Introduction_to_Sanskrit

preù (pra + iù) despatch, send preùayati run away disperse, chase away vidru (1), vidravati embarrass caus. vidràvayati lajj (6), lajjate caus. lajjayati tàvat, yàvat just (I'll just buy a Exercise 2 newspaper) 4. aho vatsalena suhçdàviyuktàþ smaþ (aho vatsalena suhçdà viyuktàþ smaþ). 6. aryàpi sahyà ÷irovedanà (arya, api sahyà ÷iraþ-vedanà?). 7. lajjayati màmatyantasaujanyameùàm (lajjayati màm atyanta:saujanyam eùàm). 17. kaùñamubhayorapyasthàne yatnaþ (kaùñam, ubhayoþ api asthàne yatnaþ). 19. vayamapi tàvad bhavatyau sakhãgataü kiücitpçcchàmaþ (vayam api tàvat bhavatyau sakhã-gatam kiücit pçcchàmaþ). 20. amàtya idamàbharaõaü kumàreõa sva÷arãràdavatàrya preùitam (amàtya, idam àbharaõam kumàreõa sva:÷arãràt avatàrya [having removed] preùitam). 2. You increase my curiosity. 4. I will just wait for these girls having resorted to the shade. 7. Oh, you have shown love-for-[your]-friend. 15. I have in fact engaged her-dear-friend Buddharakùità on the matter [tatra]. 17. This dear-friend Siddhàrthaka chased the executioners away and carried me off from the place-of-the-condemned. 20. That doctor indeed was made to drink the same medicine, and [at once] died [use ca...ca...]. Day 3 Causative Verbs; Compounds Again In your previous language studies, you gamely tackled the complexities of tense, mood, and voice. Each of these categories generated a new set of paradigms, in which the stem and/or endings underwent some signal modification. But you may also have been vaguely aware of other verbal derivations, which were not presented as something new to be learned. For example, you may have noticed that in Latin there are apparently two ways of saying I sing: cano (inf. canere) and canto (inf. cantare). Later, you discovered that other Latin verbs have an evil twin of the -tare type (e.g., dico > dicto; lego > lectito, capio > capto). The second verb often has the semantic feature of repeated action (e.g., lectito, I keep reading). This is called the frequentative derivation: it is marked by the letter t and a switch to the first conjugation. Since only a handful of Latin verbs have frequentative forms, most textbooks keep silent on the subject. You would have to go to Wikileaks to get the whole story. Sanskrit, on the other hand, has a number of such systems, including the desiderative (ninãùati, he wants to lead), the intensive (nenãyate, he leads forcibly), and the causative (nàyayati, he causes to lead). In this lesson, Coulson introduces the most common of these systems: the causative. Causative forms are marked in Sanskrit by the infix -aya- and strengthening of the root to the guõa grade, and sometimes to the vçddhi: Root Present Indicative Causative dç÷ pa÷yati dar÷ayati

see he sees he causes to see he shows kç karoti kàrayati do he does he causes to do bhu bhavati bhàvayati be he is he causes to be Some verbs (especially those whose root ends in à) add a p to the infix: Root Present Indicative Causative sthà tiùñhati stand he stands sthàpayati he causes to stand he establishes In the past participle of causative verbs, aya is replaced by ita: Root Past Participle Causative labh labhda labhita take taken caused to take, given One of the awkward things about using a causative verb is that it may take two direct objects: harayati bhàram dàsam. He causes-to-carry the luggage a servant. He has a servant carry the luggage. Sanskrit writers often avoid this situation by putting the intended agent in the instrumental case: harayati bhàram dàsena. He causes to carry the luggage by a servant. He has a servant carry the luggage. Coulson notes that many causative forms do not have an obvious causative meaning (e.g., dar÷ayati, he shows), and that causatives often behave in sentences in the same way as indicative verbs. Moreover, the -aya- infix is also characteristic of present indicative verbs in Class 10 (e.g., chàd, chàdayati, he covers), so that even Sanskrit grammarians are not always certain whether a verb is causative or indicative. We need not be concerned about these subtleties, however. The main thing is to be aware of the causative formation and its basic meaning. As a side note, Coulson mentions that causative derivations can be found in English, as well: Basic Form (Intransitive) Causative The tree falls. He fells a tree. He lies down. He lays the knife on the table. As in Sanskrit, the English causative is marked by a change of the root vowel. Confusion of the verbs lie and lay is one of the most common errors in Standard English. Now you know the 'cause' of the problem! And now, a word about compounds. So far, we have been looking at coordinating (dvandva) compounds, such as a÷vagajau (horse and elephant), and determinative compounds, such as

ràmadasaþ (Rama's-servant) and mahàràjaþ (great:king). The elements of these compounds are words that could exist in isolation. Sometimes, however, the first element in a descriptive- determinative compound never appears by itself. It is, for all practical purposes, a prefix: First Element (Prefix) Meaning Example su well, very (cf. eu0 ) su:kçta well done dus ill, badly (cf. dus) duù:kçta badly done sa (saha) together (cf. sun, con) sa:brahmacàrin fellow-student a (an) not (cf. a, in) a:kçta unmade The negative prefix a- is the usual way of negating absolutive forms: a:dçùtvà not having seen, without having seen Many verbal prefixes can also be tacked onto nouns, to create descriptive-determinative compounds: prati:÷abdaþ responding sound, echo adhi:pati overlord Once a language has caught the compounding bug, things can get a little complicated. Consider the following example: waste paper basket a basket for paper that is waste You can see that we really have two compounds here. First, we discover that we are not talking about any old basket, but a waste paper basket. But waste paper itself is a descriptive determinative compound (paper that is waste). Thus, using Coulson's system of punctuating compounds, we have (waste:paper)-basket. Knowing (or guessing) how to analyze these super-compounds can be crucial for understanding Classical Sanskrit. Coulson gives several hair-raising examples, along with rules that will probably make your eyes glaze over. But here is a simple rule of thumb. Compounds are logically read backwards. The key term is at the end, and the terms that go most closely with it are placed closest to it. Consider this frightful example from Coulson: pratyagrasayaütanasnànasavi÷eùa÷ãtala completely cool from the recent evening bath You can read this monster backwards, grouping the modifiers into logical units as you go: ÷ãtala cool savi÷eùa:÷ãtala completely cool snàna-savi÷eùa:÷ãtala from bath completely cool sayaütana:snàna-savi÷eùa:÷ãtala from evening bath completely cool pratyagra:sayaütana:snàna- from recent evening bath completely

savi÷eùa:÷ãtala cool In other words, reading Sanskrit compounds can be like reading Latin sentences. When in doubt, jump to the end. Finally, let's look at some tricky compound formations. The word purva (previous) is unusual in that it can be placed either before or after another word in a compound: purvakçta previously done kçtapurva Likewise, keep an eye out for gataþ (gone to). In compounds, it can mean 'being in', 'about', or 'towards' citragatà nàrã the picture-gone woman putragataþ snehaþ the woman in the picture son-gone affection Vocabulary affection towards a son Memorization Vocabulary kùudra mean, common, low tàtaþ (one's own) father puruùaþ man purva previous mi÷ra mixed vyakta evident, clear spar÷aþ touch kath (10), kathayati say, tell, relate be suitable k×p (1), kalpate arrange, prepare caus. kalpayati employ prayuj (7), prayuïkte Reading Vocabulary proper name lack of breeding, courtesy Alokità missle, weapon avinayàþ proper name astram priest Urva÷i fig-tree çtvij (nom. çtvik) limb kùãra-vçkùaþ proper name gàtram a type of grass Candraguptaþ content, happy darbhaþ manner, way nirvçta power prakàraþ prabhàvaþ

