yatsatyaü kàvyavi÷eùavedinyàü pariùadi prayu¤jànasya mamàpi sumahànparitoùaþ pràdurbhavati.(yat satyam, kàvya-vi÷eùa-vedinyàm pariùadi prayu¤jànasya mama api su:mahàn paritoùaþ pràdur~bhavati). 28. candragupta÷arãramabidrogdhumanena

vyàpàrità Dàruvarmàdaya iti nagare prakhyàpya øakañadàsaþ ÷ålamàropitaþ ('Candragupta- ÷arãram abidrogdhum anena vyàpàrità Dàruvarm:àdaya' iti nagare prakhyàpya øakañadàsaþ ÷ålam àropitaþ). 29. sa khalu kasmiü÷cidapi jãvati nandànvayàvayave Vçùalasya sàcivyaü gràhayituü na ÷akyate (sa khalu kasmiü÷ cit api jãvati Nand-ànvay-àvayave Vçùalasya sàcivyam gràhayitum na ÷akyate). 30. idamatra ràmaõãyakaü yadamàtyabhurivasudevaràtyo÷ciràt pårno yamitaretaràpatyasambandhàmçtamanorathaþ. (idam atra ràmaõãyakaü, yad amàtya:Bhurivasu:Devaràtyoþ ciràt pårnaþ yam itaretar-àpatya-sambandh:àmçta-manorathaþ). 3. Lavangika has managed-well, since Madhava's-attendant Kalahamsaka is in love with that servant-girl-of-the-convent, Mandarika. 7. Granted that this is to be prized, yet we are neutral about it [atra]. 9. It is not right to despise even a common man. 10. King Candragupta, it is already known to you that we lived for a certain interval-of-time with [loc.] Malayetu. 11. Oh Viùõugupta, you should not touch me (who am) defiled-by-the-touch-of-an-outcaste. 12. My dear child, I hope you have greeted [abhinand] the son born of øakuntala whose-birth-ceremony-and- other-rites-were-performed by us according to ritual? 13. Then give me leave to go. 14. We are not able to triumph with words over Your Excellency's words. 15. If your Excellency thus sees the time-for-attack, why delay? 16. Come in, my dear fellow: you will get someone to listen and to understand. 17. 'Just now [he] has directed his daughter to (show) hospitality-to-guests and gone to Soma-tãrtha to appease a fate hostile to her'--'In that case she is the one I will see.' 18. Why do you ask, friend, un-believingly? 19. Is the earth without-warriors, that (you) cry out in this way? 20. I should like to employ you, my dear fellow, on a certain task that-must-be-performed-by-a- trustworthy-person. 21. If the grandson-of-the-sage proves to be [bhu] possessed-of-those-marks, you will welcome her and introduce her into your household. 22. Do you then not pity the poor (girl) whose-life-is-departing? 23. Loss-of-place will not oppress one-without-possessions. 24. [We] have established øaktadàsa with a great quantity-of-wealth to-look-after the prisoners-and- so-forth employed-by-us to do violence to Candragupta-s person, and to-instigate-[his]-subjects- to-rebellion. 25. Màdhavya my friend, you have-not-obtained-the-reward-of-your-eyes, since you have not seen the ultimate of things to see [draùñavya]. 26. Oh merchant Candanadàsa, a king so severe-in-punishment towards traitors will not overlook your concealment-of-Ràkùasa's wife. 27. Since those tigers and others, deceived-by-mere-appearance, without-knowing (him to be) a jackal regard that one (as) king--see [pl.] to it that he is recognized. 28. Your Majesty, who else anxious-to-live would have violated Your Majesty's command? 29. Though (your) master's- merits cannot be forgotten, Your Excellency should honor my-request. Chapter 14 Day 1 In the last chapter you met the future tense, which can be distinguished from the present tense by a change in the root vowel and the addition of a special infix (-sya, -iùya) before the personal endings. Sanskrit also has two common past-tense formations, which may occur in place of the familiar past participle. The first of these is the imperfect tense, so called because in some Indo- European languages it signifies past actions viewed as ongoing or habitual, and thus never really 'perfected' (e.g., he was leading, he used to lead). In Sanskrit, however, the imperfect serves as an all-purpose past tense, like the simple past in English (he led). The imperfect is common in some styles of Sanskrit, such as prose romances; it is rare in others. The forms of the Sanskrit imperfect resemble those of the equivalent tense in Greek. The imperfect is marked as a past tense by two things: an augment before the verbal root (a- in Sanskrit, like e- in Greek), and a special set of endings used only for past-tense forms. Note that Coulson and other grammarians use the term 'secondary' to refer the past tenses; the 'primary tenses' are the present and future. Here are the imperfect forms of nã (lead):