bhagavatã her reverence madanaþ sexual love madanodyànam Park of (the temple of) Love yogacårõam magic powder Ràkùasaþ proper name Ràmàyanam name of an epic poem vaõij (nom. vaõik) businessman, trader vibhàgaþ part, portion vivàdaþ disagreement, dispute vçkùaþ tree vedã sacrificial altar saüstaraõaü (act of) strewing samidh (f.) fire wood kùud (1), kùodati trample, tread past part. kùunna dhç caus. dhàrayati hold, carry, wear make confident pratã (prati + i) caus. pratyàyati set out sell to (+ locative) prasthà (1), pratiùñhate consider, think of arrange, manage vikrã (9), vikrãõãte vicint (10), vicintayati vidhà (3), vidadhàti tena hi therefore Exercise 3 3. idam amàtyaràkùasagçhaü (idam amàtya:Ràkùasa-gçham). 5. suvicintitaü bhagavatyà. 8. tena hãmàü kùãravçkùacchàyàmà÷rayàmaþ (tena hi imàm kùãra-vçkùa-cchàyàm à÷rayàmaþ). 11. alamasmadavinayà÷aïkayà (alam asmat-avinaya-à÷aïkayà) [à÷aïka = apprehension]. 12. amàtya kalpitamanena yogacårõami÷ramauùadhaü Candraguptàya (amàtya, kalpitam anena yogacårõa- mi÷ram auùadham Candraguptàya). 13. aye Urva÷igàtraspar÷àdiva nirvçtaü me ÷arãram (aye, Urva÷i-gàtra-spar÷àt iva nirvçtam me ÷arãram). 15. yàvadimànvedãsaüstaraõàrthaü darbhànçtvigbhya upaharàmi (yàvat imàn vedã-saüstaraõa-artham darbhàn çtvigbhyaþ upaharàmi) [-artham = for the sake of, in order to]. 16. kathitamavalokitayà madanodyànaü gato madhava iti (kathitam Avalokitayà 'Madanodyànam gataþ Madhavaþ' iti). 18. nàyaü kathàvibhàgo'smàbhiranyena và ÷rutapurvaþ (na ayam kathà-vibhàgaþ asmàbhiþ anyena và ÷ruta:purvaþ). 5. This is a road trodden-by-the-common-people. 6. Clearly, these [n.] too were sold to us by a trader employed-by-Càõakya. 10. It is this dispute which makes me confident. 11. The two of us set out for-the-fetching-of-firewood. 13. That is well-managed on the occasion-of-the-entry-of- Kalahaüsaka-and-Makaranda. 14. What, [was] this ornament once-worn by my father? 16. Are these the-two-men-in-the-Ràmàyaõa-story? 18. Quite different [anya] is this un-trodden: way-of- speaking by Her Reverence. 19. This must be [khalu] the power-of-the-Vàruõa-weapons employed-by-Prince-Lava. Chapter 8

Day 1 Changeable-Stem Nouns There is a class of nouns in Sanskrit in which not only the endings, but also the stems change significantly as you go through the cases: Singular Accusative ràjànam (king) Singular Instrumental ràj¤à Singular Locative ràjani In these examples, you see the familiar endings of the consonant-stem declension, but the stem appears in various grades. The strongest grade shows the element àn (ràjàn-am). In the middle grade, the vowel is shortened (ràjani). In the weakest grade, a disappears altogether (ràj¤-à). The causes of this variation can be traced to the Indo-European nominal system. In the old, old days, accented syllables showed the stronger grades of a vowel, while unaccented syllables had the weakest grade. In the 'oblique' cases (instrumental through locative), the accent shifted forward, and the original long vowel would become short or simply disappear. In the form-eat-form world of linguistic evolution, these changes were gradually eliminated. But they still show up in a few words, such as ràjan (king) and nàman (name): Singular Nominative ràjà (masculine) nàma (neuter) Vocative ràjan nàma(n) Accusative ràjànam nàma Instrumental ràj¤à nàmnà Dative ràj¤e nàmne Ablative ràj¤aþ nàmnaþ Genitive ràj¤aþ nàmnaþ Locative ràjani, ràj¤i nàmani, nàmni Dual Nominative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã Vocative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã Accusative ràjànau nàmanã, nàmnã Instrumental ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm Dative ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm Ablative ràjabhyàm nàmabhyàm Genitive ràj¤oþ nàmnoþ Locative ràj¤oþ nàmnoþ Plural Nominative ràjànaþ nàmàni Vocative ràjànaþ nàmàni Accusative ràj¤aþ nàmàni Instrumental ràjabhiþ nàmabhiþ Dative ràjabhyaþ nàmabhyaþ Ablative ràjabhyaþ nàmabhyaþ Genitive ràj¤àm nàmnàm Locative ràjasu nàmasu

In the paradigm for ràjan, the strong stem (ràjàn-) appears in the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases (except the vocative singular and the accusative plural). The middle stem (ràjan-) appears as an optional form in a few places (e.g., in the locative singular). Elsewhere, the weak stem (ràj¤-) is used, although it occurs in two forms. Before endings that begin with a vowel, the n sound in retained and assimilated to the previous palatal consonant (e.g., ràj¤à, ràj¤e, etc.). Before endings which begin with a consonant, n is vocalized and becomes a (e.g., ràjabhyàm, ràjasu, etc., from *ràjnbhyam, ràjnsu). Likewise, the stem for nàman occurs in a strong grade (nàman-) and in two versions of the weak grade (nàmn-, nàma-). The nominative singular is a special case (no pun intended). Ràjà and nàma actually show the strong grade of the stem with no case-ending, but the final n has dropped off. This also happens in Latin (e.g., Plato, Platonis; contrast Greek Pla/twn, Pla/twnoj). Like Sanskrit, Latin has an entire class of -n- nouns (e.g., sermo, sermonis; nomen, nominis), but the Romans simplified things by using either the strong grade (sermºn-) or the weak grade (nomin-) in both the direct and oblique cases. That was a smart move. Finally, let's jump ahead in Chapter 8 and look at words that signify the 'self'. English frequently uses self in one of two ways: as a suffix for the intensive pronoun (he is coming himself), or as a suffix for the reflexive pronoun (he is killing himself). Latin and Greek distinguish the two uses with different pronouns (ipse vs. se; au0to/j vs. e9auto/n), but even these languages tend to blend the two concepts. This is true in Sanskrit, as well. First, Sanskrit has a reflexive adjective, sva, which corresponds to Latin suus. It often has the meaning own, as in 'one's own servant' (svabçtyaþ). But unlike the Latin adjective, it need not refer only to the logical subject of the clause: ràmo'sya svabçtyaü pa÷yati (Ràmaþ Ràma sees that man's own servant (not asya svabçtyaü pa÷yati). his own servant). As an intensifier, Sanskrit employs the indeclinable form svayam. It is derived from sva, and thus it sometimes has a reflexive meaning, too: svayamàgacchati (svayam àgacchati). He is coming himself. svayamadhigata (svayam adhigata) self-acquired, acquired by oneself Another word for 'self' is àtman. This is a noun of the ràjan type, which is used in philosophical contexts to denote the Self or real being, the subject of consciousness. The word is also used as a kind of reflexive pronoun: àtmànam pra÷aüsatha You are praising the self (yourselves). Note that only the masculine singular forms of àtman are used, because àtman is technically a noun, not a pronoun/adjective. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary àtman m. self

avasànam termination, end, conclusion karman m. and n. deed, work divasaþ day doùaþ fault, inconvenience dharmaþ relgious law, duty, piety nàman n. name ràjan m. king sundara (f. -ã) beautiful vid (II), vetti know, learn, discover past participle vidita Reading Vocabulary aparàdhaþ offence abhiyukta diligent atravbhavatã this lady arthaþ meaning, matter; purpose, object anvayaþ succession, lineage; family Dakùiõàpathaþ southern region (of India), the Deccan dur:bodha difficult to understand Padmapuram name of a city pariõirvànam complete extinction pratigrahaþ present (to a brahmin from a king) vatsaþ dear child vçttàntaþ news, event, scene (of activity) ve÷man n. residence sadç÷a (f. -ã) similar, suitable, worthy ÷aïkà suspicion Exercise 1 2. kçtaü ràmasadç÷aü karma. 3. asti dakùiõàpathe padmapuraü nàma [named] nagaraü. 5. ràmaõãyaþ khalu divasàvasànavçttanto ràjave÷mani (ràmaõãyaþ khalu divasa-avasàna-vçttantaþ ràja-ve÷mani). 7. vatsa alamàtmàparàdha÷ankayà (vatsa, alam àtma-aparàdha-÷aõkayà). 9. kàü punaratrabhavatãmavagacchàmi (kàm punar atrabhavatãm avagacchàmi?). 10. kumàra nàyamatyantadurbodho'rthaþ (kumàra, na ayam atyanta:durbodhaþ arthaþ). 18. sundari aparinirvàõo divasaþ (sundari, a:parinirvàõaþ divasaþ). 1. This is a present from the king. 5. Why, you [pl.] too are exhausted by this work-of-piety. 7. Vçùala, these inconveniences happen to [bhu + genitive] kings [who are] themselves not-diligent. 10. Did [my] friend [m.] learn her-family-and-name? Day 2 Exocentric (Bahuvrãhi) Compounds

So far, we have studied the following compound formations: Compound Type Sankrit Example Meaning Coordinative (Dvandva) a÷vagajau horse and elephant servant-of-Rama Dependent Determinative ràmadàsaþ great:king Descriptive Determinative mahàràjà Both coordinative and determinative compounds are self-enclosed. Coordinative compounds designate a closed group, while determinative compounds designate a particular instance of the second element (Rama-servant, great:king). This is technically called a hyponym. There are many compounds in both English and Sanskrit, however, which have a different function altogether: two-footed one who has two feet grim-faced one whose face is grim These expressions do not indicate a particular pair of feet or a particular type of face; rather, their meaning must be completed by a third element (e.g., a grim-faced warrior). English often uses the suffix -ed to mark this type of compound, but this is not always the case: two-car (garage) (a garage) that has two cars This type of compound is called exocentric, because it does not 'center upon' or enclose itself. Rather, both elements point to an 'external' (exo-) element, without which the compound makes no sense or changes its meaning. Sanskrit grammarians also use the name bahuvrãhi, which means 'much-riced'. This is an epithet of rich men, and it serves as an illustration of the exocentric function. Exocentric compounds in Sanskrit are formed in the same way as determinative compounds. The first element is posited in its basic form, and the second is inflected to agree with the noun it modifies, even if this is only implied: ugramukhàþ (naràþ) grim-faced (men) Exocentric compounds can be difficult to identify, because they are essentially coordinative and determinative compounds that have been kidnapped for a new semantic function. For example, ugramukham could stand on its own as a descriptive compound (a grim face), but here it is being pressed into service as a modifier of men. Coulson has devised a clever way of marking both the original and the new functions of the compounded elements, using a subscript hyphen to signify an exocentric application: ugra:mukhàþ (naràþ) grim:faced (men) Another wrinkle is that determinative compounds sometimes function as modifiers, without thereby becoming exocentric. You can see the difference when you compare these compounds: well-educated (determinative) well-heeled (exocentric) Well-educated does not require a shift of meaning when the two words are compounded: it just

means 'educated well'. Well-heeled, on the other hand, does not mean 'heeled well', but rather 'having a good [rich] heel'. The fact that an additional word ('having') is required to unpack the compound is a good indicator of 'exocentricity'. Sanskrit writers were fond of exocentric compounds, and they used them in all sorts of creative ways. This can make analyzing and translating them rather tricky. At this stage of the game, it is good to have one or two metaphrases (plug-in translations) handy for immediate use. The creation of fake participles in -ed is one useful technique (e.g., grim-faced). Another is to affix 'having' to the compound: ugra:mukhaþ (naraþ) (a man) having a grim face Traditional Sanskrit grammarians also recommended turning the compound into a relative clause: ugra:mukhaþ (naraþ) (a man) whose face is grim But Coulson notes that these strategies can sometimes be misleading. For example, when participles are involved in the compound, more than one translation is possible: dçùñakaùñàþ (naràþ) (men) whose calamity is seen (men) by whom calamity has been seen For the time being, then, it is best to roll with the punches and get used to Sanskrit usage as we find it in the exercises. Let's conclude this unit with a few odds and ends from Coulson's chapter. We have already looked at the 'selfish' words (sva, svayam, àtman). He also mentions a class of adjectives and nouns derived from verbs, which are marked by the suffix -ana: Verbal root Derived Form Meaning ÷ubh (shine) ÷obhana shining, beautiful nand (rejoice) nandana gladdening dç÷ (see) dar÷anam (act of) seeing Although nouns in this category may have the force of a gerund (act of...), they more often signify the product or result of the verb: Verbal root Derived Form Meaning vac (speak, say) vacanam speaking; word bhuj (enjoy, eat) bhojanam eating; food A similar ambiguity exists in some English verbal derivations, such as 'action', which can mean 'acting' or 'act'. Another interesting construction is the so-called predicative accusative, which also parallels English usuage: mårkhaü tvàmavagacchàmi (mårkhaü I think you a fool. tvàm avagacchàmi).

Note that both tvàm and mårkhaü are in the accusative case. This construction is a handy device, because can be used as a form of indirect statement (I deem you to be a fool; I think that you are a fool). Sanskrit does not possess the tools developed in Latin and Greek for the latter construction (accusative + infinitive, o/9ti, etc.), and so this is your main alternative to direct quotations with iti, discussed earlier: mårkhaü tvàmavagacchàmi (mårkhaü I think you a fool. tvàm avagacchàmi). 'Your are a fool', I think. mårkhastvamityavagacchàmi (mårkaþ tvam iti avagacchàmi). Finally (and I mean it this time), Coulson notes two Sanskrit idioms for 'became' or 'has become': eùo'smi nçpaþ saüvçttaþ (eùaþ asmi Behold, I am king happened. nçpaþ saüvçttaþ) Behold, I have become king. niþsahàsi jatà (niþsahà asi jatà) You (f.) are born exhausted. You have become exhausted. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary gamanaü going guõaþ merit, quality, worth of such a kind tàdç÷a fate, chance, fortune daivam mind manas n. adhigam (I), adhigacchati find; realize, perceive beget, produce, arouse jan causative janayati happen, become saüvçt (I), saüvartate kim tu but tadà then, at that time svayam -self, personally, etc. hanta alas! hi (enclitic) for (conjunction) Reading Vocabulary aïgurãyaka m., n. ring (for finger) ati:bãbhatsa extremely repulsive, foul anukåla favorite apavàrita hidden araõyaü forest avasita terminated, over àmodaþ scent àyatanam abode àsakta fastened, fixed, occupied

autsukyam eagerness kañaka m.,n. (royal) camp kaùàya astringent, sharp (of scent) Kàma:devaþ the god of Love kusumam flower kesaram hair, filament kautukam curiosity krauryam cruelty caryà movement, riding (in vehicle) cittam thought, mind jàpyam (muttered) prayer Dàruvarman m. proper name dur:vipàkaþ cruel turn (of fortune) nàmadheyam appellation, name nç÷aüsa injurious; m. monster pariõàmaþ evolution, outcome parivçta surrounded, having a retinue pariùad f. assembly, audience parãta overcome pàdapaþ tree puõóarãkam lotus prabandhaþ (literary) work bahumànaþ respect for (loc.) manda sluggish, slack mahànt great mukham face mudrà authorizing seal or stamp; pass rathaþ chariot vaikhànasaþ hermit, anchorite vaitàlikaþ royal bard vaimanasyam despondency vairam hostility vya¤janam sign, insignia, disguise ÷àpaþ curse ÷ãtala cool -sad dweller (in) saüdhyà twilight, evening siddha achieved stambhaþ pillar aïk (X), aïkayati brand, stamp anukamp (I), anukampate sympathize with, take pity on abhyas (abhi + as, I), familiar to one (through abhyasyati practice) past participle abhyasta