Person/Number Imperfect Active Imperfect Middle 1st Singular anayam anaye 2nd anayaþ anayathàþ 3rd anayat anayata 1st Dual anayàva anayàvahi 2nd anayatam anayethàm 3rd anayatàm anayetàm 1st Plural anayàma anayàmahi 2nd anayata anayadhvam 3rd anayan anayanta In many cases, the secondary endings appear to be 'shorter' versions of the primary endings (-mi, -si, -ti, etc.). As such, they often overlap with imperative endings that you have already learned. There is no danger of confusion, however, because the imperfect always carries the augment. Comparison with the Greek imperfect may also be helpful (-am/-an = -on; -ata = -eto, etc.). In Latin, primary and secondary endings were generally merged, except in the first-person singular (thus -o never occurs in a past tense). Athematic verbs are similarly conjugated in the imperfect tense. Verbs that show the third-person plural ending -ati in the present tense have -uþ (not -an) in the imperfect. Singular active forms show the strong grade of the root, as in Greek. Verbs that begin with a vowel are 'upgraded' to vçddhi by the augment; thus icchati becomes aicchat. The imperfect of the verb as (be) is somewhat irregular: Person/Number Imperfect Active 1st Singular àsam 2nd àsãþ 3rd àsãt 1st Dual àsva 2nd àstam 3rd àstàm 1st Plural àsma 2nd àsta 3rd àsan The imperfect of as is sometimes used in periphrastic forms to create a kind of past perfect tense: atha taralikà mayà saha gatà snatumàsãt (atha Now Taralika had gone to bathe with me. Taralikà mayà saha gatà snatum àsãt). Another feature that Sanskrit shares with Greek is the use of optative forms. The term 'optative' signifies wishing, but in Sanskrit it most often appears with a potential force (he may lead, he might lead). In legal texts, the optative also has a perscriptive force (he shall lead). Here are the optative forms of nã: Person/Number Optative Active Optative Middle 1st Singular nayeyam nayeya 2nd nayeþ nayethàþ

3rd nayet nayeta 1st Dual nayeva nayevahi 2nd nayetam nayeyàthàm 3rd nayetàm nayeyàtàm 1st Plural nayema nayemahi 2nd nayeta nayedhvam 3rd nayeyuþ nayeran The optative is built on the weak grade of the root. Secondary endings are added to the infix -ã, which becomes e when added to the stem vowel of thematic verbs (a + i = e). Some forms show an expanded version of the infix (yà). All this will remind you of the optative in Greek, where secondary endings are added to the optative signs i and ih. In addition to the potential and prescriptive uses mentioned above, the optative may be construed with api nàma to express wishes: api nàmàhaü nçpo bhaveyam (api nàma If only I could become king! aham nçpaþ bhaveyam). As a marker for potential action, the optative can be used in remote conditionals. In English, conditional clauses are introduced by the conjunction if. They become remote if there is some doubt about the fulfillment of the condition: Present Remote Conditional Future Remote Conditional If I were leading the army, the king would be If I should lead the army, the king would come. coming. English marks such sentences with helping verbs, such as might and would. Both the condition and the main clause are treated as hypothetical. Sanskrit uses the optative to mark both present and future unreal conditionals: yadi senàü nayeyaü nçpo gacchet (yadi If I should lead the army, the king would senàm nayeyam, nçpaþ gacchet ). come. If I were leading the army, the king would be coming. The verb in both clauses takes the optative. Sanskrit is less precise than Greek and English in distinguishing the time of the condition, but the context usually supplies this information. Past unreal conditionals (if I had led the army, the king would have come) may be construed with the optative or with the so-called conditional tense. This is formed by putting an augment and secondary endings on the future stem (e.g., a-kariùya-t, he was going to do, he would have done). The conditional tense appears in both clauses: yadi senàmanayeùyaü nçpo'gamsyat (yadi If I had led the army, the king would have senàm anayeùyam, nçpaþ agamsyat ). come. Vocabulary a:÷eùa without remainder, complete,