avanam (I), avanamati bow down, bend down past participle avanata bloom, blossom utsva÷ (II), ucchvasiti hear, learn of designate, specify upa÷ru (V), upa÷çnoti nirdi÷ (nis + di÷, VI), go out of (+ ablative) nirdi÷ati examine, scrutinize niùkram(I) niùkràmati wander about parãkù (pari + ikù, I), dwell, live (in) parãkùate recognise paryañ (pari + añ, I), paryañati bind, fix, enter into prativas (I), prativasati (friendship or hate) pratyabhij¤à (prati + abhi perfume + j¤a, IX), pratyabhijànàti bandh (9), badhnàti past participle baddha vàs (X), vàsayati adhastàt (+ genitive) beneath itaþ from here nanu why! well! bho bhoþ ho there! Exercise 2 1. hanta siddhàrthau svaþ (hanta, siddha:arthau svaþ). 4.vayasya itaþ stambhàpvàrita÷arirau tiùñhàvaþ (vayasya, itaþ stambha-apavàrita:÷arirau tiùñhàvaþ). 6. kimarthamagçhãtamudraþ kañakànniùkramasi (kim-artham a:gçhãta:mudraþ kañakàt niùkramasi?). 8. bhobhoþ kiüprayojano'yama÷vaþ parivçtaþ paryañati? (bho bhoþ, kim:prayojanaþ ayam a÷vaþ parivçtaþ paryañati?). 11. kiü tvamàtyaràkùasa÷cànakye baddhavairo na Candragupte (kim tu amàtya:Ràkùasaþ Cànakye baddha:vairaþ, na Candragupte). 12. tadeùa svayaü parãkùitaguõànbràhmanànpreùayàmi (tat eùaþ svayam parãkùita:guõàn bràhmanàn preùayàmi). 13. hà kaùñamatibãbhatsakarmà nç÷aüso'smi saüvçttaþ (hà kaùñam, atibãbhatsa:karmà nç÷aüsaþ asmi saüvçttaþ). 14. kathaü kçtamahàparàdho'pi bhagavatãbhyàmanukampito'ràmaþ (katham, kçta:mahà:aparàdhaþ api bhagavatãbhyàm anukampitaþ Ràmaþ?). 16. sa tadaiva devyàþ Sãtàyàstàdç÷aü daivadurvipàkamupa÷rutya vaikhànasaþ saüvçttaþ (sa tadà eva devyàþ Sãtàyàþ tàdç÷am daiva-durvipàkam upa÷rutya vaikhànasaþ saüvçttaþ). 17. aphalamaniùñaphalaü và dàruvarmanaþ prayatnamadhigacchàmi (a:phalam ani:ùña:phalaü và Dàruvarmanaþ prayatnam adhigacchàmi). 19. ÷akuntalàdar÷anàdeva mandautsukyo'smi nagaragamanaü prati (øakuntalà- dar÷anàt eva mand:autsukyaþ asmi nagara-gamanam prati). 2. I went, my curiosity-aroused-by-Avalokità, to the the temple of Kàmadeva. 3. This signet ring is stamped-with-the-minister's-name. 4. We do not find a work with-the- qualities-specified-by- the-audience. 6. 'See, I have become Kàmandakã.' 'And I, Avalokità.' 8. Then why are you standing [sthita] with-the-lotus-of-your-face-bent-down. 9. For there lives a dear friend of mine [of me:] having-the-disguise-of-a-royal-bard, called Stanakala÷a. 11. Dearest, even the cruelty practised [prayukta] by me upon you has come [saüvçt] to-have-a-favorable-outcome. 12. Though my-mind-is-concerned-with [gata]-Urva÷i, I have the same respect for Her Majesty. 13. But we are forest-dwellers, to-whom-riding-in-a-chariot-is-unfamiliar. 14. So let us (both) just sit beneath this very kà¤canàra tree, which-perfumes-the-garden-with-a-sharkp-cool-scent-from-the- filaments-of-blossomed-flowers. Right.

Chapter 9 Day 1 Stems in Short I and U; -Vant, -Mant Beginning students of Greek experience some frustration when they learn the so-called Third Declension. No sooner have they mastered the consonant-stem forms of nouns such as fu/lac than they encounter a trainwreck in po/lij, ge/noj, h9du/j, etc. Most of the confusion stems from the fact that, in these nouns, the stem ends in a vowel, rather than a consonant (e.g., gene-oj > ge/nouj). Sanskrit also has a number of 'consonant-stem' nouns and adjectives whose stem actually ends in a vowel (i or u). The situation is complicated by the infiltration of endings from other declensions. Have a look at the adjective ÷uci (clean): Sing. Nominative ÷uciþ (m.) ÷uci (n.) ÷uciþ (f.) Vocative ÷uce ÷uci ÷uce Accusative ÷ucim ÷uci ÷ucim Instrumental ÷ucinà ÷ucinà ÷ucyà Dative ÷ucaye ÷ucine ÷ucyai Ablative ÷uceþ ÷ucinaþ ÷ucyàþ Genitive ÷uceþ ÷ucinaþ ÷ucyàþ Locative ÷ucau ÷ucini ÷ucyàm Dual Nominative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã Vocative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã Accusative ÷ucã ÷ucinã ÷ucã Instrumental ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm Dative ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm Ablative ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm ÷ucibhyàm Genitive ÷ucyoþ ÷ucinoþ ÷ucyoþ Locative ÷ucyoþ ÷ucinoþ ÷ucyoþ Plural Nominative ÷ucayaþ ÷ucãni ÷ucayaþ Vocative ÷ucayaþ ÷ucãni ÷ucayaþ Accusative ÷ucãn ÷ucãni ÷ucãþ Instrumental ÷ucibhiþ ÷ucibhiþ ÷ucibhiþ Dative ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ Ablative ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ ÷ucibhyaþ Genitive ÷ucãnàm ÷ucãnàm ÷ucãnàm Locative ÷uciùu ÷uciùu ÷uciùu To sort this mess, let's look at the neuter forms first. The basic stem is ÷uci. The infix -n- appears before vowel endings (e.g., ÷ucine, ÷ucinaþ), but not before consonants (÷ucibhyàm, etc.). The infix is sometimes omitted on neuter adjectives, which then resemble the masculine forms. On the feminine side, we find the singular endings -yai, -yàþ, and -yàm. These have been borrowed from the feminine -ã declension (cf. nadã), and they are optional. Originally, masculine

and feminine forms were identical (cf. Latin facilis). The remaining forms, which are masculine or masculine/feminine, seem less predictable. Most are built on the stem ÷uci. When the ending begins with a consonant, it can be added directly to this stem (e.g., ÷ucibhiþ). When the ending begins with a vowel, the -i may become a semi-vowel (÷ucyoþ) or combined according to the sandhi rules with the ending (÷uci + aþ = ÷uceþ). A 'stronger' form of the stem appears in the nominative/vocative plural (÷ucayaþ), as well as the dative singular (÷ucaye; cf. po/lij, dative po/le-i). Finally, a number of forms may remind you of the -a declension (÷uciþ, ÷ucim, ÷ucinà, ÷ucãn, ÷ucãnàm). Thus, nouns of this type are a mixed bag. Luckily, the -u forms follow the same pattern, except that u replaces i and v replaces y: Sing. Nominative mçduþ (m.) mçdu (n.) mçduþ (f.) Vocative mçdo mçdu mçdo Accusative mçdum mçdu mçdum Instrumental mçdunà mçdunà mçdvà Dative mçdave mçdune mçdvai Ablative mçdoþ mçdunaþ mçdvàþ Genitive mçdoþ mçdunaþ mçdvàþ Locative mçdau mçduni mçdvàm Dual Nominative mçdå mçdunã mçdå Vocative mçdå mçdunã mçdå Accusative mçdå mçdunã mçdå Instrumental mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm Dative mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm Ablative mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm mçdubhyàm Genitive mçdvoþ mçdunoþ mçdvoþ Locative mçdvoþ mçdunoþ mçdvoþ Plural Nominative mçdavaþ mçdåni mçdavaþ Vocative mçdavaþ mçdåni mçdavaþ Accusative mçdån mçdåni mçdåþ Instrumental mçdubhiþ mçdubhiþ mçdubhiþ Dative mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ Ablative mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ mçdubhyaþ Genitive mçdånàm mçdånàm mçdånàm Locative mçduùu mçduùu mçduùu Of the two types, the short -i declension is the more common, since many substantives at the end of bahuvrãhi compounds adopt these forms. Another type of consonant-stem form is marked with the suffix -vant/-mant. This is one handy way of turning a noun into an adjective (e.g., pakùa, wing > pakùavant, winged). -Mant replaces - vant after certain sounds (i, u, short ç, o, iù, uù), but it may show up on other stems as well. Here is the complete paradigm of dhanavant (rich): Sing. Nominative dhanavàn (m.) dhanavat (n.) dhanavatã (f.) dhanavat dhanavati Vocative dhanavan

Accusative dhanavantam dhanavat dhanavatãm Instrumental dhanavatà dhanavatà dhanavatyà Dative dhanavate dhanavate dhanavatyai Ablative dhanavataþ dhanavataþ dhanavatyàþ Genitive dhanavataþ dhanavataþ dhanavatyàþ Locative dhanavati dhanavati dhanavatyàm Dual Nominative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau Vocative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau Accusative dhanavantau dhanavatã dhanavatyau Instrumental dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm Dative dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm Ablative dhanavadbhyàm dhanavadbhyàm dhanavatãbhyàm Genitive dhanavatoþ dhanavatoþ dhanavatyoþ Locative dhanavatoþ dhanavatoþ dhanavatyoþ Plural Nominative dhanavantaþ dhanavanti dhanavatyaþ Vocative dhanavantaþ dhanavanti dhanavatyaþ Accusative dhanavataþ dhanavanti dhanavatãþ Instrumental dhanavadbhiþ dhanavadbhiþ dhanavatãbhiþ Dative dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavatãbhyaþ Ablative dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavadbhyaþ dhanavatãbhyaþ Genitive dhanavatàm dhanavatàm dhanavatãnàm Locative dhanavatsu dhanavatsu dhanavatãùu These forms are quite predictable, thank Heaven. The feminine forms are all taken from the -ã paradigm (cf. nadã). In the masculine and neuter columns, you see the strong and weak grades of the stem (dhanavant- and dhanavat-, respectively) in the usual places. Before an ending beginning with a voiced consonant, dhanavat- becomes dhanavad- (e.g., dhanavadbhyàm). You have probably noticed that forms in -vant bear an uncanny resemblance to active participles in both Greek and Latin (e.g. amantes, pau/santej, etc.). In Sanskrit, the -vant suffix can be added to the past participle, which is usually passive, to create a past active participle (e.g., likhitavant-, having written). This makes it possible to avoid constant recourse to the passive construction: tena likhito lekhaþ. The letter [is] written by him. sa lekhaü likhitivàn. The letter has been written by him. He [is] in-a-state-of-having-written the letter. He has written the letter. This formation is unnecessary if the past participle already has an active sense: sa vanaü gataþ. He has gone to the forest. Finally, a note on etiquette. Many languages, including modern ones such as Spanish, substitute the third person for the second as a mark of respect. In Sanskrit, direct address in the second person is permissible, but there are various titles and circumlocutions that can be used instead, often with verbs in the third person. Here are a few examples:

bhavant (fem. bhavatã) [your] Reverence (cf. Spanish Usted, from Vuestra Merced, 'Your Mercy', and àryaþ (fem. àryà) Romanian Dumneavoastra, 'Your àyuùmant Lordship'). noble one, excellency long-lived one (often used when addressing a king) Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary agni m. fire çùi m. guru seer heavy; m. teacher, elder, dhãmant senior, guardian patnã dharma-patnã wise prakçti f. wife bhavant lawful wife hetu m. nature, disposition; subjects of a king you motive, ground for (+locative) upalabh (I), upalabhate acquire, ascertain, discover nikùip (VI) nikùipati throw, cast into (locative), place, deposit vac (II), vakti past part. ukta say hi assuredly Reading Vocabulary finger the hands joined together aïguli, aïgulã (f.) (in salutation or for alms) a¤jali proud, noble conformable, suitable, atyudàra proper anu_råpa disaffection unprecedented, strange aparàgaþ [non-sphere:] matter a:pårva beyond the scope of a:viùayaþ appellation, name that lady àkhyà [having another:] under tatrabhavatã paravant

Puõóarãkaþ another's control; beside bakulam oneself, overwhelmed bahumànaþ proper name bhagavant bakula-tree blossom Bhårivasu respect ramaõãya reverend (sir) viùam masculine proper name viùa-kanyà attractive velà poison vyasanam poison-girl sakhe (voc. of sakhi) time (of day) sàdhu weak spot, weakness homaþ friend good; bravo! oblation, sacrifice abhidhà (III), abhidadhàti say, speak past part. abhihita upasthà (I), upatiùñhate stand near, be at hand past participle upastitha tarj, caus. tarjayati threaten, scold nivid, caus. nivedayati report, inform somone (dat., gen.) of something pratibudh (VI), (accusative) pratibhudyate wake up (intransitive) han, caus. ghàtayati cause to be killed, have killed kaccid perhaps...? nàma indeed pràk previously, before Exercise 1 1. kimuktavànasi (kim uktavàn asi?). 3. kçtà¤jaliþ praõamati (kçta:a¤jaliþ praõamati). 5. sakhe Puõóarãka naitadanuråpaü bhavataþ (sakhe Puõóarãka, na etat anuråpam bhavataþ). 6. yàvadupasthitàü homavelàü gurave nivedayàmi (yàvat upasthitàm homa-velàm gurave nivedayàmi). 7. kaccidahamiva vismçtavàüstvamapi (kaccid aham iva vismçtavàüs tvam api?). 8. paravanto vayaü vismayena (paravantaþ vayam vismayena). 9. àryàpi satrorvyasanamupalabdham (àrya, api satroþ vyasanam upalabdham?) 12. bhagavan na khalu ka÷cidaviùayo nàma dhãmatàü (bhagavan, na khalu kaþ cit a:viùayaþ nàma dhãmatàm). 13. øakuntalà sakhãmaïgulyà tarjayati (øakuntalà sakhãm aïgulyà tarjayati). 14. sàdhu sakhe Bhårivaso sàdhå. 15. kimayaü pratibuddho'bhihitavàn (kim ayam pratibuddhaþ abhihitavàn?). 16. atha sà tatrabhavatã kimàkhyasya ràjaçùeþ patnã (atha sà tatrabhavatã kim:àkhyasya ràja:çùeþ patnã?). 3. But where did Màlatã see Màdhava before? 5. What do you [bhavant, pl.] say? 6. Màlatã has-a- noble-nature. 7. The riches of Minister-Bhårivasu are indeed attractive. 9. I told you [bhavant] the story [vçttàntaþ]-of-my-first-sight of øakuntalà. 13. A rather [ko'pi] strange ground-for-respect