àpanna:sattva whole, all khedaþ pregnant guõaþ exhaustion jarañha merit, strand, spring jàlapàdaþ old, decrepit dvandam goose dvandvasaüprahàraþ pair padam single combat, duel bisam step laghu lotus fibre svapnaþ light, brief dream nigaóayati denom. pratidç÷ (I), pratipa÷yati fetter, bind bhid (VII), bhinatti see split, separate api nàma if only nu khalu I wonder...? Exercise 1 2. kva nu khalu gatà syàt? 3. àsãt tàdç÷o munir asminn à÷rame (àsãt tàdç÷aþ muniþ asmin à÷rame). 10. api nàma duràtmana÷càõakyàccandragupto bhidyeta (api nàma dur:àtmanaþ Càõakyàt Candraguptaþ bhidyeta). 12. suratakhedaprasuptayostu tayoþ svapne bisaguõanigaóitapàdo jarathaþ ka÷cijjàlapàdaþ pratyadç÷yata. pratyabudhyetàü cobhau (surata-kheda-prasuptayoþ tu tayoþ svapne bisa-guõa-nigaóita:pàdaþ jarathaþ kaþ cit jàlapàdaþ pratyadç÷yata. pratyabudhyetàü ca ubhau.). 13. tadaniviùyatàü yadi kà cidàpannasattvà tasya bhàryà syàt (tat aniviùyatàm yadi kà cit àpanna:sattvà tasya bhàryà syàt). 14. àrya-putra nàyaü vi÷rambhakathàyà avasarastado laghutaramevàbhidhãyase (àrya-putra, na ayaü vi÷rambhakathàyà avasaraþ, tadaþ laghutaraü eva abhidhãyase). 15. kathamãdç÷ena saha vatsasya candraketordvandva-saüprahàramanujànãyàm (katham ãdç÷ena saha vatsasya Candraketoþ dvandvasaüprahàram anujànãyàm?) 19. anayaiva ca kathayà tayà saha tasminneva pràsàde tathaiva pratiùiddhà÷eùaparijanaprave÷a divasamatyavàhayam (anaya eva ca kathayà tayà saha tasmin eva pràsàde tathà eva pratiùiddha a÷eùa:parijana-prave÷a divasam atyavàhayam). 20. tadupàya÷cintyatàü yathà saphalapràrthano bhaveyam (tat upàyaþ cintyatàm yathà saphala:pràrthanaþ bhaveyam). 23. yadi punariyaü kiüvadanti mahàràjaü prati syandeta tatkaùñaü syàt (yadi punaþ iyam kiüvadantã mahàràjam prati syandeta, tat kaùñam syàt). 3. And I observed in that hermitage in the shade of a young-mango-tree an ascetic of-melancholy- appearance. 4. The writing might be spoiled, friend, by the sweat-from-(my)-fingers. 6. And so saying she drew it (pattrikà, the letter) from the betel-box and showed (to me). 9. He may even, perhaps, ashamed-of-his-lapse-from-self-control, do something dreadful [aõiùña]. 10. Now [yàvat] I heard that it was Màlatã who was the cause-of-his pangs-of-love. Day 2 Let's take a break from verbs and talk about adjectives. So far, we have encountered adjectives in their basic or positive form (e.g., mçdu, soft), which is inflected to agree with nouns or pronouns in gender, number, and case. But adjectives have two other degrees: the comparative (softer) and the superlative (softest). Like English, Sanskrit uses suffixes to mark these degrees:

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree mçdu mçdutara mçdutama soft softer softest rather soft very soft The comparative suffix -tara is comparable to Greek -teroj; the superlative -tama is cognate with Latin -[t]imus (e.g., ultimus). Note the alternative English translations of the higher degrees. Students of Greek will recall that a few common adjectives show comparative and superlative forms in -iwn and -istoj. There are analogous forms in Sanskrit, with the suffix [ã]yàüs in the comparative degree and -iùñha in the superlative. A few examples from Coulson's list are given here: Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree guru heavy garãyàüs gariùñha priya dear mahànt great preyàüs preùñha mahãyàüs (cf. meiz/ wn ) mahiùñha (cf. me/gistoj) Some of these words show both regular and irregular suffixes (e.g., priyatara or preyàüs, dearer). In a comparison, the second element is usually expressed (as in Latin) by the ablative case: svàrthàtsatàü gurutarà praõayikriyaiva (sva- More important than their own self-interest is arthàt satàü gurutarà praõayi-kriyà eva). the carrying out the petitioner's request. An alternative construction uses the nominative after na ca (and not). This construction is common with the word varam (the preferable thing): varaü vandhyà bhàryà na càvidvànputraþ A barren wife is the preferable thing and not (varam vandhyà bhàryà na ca avidvàn an ignorant son. putraþ). A barren wife is better than an ignorant son. After the superlative, both the genitive and instrumental cases may be used: sodaryànàü jyeùñhaþ eldest of the brothers buddhimatsu ÷reùñhaþ supreme among sentient beings We have already seen the considerable versatility of the particle iti, the original meaning of which is thus, in this way. But in Classical Sanskrit, this word is used mainly as a marker of speech that stands outside of the narrative. It can represent both direct and indirect statements in English: candraguptàdaparaktànpuruùànjànàmãtyupa 'I know men disloyal to Candragupta,' he kùitamanena ('Candraguptàt aparaktàn hinted. puruùàn jànàmi' iti upakùitam anena) . He hinted that he knew men disloyal to Candragupta. Occasionally, the fact that a speech is being quoted by someone else causes a shift in person: bhartçdàrike tvamavastha÷arãreti Mistress, the queen has arrived, after hearing parijanàdupalabhya mahàdevã pràptà from her retinue that you are well.