towards [locative] [one's] elders, Saudhàtaki. 14. This [man], employed-by-Rakùasa, had Parvate÷vara killed by a poison-girl. 15. [She] casts the garland-of-bakulas into Màdhava's joined hands. 19. To Candragupta's-subjects assuredly it is Cànakya's-faults which are grounds-for- disaffection. 21. Bravo, Vçsala, bravo! Day 2 Middle Voice (âtmanepada); More on Compounds; Word-Building Most of the finite verbs you have learned so far have active forms, or what Sanskrit grammarians call parasmaipada ('word for another'). There is another set of verb-forms, which in Greek are called middle. The Sanskrit term is àtmanepada ('word for oneself'). Originally, middle forms conveyed the idea that the action affects the subject: Active Voice yajati he (the priest) sacrifices Middle Voice yajate (on behalf of someone else) he (the devotee) sacrifices (for his own benefit) This is comparable to the difference in Greek between lu/ei (he sets free) and lu/etai (he ransoms). The middle voice implies that the subject has a 'vested interest' in the action. Note, by the way, that we are not speaking here of passive forms. The passive voice did not exist as a separate formal category in Proto-Indo-European, and IE languages had to come up with various ways of creating it. In Sanskrit, most of the weight is carried by the passive participle, but there are also other passive forms, which we will learn later. As Coulson points out, the original force of the middle voice became blunted, with the result that some verbs have both active and middle forms with exactly the same meaning: Active Voice cintayati he thinks Middle Voice cintayate he thinks Other verbs possess only middle forms. Many of these are intransitive verbs, such as vartate (he is, exists, etc.; cf. Latin versatur). But others are middle for no obvious reason: Middle Voice Only upalabh (I), upalabhate acquire, ascertain, discover Thus, it is probably better to think of the middle voice as an accidental distinction, like grammatical gender. Dictionaries will alert you to the existence of active and middle forms for a given verb, and whether there is any semantic distinction between them. Here are the middle forms for the present tense of the verb nã (nayati; middle nayate): 1st Singular naye (I lead) 2nd nayase 3rd nayate 1st Dual nayàvahe 2nd nayethe 3rd nayete

1st Plural nayàmahe 2nd nayadhve 3rd nayante Note that the middle endings somewhat resemble the active forms you have already learned. In many cases, the difference is that the vowel i has been replaced by e (cf. the diphthong ai in lu/etai, etc.). The stem vowel e in naye, nayethe, and nayete results from internal sandhi combining the stem vowel a with the endings i, ithe, and ite. So much for the middle voice; now let's return to compounds. We have already learned the main compound-fomations in Sanskrit: coordinative, determinative, and exocentric. In this chapter, Coulson ties together some loose ends. First, he notes that some prepositional compounds do not fit the usual pattern, in that the relationship between the elements is neither coordinative nor determinative. Consider these examples in English: over:load (determinative) an excessive load over:sexed (exocentric, based on a one whose sexual behavior is excessive determinative) over_head (exocentric, not based on a one that stands over the head determinative) In the first two examples, over modifies load and sexed as if it were an adjective or adverb. But in the last example, it functions simply as a preposition with head. Thus, we can think of such compounds as prepositional phrases that have been turned into adjectives. Their function is necessarily exocentric. Into this class fall a number of compounds with the elements sa- (with, and, having) and nis- (without, lacking): sa_viùam auùadham with_poison medicine nir_à÷aü kulam medicine containing poison without_hope family hopeless family Coulson also mentions compounds with the prefix yathà-, meaning as: yathà_nirdiùña as_specified Prepositional compounds of this type often become adverbs: à_målam to the root, radically prati-dinam by day, daily Coulson rounds out his lesson with some observations about world-building. These are not rules to be memorized, but they can be a great help to the memory as the vocabulary piles up. First, a great many verbs in Sanskrit are derived from nouns and adjectives (cf. blacken, from the adjective black). Often, this is accomplished by adding -ya to the nominal stem: tapas (religious austerity) tapasyati (he practices austerities) namas (homage) namasyati (he pays homage)

deva (god) devayati (he cultivates the gods) Another common device for building vocabulary is to raise the grade of the root vowel to vrãddhi, the highest grade: øiva (the god Shiva) ÷aiva (devoted to Shiva) puram (city) ÷aivaþ (devotee of Shiva) vidyà (learning) paura (urban) pauraþ (citizen) vaidya (learned) vaidyaþ (doctor, physician) In particular, two types of nouns are created in this way. One class includes patronymic or 'descent' names, such as Pauravaþ (descendant of Puru). The Pauravas and Kauravas are the 'Hatfields and McCoys' of the Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata. Another type includes abstract substantives, such as saujanyam (benevolence) from sujanaþ (good person). Finally, a curious example of compounding involves janaþ (person, people; cf. gens). As the second element in a compound, it means 'person' or 'folk': kàmi:janaþ love:person, a lover guru:janaþ love:folk, lovers (in general) Vocabulary teacher-person, tutor teacher-folk, elders Memorization Vocabulary cetas n. mind, heart j¤a knowing, aware of, recognising tapas n. religious austerity màlà garland lajjà shame, embarrassment man (IV), manyate think, suppose vçt (I), vartate exist vçdh (I), vardhate increase, prosper tataþ thereupon, then nis- without, lacking yathà- as- sa- with-, etc. Reading Vocabulary atikrànta gone:beyond, past atidàruõa dreadful anvita accompanied by, full of

arthaþ meaning avagrahaþ obstacle, restraint àtapaþ heat (esp. of sun) àtma-jà [born of oneself:] daughter àyuùmant long-lived à÷rama-padam site of hermitage, hermitage àsanna near; beside ugra fierce utsuka eager utsukam eagerness upakàraþ help, aiding (of) upajàpaþ instigation to rebellion, 'overtures' upapanna suitable, possible Kaõvaþ proper name gàthà verse tatrabhavant his honor dàruõa cruel nir_utsuka without eagerness paryàpta sufficient pàrthivaþ king, ruler praõidhi m. (secret) agent pratij¤à promise prahçùña delighted brahman n. religious chastity bhadra good; good fellow bhavanam house, residence mandàraþ coral-tree mandàra:vçkùakaþ mahiman m. greatness Mahendraþ the great Indra mçgayà hunting, the chase yathokta as stated, as described rathyà carriage-road, street ramaõãya attractive lekhaþ letter, epistle valaya m., n. bracelet, circle, enclosure vikramaþ valour vighnaþ obstacle, hindrance vibhåti splendour, wealth; riches vivasvant m. [the Shining One:] the sun Viùõu÷arman m. proper name vismayaþ astonishment Vaidheha belong to the country of Videha vyàpàraþ occupation ÷atru m. enemy ÷à÷vata (f. -ã) perpetual

sacivaþ counsellor, minister saüdar÷anam saünihita sight, beholding samàgamaþ present (as opp. absent) saübhàvya saümardaþ meeting with, union sutà Saudhàtaki credible crush, encounter, throng daughter m. proper name anusthà (I), anutiùñhati make an oblation, sacrifice past participle anuùñhita anusmç (I), anusmarati remember abhivad greet caus. abhivàdayate àdi÷ (VI), àdi÷ati order, proclaim à÷aïk (I), à÷aïkate fear, doubt, be afraid utkaõñhate denom. long for, be in love with (+ genitive) kùam (I), kùamate be patient, endure gam, caus. gamayati spend (time) tarj, caus. tarjayati threaten, scold dah (I), dahati burn nivçt (I) nivartate go back, return parivçdh, caus. cause to grow, tend parivardhayati (plants) prasthà, caus. despatch prasthàpayati samcar (I), samcarate walk, stroll samdi÷ (VI), saüdi÷ati command samç, caus. samarpayati hand over to (gen., dat.) sammantr (X), take counsel, consult saümantrayati smç, caus. smàrayati cause to remember, remind atha now... kim iti with what in mind? why? pràyeõa generally bahu÷aþ often Exercise 2 2. saüprati nivartàmahe vayam. 4. sarvànabhivàdaye vaþ (sarvàn abhivàdaye vaþ). 10. tatkimityàùaïkase (tat kim iti à÷aïkase?) 11. ahamadhunà yathàdiùñamanutiùñhàmi (aham adhunà yathà àdiùñam anutiùñhàmi). 17. bhadràthàgniprave÷e suhçdaste ko hetuþ (bhadra, atha agni-prave÷e [locative noun] suhçdaþ te kaþ hetuþ?) 18. paravatã khalu tatrabhavatã na ca saünihitagurujanà (paravatã khalu tatrabhavatã, na ca saünihita:guru:janà). 19. diùñyà dharmapatnãsamàgamena putramukhasaüdar÷anena ca àyuùmànvardhate (diùñyà dharma-patnã- samàgamena putra-mukhasaüdar÷anena ca àyuùmàn vardhate). 20. tatkimayamàryeõa salekhaþ puruùaþ Kusumapuraü prasthàpitaþ? (tat kim ayam àryeõa sa_lekhaþ puruùaþ Kusumapuram