(bhartçdàrike, 'tvam avastha:÷arãrà' iti parijanàt upalabhya mahàdevã pràptà). What the queen actually heard was 'The princess is well.' Iti typically stands at the end of a quotation, but it may appear at the beginning of a new sentence or paragraph and refer in general to what has been said previously: iti ÷rutvà devaþ pramànaü. Having heard [what I have told you], your Majesty is the judge. It is even possible to omit the verb of telling, hearing, etc., and to let iti alone stand for a statement that prompts some other action: ityasmayata (iti asmayata). So [saying], she smiled. Since iti can represent not only what has been said, but also what has been known, understood, imagined, etc., it can become the equivalent of because and [the fact] that in causal and nominal clauses: rakùaõãyaþ suhçdasava iti Because a friend's life must be saved, I speak kathyàmi(rakùaõãyaþ suhçd-asavaþ iti out. kathyàmi). satyaü janàmãti kathametat (satyam janàmi iti How is it that I know the truth? katham etat?). Iti will also sometimes mark the equivalent of a purpose clause, since it reflects what is in the mind of the subject: mà bhådà÷ramapãóeti (The two of them travelled) with a limited parimeyapuraþsarau('mà bhåd à÷rama-pãóà' entourage (with the thought), 'Let there not be iti parimeya:puraþsarau). affliction-of-the-hermitage.' (The two of them travelled) with a limited entourage lest they trouble the hermitage. Iti can, of course, be used to report commands and questions as well as statements. Since questions have their own markers, iti is sometimes omitted: pa÷yasi kà vàrttà. You see what the news is. In indirect questions, a relative pronoun may also sometimes take the place of an interrogative: bråhi yadupalabdham (bråhi yat Tell me that which has been discovered. upalabdham). Tell me what you have discovered. Finally, note about the uses of repetition in Sanskrit style. Often it indicates emphasis: sàdhu sàdhu. Bravo! Bravo! punaþ punaþ. again and again

It may also have a distributive sense: svàn svàn bàlàn ànayanti. They bring their various children. tat tat kàraõam utpàdya producing this and that reason, producing various reasons. Vocabulary adhyavasàyaþ resolution an:adhyavasàyaþ irresolution, hesitation anilaþ wind, breeze an:iùñaþ undesired, unpleasant anuràgaþ passion, love antaþ end antaþpuram women's quarters (of palace), harem antarita concealed apade÷aþ pretext apara other, different apasarpaõam getting away, escape abhilàùin desirous, anxious arthin having an object, wanting, petitioning a:÷obhana unpleasant, awful ahamahamikà rivalry àdaraþ care, trouble àdaraü kç take care [to] àdhoraõaþ elephant-driver àrti f. affliction, distress àrdra moist, tender àrya-putraþ nobleman indriyam sense uttama uppermost, supreme, top unmàthaþ shaking, disturbance manmathonmàthaþ pangs of love upakàraþ help, service upanyàsaþ mention, allusion upasthànam religious attendance ekàkin alone Aikùvàka descended from King Iksvaku kàtara timid, nervous kànanam forest kàrmurkam bow kiüvadantã rumor kusum:àyudhaþ flower-weaponed; the god of love kålam bank, shore kçpàlu compassionate kolàhalaþ clamor

gaõikà courtesan gandhaþ smell, scent garãyàüs important, considerable; worthy/worthier of respect gahanam dense place gir f. speech, voice, tone ghràõam smelling, (sense of) smell candana m./n. sandal, sandal-wood tree cåtaþ mango-tree jyàyàüs older, elder taru m. tree taru-gahaõam thicket of trees, wood tàmbålam betel dakùiõa right, on the right hand dur:nimittam ill omen dçùñi f. gaze drohaþ injury, hostility dvàr f. door dharma-vit learned in the sacred law nava:yauvanam [fresh] youth nikhila entire nipuõa clever, sharp nirbhara excessive, full nivedaka announcing, indicating pa¤ca five pañu sharp pañãyàüs shaper pati m. lord, husband parava÷a in another's power, helpless parimalaþ perfume pàñhaþ recitation, reading; part (in play) pàtram vessel, receptacle; worthy recipient; actor pàtra-vargaþ cast (of play) potakaþ young animal/plant cåta-potakaþ young mango-tree pratikriyà remedy, remedying pradhàna principal, important prastàvaþ prelude pràsàdaþ mansion; terrace; (upstairs) room bàõaþ arrow Bharataþ pr. nom. bhàjanam receptacle, box bhàryà wife bhåyàüs more, further matta in rut, rutting madaþ intoxication madhukaraþ, madhukarã bee, honey-bee

mårchà faint, swoon madana-murchà amorous swoon målam root, basis, foundation mçgatçùõikà mirage raühas n. speed råpam form; beauty locanam eye vargaþ group vigrahaþ separation; body viñapa m./n. branch, bush, thicket vitarkaþ conjecture, doubt vipinam forest vilakùa disconcerted, ashamed vihvala tottering, unsteady vãthikà row, grove ÷astram knife, sword saüskàraþ preparation, adornment sa-phala fulfilled saüprahàraþ fighting, combat saümåóha confused saras n. lake sàrathi m. driver of a chariot su:ratam love-making surabhi fragrant su:labha easily got, natural skhalanam failure, lapse svàminã mistress svedaþ sweat Hari m. pr. n. harùaþ joy, delight hastin m. elephant hita beneficial; well-disposed, good (friend) ativah caus. (ativàhayati) spend (time) adhiruh (I), adhirohati ascend, mount anubandh (IX), anubadhnàti pursue, importune anulip (VI), anulimpati anoint anuvçt (I), anuvartate go after, attend upon apayà (II), apayàti go away, depart abhighrà (I), abhijighrati smell abhibhå (I), abhibhavati overpower abhisyand (I), abhiùyandate flow avagam (I), avagacchati acquire avadhç, caus. avadhàrayati determine, resolve avalamb (I), avalambate cling to, hold on to àgam caus. àgamayati acquire àgrhà (I), àjighrati smell àcar (I), àcarati conduct oneself, act, do

à÷vas caus. à÷vàsayati cause to breathe freely, comfort uccal (I), uccalati move away, rise utsthà (I) uttiùñhtati stand up, get up utas (IV), udasyati throw up, throw out, push out upakç (VIII), upakaroti furnish, provide upakùip (VI), upakùipati hint at upajan (IV), upajàyate come into being, be roused past part. upajàta upasthà caus. upasthàpayati cause to be near, fetch, bring up upa+i (II), upaiti approach, come to këp (I), kalpate be suitable, conduce to, turn to (dat.) tçp caus. tarpayati satisfy ni÷am caus. ni÷àmayati perceive, observe paritrai (II) paritràti rescue, protect pratinivçt (I), pratinivartate return pratipad (IV), pratipadyate assent, admit prabudh caus. prabodhayati inform, admonish prasvap (II), prasvapiti fall asleep prahi (V), prahiõoti despatch, send vikas (I), vikasati burst, blossom, bloom vicar (I), vicarati move about, roam vicar caus. vicàrayati deliberate, ponder vilok caus. vilokayati look at, watch visçp (I), visarpati be diffused, spread samjan (IV), saüjàyate come into being, be aroused past part. saüjàta samàcar (I), samàcarati conduct onself, act, do spand (I), spandate quiver syand (I), syandate flow, move rapidly agrataþ in front of (gen.) ati: extremely kadàcit perhaps jhañiti suddenly sakà÷am to [the presence of] yathà yathà...tathà tathà in proportion as, the more that Exercise 2 1. priyaüvadaka j¤àyatàü ko'smaddar÷anàrthã dvàri tiùñhati (Priyaüvadaka, j¤àyatàü kaþ asmad-dar÷an-àrthã dvàri tiùñhati). 4. àyuùman ÷råyatàü yadarthamasmi harinà tvatsakà÷aü preùitaþ (àyuùman, ÷råyatàü yat artham asmi Harinà tvat-sakà÷am preùitaþ). 5. evamukto'pyahamenaü pràbodhayaü punaþ punaþ (evam uktaþ api aham enam pràbodhayam punaþ punaþ). 6. ciràt prabhçtyàryaþ parityaktocitasarãrasaüskàra iti pãdyate me hçdayam (ciràt prabhçti àryaþ parityakta-ucita;÷arãra-saüskàraþ iti pãdyate me hçdayam). 7.

vismayaharùamåla÷ca kolàholo lokasya odajihãta (vismaya;-harùa:målaþ ca kolàholaþ lokasya udajihãta). 8. taducyatàü pàtravargaþ sveùu sveùu pàñheùvasaümådhairbhavitavyamiti (tat ucyatàü pàtravargaþ 'sveùu sveùu pàñheùu asaümådhaiþ bhavitavyam' iti.). 9. sakhe cintaya tàvatkenàpade÷ena punarà÷ramapadaü gacchàmaþ (sakhe, cintaya tàvat kena apade÷ena punaþ à÷rama-padaü gacchàmaþ ) 11. ayam asau mama jyàyànàryaþ ku÷o nàma bharatà÷ramàtpratinivçttaþ (ayam asau mama jyàyàn àryaþ Ku÷aþ nàma Bharat-à÷ramàt pratinivçttaþ.) 16. ityavadhàryàpasarpaõàbhilàsiõyahamabhavam (iti avadhàri apasarpaõa- abhilàsiõi aham abhavam). 17. kasminprayojane mamàyaü praõidhiþ prahita iti prabhåtatvatprayojanànàü na khalvavadhàrayàmi (kasmin prayojane mama ayam praõidhiþ prahitaþ iti prabhåta~tvat prayojanànàm na khalu avadhàrayàmi). 18. yadi ka÷cidastyupàyaþ patidrohapratikriyàyai dar÷ayàmuü matiþ hi te pañãyasi (yadi kaþ cit asti upàyaþ pati-droha- pratikriyàyai, dar÷aya amum -- matiþ hi te pañãyasi). 21. ÷rutvà caitattameva mattahastinamudastàdhoraõo ràjaputro dhiruhya raühasottamena ràjabhavanamabhyavartata (÷rutvà ca etat tam eva matta:hastinam udasta:adhoraõaþ ràja-putraþ adhiruhya raühasa uttamena ràjabhavanam abhyavartata). 22. upalabdhavànasmi praõidhibhyo yathà tasya mleccharàjabalasya madhyàtpradhànatamàþ pa¤ca ràjànaþ parayà suhçttayà Ràkùasam anuvartanta iti (upalabdhavàn asmi praõidhibhyaþ yathà tasya mleccha-ràja-balasya madhyàt pradhànatamàþ pa¤ca ràjànaþ parayà suhçt~tayà Ràkùasam anuvartante iti) 24. ityavadhàryànveùtumàdaramakavaram. anveùamàõa÷ca yathà yathà nàpa÷yaü taü tathà tathà suhçtsnehakàtareõa manasà tattada÷obhanamà÷aïkamànastarugahanàni candanavithikà latàmaõóapànsaraþkålàni ca vãkùamàõo nipuõamitastato dattadçùñiþ suciraü vyacaram (iti avadhàrã anveùtum àdaram akavaram. anveùamàõaþ ca yathà yathà na apa÷yaü taü, tathà tathà suhçtsneha-kàtareõa manasà tat tat a÷obhanam à÷aïkamànaþ taru-gahanàni candana-vithikà latà-maõóapàn saraþ-kålàni ca vãkùamàõaþ nipuõam itaþ tataþ datta:dçùñiþ su:ciraü vyacaram.) 25. ekasmiü÷ca prade÷e jhañiti vanànilenopanãtaü nirbharavikasite'pi kànane bhibhåtànyakusumaparimalaü visarpantamatisurabhitayà nulimpantamiva tarpyantamiva pårayantamiva ghràõendriyamahamahamikayà madhukarakulairanubadhyamànamanàghràtapårvamamànuùalokocitaü kusumagandham abhyajighram (ekasmiüs ca prade÷e jhañiti vana-anilena upanãtam nirbhara:vikasite api kànane bhibhåta:anya:kusuma:parimalaü visarpantam ati:surabhi~tayà anulimpantam iva tarpyantam iva pårayantam iva ghràõa-indriyam, ahamahamikayà madhukara-kulaiþ anubadhyamànam an:àghràta:pårvam a:mànuùa-loka-ucitam kusuma-gandham abhya-jighram). 1. Latavya, do you know whose arrow this is? 2. Ah you fool! Are you more-learned-in-the- sacred-law than our preceptor? 5. What then is this great hesitation at every step? 7. The allusion to (such) considerable love-and-service is indeed opportune (avasare). 8. Raivataka, tell our-driver to bring up the chariot complete-with [sa-]-bow-and-arrows. 11. And she became mistress-of-his- entire-harem. 12. Tell (me) what further benefit I can provide for you. 13. After speaking thus he fell silent, his-gaze-fixed-on-my-face (to see) what I [f.] would say. Chapter 15 In Sanskrit, past action may also be expressed by the perfect tense. This is formed, as in Greek, by reduplication of the root and a special set of endings. Here are the perfect forms of dç÷ (see): Person/Number Perfect Active Perfect Middle 1st Singular dadar÷a dadç÷e 2nd dadar÷itha dadç÷iùe 3rd dadar÷a dadç÷e 1st Dual dadç÷iva dadç÷ivahe 2nd dadç÷athuþ dadç÷àthe 3rd dadç÷atuþ dadç÷àte

1st Plural dadç÷ima dadç÷imahe 2nd dadç÷a dadç÷idhve 3rd dadç÷uþ dadç÷ire Note that the singular active forms appear in the strong grade of the root (dadar÷-), while all other forms show the weak grade (dadç÷-). The strong grade is usually guõa, but in many verbs the vriddhi grade is used instead (kç > cakàra). This is optional in the first person, so that it becomes possible to distinguish it from the third person (cakara, I did; cakàra, I/he did). In the weak grade, the vowel a may disappear altogether (gam > jagàma, jagmuþ). As in Greek, the perfect of the root vid (know) is not reduplicated and retains a present sense: veda (I know; cf. oi]da). Vowel-initial verbs reduplicate by lengthening the vowel (as > àsa); in strong forms, the vowel i reduplicates as iye- (iù, want > iyeùa). Reduplication with a semi-vowel (samprasàraõa) shows up in the strong form of other roots, as well: thus vac (say) becomes uvàca. The perfect tense has an active participle with the ending -vàüs. The middle participle ends in -àna, and declines like a÷va. Causative and other derivative verbs do not have a perfect form, but one can be created by combining the perfect of kç with an abstract noun: dar÷ayàü cakàra. He did a showing. He showed. There is a corresponding middle construction with the verb as or bhu: dar÷ayàm àsa. He showed. Although the Sanskrit perfect resembles its Greek equivalent, it does not have a 'perfective' sense (cf. le/luke, he has freed). It is used instead as an historical tense (cakàra, he did). Sanskrit grammarians stipulated that it should not be used for actions in the personal experience of the writer. For this reason, it is rare in drama and common in narrative poetry. Nor is that the end of past tenses in Sanskrit. There is also an aorist formation. Like the imperfect, this is marked by an augment and secondary endings. The aorist stem, however, is formed in various ways that distinguish it from the present stem. Some of these will remind you of the aorist in Greek and the perfect tense in Latin. The following table summarizes Coulson's presentation: Type of Aorist Stem Example Analogous Formation abhåt (he was) e)/fu (he was) Root Aorist (athematic endings, active apatat (he fell) el/) abe (he took) only) adãdç÷at (he showed) cucurrit (he ran) A-aorist (thematic endings, week anaiùãt (he led) e/)luse (he freed) grade of root) Reduplicated Aorist (thematic endings; sense normally causative) Sigmatic Aorists (suffixes -s, iù, siù, sa, with

thematic or athematic akàri (it was done) eb0 la/bh (he was harmed) endings Aorist Passive (Occurs only in the third person, singular) The aorist tense in Sanskrit does not differ in meaning from the imperfect. It was replaced in ordinary writing by participial constructions. Its frequent use is characteristic of a 'learned' style. To summarize, we have seen three past tenses in Sanskrit: the imperfect, perfect, and aorist. They can all be rendered with the simple past in English. Sanskrit grammarians distinguished them with the following formula: the aorist refers to an action 'of today', the imperfect to an action 'not of today', and the perfect to an action in the 'remote' past. In Greek and Latin, the secondary tenses are sometimes used to express hypothetical action. In Sanskrit, two verbal formations are based on the imperfect and or aorist stem. One of these is called the injunctive. It consists of the imperfect or (more commonly) the aorist form without an augment. Once common in Vedic Sanskrit, its use in Classical Sanskrit is confined to negative commands after mà (cf. Greek mh)/ : mà bhaiùta. Do not fear. mà bhåt. Let it not be. The other formation is called the precative. Coulson describes it as 'a kind of aorist optative', which is used to express wishes and prayers. It is formed by adding the suffix -yà[s] to the un- strengthened root: avirahitau dampatã bhåyàstàm. May husband and wife be un-separated. kriyàdaghànà maghavà vighàtam (kriyàd May Indra cause elimination of evils. aghànàm maghavà vighàtam). Finally, a word about Sanskrit metre. Like Latin and Greek, Sanskrit possessed a quantitative rhythm, in which the difference between 'light' and 'heavy' syllables was audible in ordinary speech. In general, a 'heavy' syllable is one that contains a long vowel or diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants. Other syllables are 'light'. Visarga (þ) and anusvara (ü) are treated as consonants in versification. In metrical notation, heavy syllables are marked with a macron (-) and light syllables with x or u. The most common verse-form is the anuùñubh metre, which is the functional equivalent of dactylic hexameter in Latin and Greek. This metre consists of stanzas, which are divisible into quarters called pàdas ('feet'). Each pàda may be divided in turn into two half-verses of four syllables each. The first half-verse is always indeterminate: each of the four syllables may be light or heavy (o). The second half-verse, on the other hand, normally consists of a double iambus (x-x-) in the second and fourth pàdas. The first and third pàdas end with a different metre: x- -x. Thus, an entire stanza follows this pattern: oooo x- -x/oooo x-x- oooo x- -x/oooo x-x- In practice, the final syllable of a pada may be heavy or light by nature. Thus, the anuùñubh metre is a mix of freedom and restriction, which gives considerable scope for poetic creativity.

To illustrate the anuùñubh metre, here are the first two stanzas of the Atmabodha (Self-Knowledge), a versified treatise attributed to the philosopher Shankara (): o o o o x - - - o o o ox-x- tabobhiþ kùãnapàpànàü ÷àntànàü vãtaràginàm o o o o x- - x o o o o x -x - mumukùunàm apekùyo'yam àtmabodho'vidãyate. o o o o x- - x o o o o x - x x bodho'nya sàdhanebhyo hi sàkùàn mokùaikasàdhanam o o o o x - - xoo o o x- x x pàkasya vanhivajj¤ànaü vinà mokùo na sãdhyati. Exercise In place of the readings given in Coulson's chapter, you may read the first ten stanzas of the Atmabodha. This work describes the quest for enlightenment with a series of analogies drawn from nature. For Shankara, 'knowledge of the self' means the realization that one's true Self (atman) is identical with the Absolute (brahman). tapobhiþ kùãnapàpànàü ÷àntànàü vãtaràginàm mumukùunàmapekùyo'yamàtmabodho'vidhãyate. tapas austerity kùãna-pàpàna pure (feeble criminal, one who is purified after suffering the consequences of sin) ÷àntàna calm mumukùuþ desirous of liberation apekùyaþ for the sake of (comparative < apekùa) ayam this àtmabodhaþ self-knowledge vidhãyate is offered, dedicated bodho'nya sàdhanebhyo hi sàkùànmokùaikasàshanam pàkasya vanhivajj¤ànaü vinà mokùo na sidhyati. bodhaþ knowledge anya-sàdhanam other-discipline hi indeed sakùàt directly, really, obviously sàdhanam means pàkaþ cooking vanhi-vat fire-like (vanhi, f. fire) j¤ànam knowledge vinà without (+ acc.) mokùaþ liberation na not sidhyati is possible (< sidh, succeed)

avirodhãtayà karma nàvidyàü vinivartayet vidyàvidyaü nihantyeva tejastimirasaïghavat. virodhãtà opposition (with negating prefix, a-) karman, n. action na not vinivartayet destroys (causative opative < vi-ni-vçt vidyà knowledge avidyà ignorance nihanti destroys (< ni-han) eva only tejas, n. light timira-saõgha-vat as deep darkness (darkness-multitude-like) paricchinna ivàj¤ànàttannà÷e sati kevalaþ; svayaü prakà÷ate hyàtma meghàpàye'm÷umàniva. paricchinna limited iva as though aj¤ànam ignorance tan-nà÷e sati on the destruction of that (loc. abs.) kevala unique, alone, one svayam [by] itself prakà÷ate shines hi indeed àtman self meghaþ cloud apàyaþ passing away aü÷umàn sun iva like aj¤ànakaluùaü jãvaü j¤abhyàsàtvinirmalaü kçtvà j¤ànaü svayaü na÷yejjalaü katakareõuvat. aj¤àna-kaluùa sullied by ignorance jãvam individual j¤àna-bhàsa practice of knowledge vinirmala pure kçtvà having made j¤ànam knowledge na÷yet removes (optative) jalam water kataka-reõu kataka-nut-powder saüsàraþ svapnatulyo hi ràgadveùàdisaükulaþ svakàle satyavadbhàti prabhode satyasatbhavet.

samsàraþ world svapna-tulyo like a dream hi indeed ràga-dveùa adi likes-dislikes-et cetera saükulaþ full of sva-kàlam its time satya-vat truth-like, as real bhàti appears prabhode sati on waking up asat-bhavet it is falsified tàvat satyaü jadadbhàti ÷uktikàrajataü yathà yàvanna j¤àyate brahma sarvàdhiùñhànamadavyaü. tàvat so long satya true jagat world bhàti appears ÷uktikà on the pearl rajatam silver yathà as yàvat as long na not j¤àyate is known (passive) brahman the Absolute sarva-dhiùñhànam support of all advayam non dual upàdàne'khilàdhàre jaganti parame÷vare sargasthitilayànyànti budbudànãva vàriõi upàdàna material cause akhila everything àdhara support jaganti worlds parame÷vara highest god sarga-stithi-layàni rise-exist-melting anti pass away budbudàni bubbles iva like vàriõi in the waters saccidàtmanyanusyåte nityeviùnau prakalpitàþ. vyaktayo vividhàssarvà hàtake kañakàdivat. sat-cit-atma existence-consciousness-selfed; whose nature is existence and consciousness anysyåta all-pervading nitya eternal

viùnau on Vishnu prakalpita projected vyaktaya manifested vividha manifold sarva all hàtaka gold hàtaka-adi-vat bracelet-etc.-like, just as bracelets, etc. yathàkà÷o hçùãke÷o nànopàdhigato vibhuþ tadbhedàdbhinnavatbhàti tannà÷e kevalo bhavet. yathà just as àkà÷aþ space hçùãke÷aþ truth nàna different upàdhigata available in enclosures vibhuþ all pervading tad-bhedàt due to differences in these (enclosures) bhinna-vat as though diverse bhàti appears tan-nà÷e on the destruction of these (enclosures) kevala one, non dual bhavet becomes (optative)