prasthàpitaþ?) 21. tatrabhavàïkaõvaþ ÷à÷vate brahmaõi vartate, iyaü ca vaþ sakhã tasyàtmajeti kathametat (tatrabhavàn Kaõvaþ ÷à÷vate brahmaõi vartate, iyam ca vaþ sakhã tasya àtmajà iti katham etat?) 22. mamàpi kaõvasutàmanusmçtya mçgayàü prati nirutsukaü cetaþ (mama api Kaõva-sutàm anusmçtya mçgayàm prati nir_utsukam cetaþ). 23. api Candraguptadoùàtikràntapàrthivaguõànsmàrayanti prakçtãþ (api Candragupta-doùàþ atikrànta:pàrthiva-guõàn smàrayanti prakçtãþ?) 24. etàmasaübhàvyàü bràhmanasya pratij¤àü ÷rutvà sasacivaþ ràjà prahçùtamanà vismayànvitaþ sabahumànaü tasmai Viùõu÷armaõe kumàrànsamarpitivàn (etàm a:saübhàvyàm bràhmanasya pratij¤àm ÷rutvà sa_sacivaþ ràjà prahçùta:manà vismaya-anvitaþ sa_bahumànam tasmai Viùõu÷armaõe kumàràn samarpitivàn). 1. Is [your] austerity without-hindrance? 2. Friend Makaranda, are you [bhavant] in love with Madayantikà? 4. Lady, a shame-less Lakùmaõa herewith [eùaþ] salutes [you]. 8. There is a dreadful throng-of-people. 10. Reverend Arundhatã, I, Sãradhvaja (King) of Videha greet [you]. 11. Are Candragupta's-subjects responding to [kùam] our-overtures? 12. He thinks me actually not-present. 16. [I] congratulate you [bhavant] on your-greatness-in-valor, sufficient-for-the- aiding-of-Mahendra. 17. Thereupon there enters, her-occupation-as-described, together with two [female] friends, øakuntalà. 18. Truly [nanu], friend, we [two] often walk along [instrumental] the very street-beside-the-minister's-residence--so this is possible. 20. Friend, the sun burns without- restraint, as cruel as fate. 22. Ah! the meaning-of-the-verse is 'I am one-who-has-[j¤à]-news-of- Kusumapara, and your-agent. 23. See, we two have entered Prajàpati's hermitage, its-coral-trees- tended-by-Aditi. 24. The time when-the-heat-is-fierce that lady generally spends with-her-friends on the banks-of-the-Màlinã with [vant]-[their]-enclosures-of-creepers. Chapter 10 Day 1 Noun-Stems in -ä, -æ, -In, -Ti We have already seen nouns such as nadã (river), of which the stem consists of more than one syllable and ends in -ã. There is a corresponding type that ends in -å, exemplified by vadhå (f., woman): Singular Nominative nadã vadhåþ Vocative nadi vadhu Accusative nadãm vadhåm Instrumental nadyà vadhvà Dative nadyai vadhvai Ablative nadyàþ vadhvàþ Genitive nadyàþ vadhvàþ Locative nadyàm vadhvàm Dual Nominative nadyau vadhvau Vocative nadyau vadhvau Accusative nadyau vadhvau Instrumental nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm Dative nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm Ablative nadãbhyàm vadhåbhyàm Genitive nadyoþ vadhvoþ Locative nadyoþ vadhvoþ

Plural Nominative nadyaþ vadhvaþ Vocative nadyaþ vadhvaþ Accusative nadãþ vadhåþ Instrumental nadãbhiþ vadhåbhiþ Dative nadãbhyaþ vadhåbhyaþ Ablative nadãbhyaþ vadhåbhyaþ Genitive nadãnàm vadhånàm Locative nadãùu vadhåùu With the exception of the nominative singular, the forms of vadhå are parallel to those of nadã, except that i is replaced by u, and y by v. There are also stems in -ã and -å that consist of only one syllable; these are declined somewhat like consonant-stems. Our examples are dhã (f., thought) and bhå (earth): Singular Nominative dhãþ bhåþ Vocative dhãþ bhåþ Accusative dhiyam bhuvam Instrumental dhiyà bhuvà Dative dhiye bhuve Ablative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ Genitive dhiyaþ bhuvaþ Locative dhiyi bhuvi Dual Nominative dhiyau bhuvau Vocative dhiyau bhuvau Accusative dhiyau bhuvau Instrumental dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm Dative dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm Ablative dhãbhyàm bhåbhyàm Genitive dhiyoþ bhuvoþ Locative dhiyoþ bhuvoþ Plural Nominative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ Vocative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ Accusative dhiyaþ bhuvaþ Instrumental dhãbhiþ bhåbhiþ Dative dhãbhyaþ bhåbhyaþ Ablative dhãbhyaþ bhåbhyaþ Genitive dhiyàm bhuvàm Locative dhãùu bhåùu Note that the stem before endings begining with a consonant is dhã- or bhå- (e.g., dhãbhiþ, bhåbhiþ). If the ending begins with a vowel, the stem changes to dhiy- and bhuv-, respectively. A somewhat irregular noun of this type is strã, yet another word for 'woman'. Although it has a monosyllabic stem, it has the same endings as nadã. In a few cases, however, it shows optional endings of the monosyllabic type (e.g., accusative singular striyam). The whole paradigm can be seen in Coulson, page 237.

We have also seen how the suffix -vant (-mant) can be used to form 'characteristic' terms (e.g., pakùavant, winged, dhãmant, wise), as well as active participles (likhitavant, having written). Another productive suffix is -in. An example of this derivation is dhanin (rich): Singular Nominative dhanã (masculine) dhani (neuter) Vocative dhanin dhani, dhanin Accusative dhaninam dhani Instrumental dhaninà dhaninà Dative dhanine dhanine Ablative dhaninaþ dhaninaþ Genitive dhaninaþ dhaninaþ Locative dhanini dhanini Dual Nominative dhaninau dhaninã Vocative dhaninau dhaninã Accusative dhaninau dhaninã Instrumental dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm Dative dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm Ablative dhanibhyàm dhanibhyàm Genitive dhaninoþ dhaninoþ Locative dhaninoþ dhaninoþ Plural Nominative dhaninaþ dhanãni Vocative dhaninaþ dhanãni Accusative dhaninaþ dhanãni Instrumental dhanibhiþ dhanibhiþ Dative dhanibhyaþ dhanibhyaþ Ablative dhanibhyaþ dhanibhyaþ Genitive dhaninàm dhaninàm Locative dhaniùu dhaniùu The feminine forms, dhaninã, etc., are declined like nadã. Formations with -in function in much the same way as those with -vant. In fact, they are often interchangeable: dhanavant rich dhanin rich balavant strong balavin strong This suffix can also be added to verbal roots to create something like a present participle: Verbal Root Suffixed Form Meaning pat (fall, fly) pàtin falling, flying bhuj (enjoy) bhojin enjoying sthà (stand) sthàyin remaining, stable This is not quite a true participle, however, because it cannot govern a direct object in the accusative case. Its function is rather to characterize something:

vimar÷acchedi vacanaü (vimar÷a-cchedi The speech is doubt-removing. vacanam). Additionally, the suffix -ti can be added to verbal roots to create verbal nouns in -ing (or their equivalent). These words are equivalent to the English gerund, as in 'Seeing is believing': gati going, procedure, course dçùti seeing, sight bhakti devotion siddhi achievement They are formed by changing the ending of the past participle from -a to -i. They are declined like ÷uci. Finally, Coulson notes that the adjective mahant (great) is somewhat irregular, having a strong stem in -ànt and middle and weak stems in -at (mahat). The feminine is mahatã. The stem form in compounds is mahà- (for descriptive compounds) or mahat-. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary asuraþ demon gçham quarters, chamber balam force, strength; sg. or pl. military forces balàt forcibly muni m. sage vayas n. youth, age sakhã [female] friend; wife of one's friend suraþ god svàmin m. master àkçù (I), àkarùati drag, draw attain, come to àpad (IV), àpadyate past participle àpanna go away, retire from nisgam (I), nirgacchati Reading Vocabulary an:adhyayanam non-studying holiday from lessons apathya-kàrin doing-what-is- unwholesome [to king], àyudham traitor utsarpin weapon kalakalaþ high-soaring kidç÷a (f. -ã) conciliation, winning over of what kind? of what

gçha-janaþ kind! What (a)...! Candanadàsaþ tãkùõa family, wife taikùõyam proper name trikàlam sharp, severe; poison daõóaþ sharpness dar÷in nyàyya the-three-times; past, pakùa-pàtin present, and future Pa¤cavañã stick; punishment pratyàsanna pràrthanà seeing, that see bañu m. regular, right on the side of, partial to bhàvin name of a place Manmathaþ vimardaþ near, at hand, about vihàrin ÷iùña longing ÷iùñ-ànadhyayanam young brahmin (student); fellow (used ÷reùñhin m. contemptuously) suhçttamaþ future, imminent (name of the god of) Love conflict roaming learned holiday in honor of learned guests merchant, eminent businessman close friend parihç (I), pariharati avoid, shun, resist aho bata oh alas! kila apparently, it seems that bhoþ oh! ho! Exercise 1 2. mahati viùàde vartate te sakhãjanaþ (mahati viùàde vartate te sakhã:janaþ). 6. bloþ ÷reùñhin Candanadàsa evamapathyakàriùu tãkùõadaõóo ràjà (bloþ ÷reùñhin Candanadàsa, evam apathya- kàriùu tãkùõa:daõóaþ ràjà). 8. pratyàsannaþ kila mçgayà-vihàrã pàrthivo duþùantaþ (pratyàsannaþ kila mçgayà-vihàrã pàrthivaþ Duþùantaþ). 13. bhagavanmanmatha kutaste kusumàyudhasya taikùõyametat (bhagavan Manmatha, kutaþ te kusum:àyudhasya taikùõyam etat?). 16. aho bata kãdç÷ãü vayovasthàmàpanno'smi (aho bata, kãdç÷ãm vayaþ-avasthàm àpannaþ asmi). 17. adya ÷iùñànadhyayanamiti khelatàü bañånàmayaü kalakakaþ (adya ÷iùñànadhyayanam iti khelatàü bañånàm ayaü kalakalaþ). 25. mayà tàvat suhçttamasya Candanadàsasya gçhe gçha- janam nikùipya nagaràn nirgacchatà nyàyyam anuùñhitam (mayà tàvat suhçttamasya Candanadàsasya gçhe gçha-janam nikùipya nagaràn nirgacchatà nyàyyam anuùñhitam). 5. Sages-that-see-past-present-and-future have proclaimed [àdi÷] a-conflict-[between]-gods-and- demons [to be] imminent. 13. Though I am resisting [parihç], love-of-Pa¤cavatã seems to draw me forcibly. 17. The longing of great [men] is of course [high-soaring] for higher things. 19. (Being)

partial-to-your-merits, I have forgotten the merits-of-my-master. Day 2 The Present Participle; the Imperative In the last unit we saw that the suffixes -vant and -in create words that can be translated as participles (...ing). These are not technically participles, however, because they cannot take their own direct object. So what does a real present participle look like? Inquire no further! Active forms contain the element -ant-(cf. ag-ent-em and lu/-ont-a), while middle forms contain -amàn- (cf. lu-o/men-oj): nayant leading vartamàna going on Since a participle is a verbal adjective and must agree with a noun or pronoun, these forms are declined. The good news is that active participles decline like adjectives in -vant, except for the nominative singular: Singular Nominative nayan (masculine, neuter) nayantã (feminine) The neuter NVA dual form is also nayantã. Middle participles decline like kànta (i.e., like a÷va, phalam, and senà). See Coulson, page 236. The participle of the verb as (to be) is sant, fem. satã. ('Being' can also mean 'real, authentic, virtuous', and thus a 'virtuous' [satã] wife was one who immolated herself on her husband's funeral pyre. The practice of suttee was outlawed under British rule.) As in Latin and Greek, the present participle indicates action that is contemporaneous with the main verb: màlatãmupaharannagoraghaõñaþ Agoraghaõñaþ was slain [while] vyàpàditaþ (Màlatãm upaharan sacrificing Malati. Agoraghaõñaþ vyàpàditaþ). Note that the participle agrees with Agoraghaõñaþ and it governs its own accusative object (Màlatãm). A present participle will sometimes have a causal or concessive sense (the latter with api): atmanà kçto'yaü doùaþ This mischief was done by [my]self [in] Saüjãvakamànayatà (atmanà kçtaþ ayam bringing Saüjãvikaü. doùaþ Saüjãvakam ànayatà). It's all my fault, because I brought Saüjãvikaü. Note that in English we sometimes use the present participle in a perfective sense (e.g., after seeing, meaning after having seen). In Sanskrit, however, this is usually rendered with the absolutive construction: nçpaü dç÷tvà vanaü gacchàmaþ. After seeing the king, let us go to the

forest. So much for participles; now, let's change the mood! The imperative is used to express what the speaker wants to happen. In the second person, it is the commanding mood (go!). In the third person, it expresses what the speaker wants a third party to do (let him go!). Sanskrit also has imperative forms for the first person (let us go!), but these are rare and are probably derived from another mood (the Vedic subjunctive). Here is an overview of the Sanskrit imperative active for the verb ni (lead): Singular 1st Person nayàni let me lead 2nd naya lead! 3rd nayatu let him (her, it) lead Dual 1st Person nayàva let us two lead 2nd nayatam you two lead! 3rd nayatàm let those two lead Plural 1st Person nayàma let us lead 2nd nayata y'all lead! 3rd nayantu let them lead These forms bear some resemblance to imperatives in Latin and Greek. The second-person imperative singular is the uninflected present stem (naya; cf. ama, lu=e); the plural adds -ta (cf. amate, lu/ete). The third-person endings -tu and -ntu are also found in Greek (lue/tw, luo/ntwn), and occasionally in Latin (esto, sunto). Here are the imperative middle forms of nã: Singular 1st Person nayai let me lead 2nd nayasva lead! 3rd nayatàm let him (her, it) lead Dual 1st Person nayàvahai let us two lead 2nd nayethàm you two lead! 3rd nayetàm let those two lead Plural 1st Person nayàmahai let us lead 2nd nayadhvam y'all lead! 3rd nayantàm let them lead Note the ambiguous form nayatàm, which can be 3rd dual active or 3rd singular middle. The e in the 2nd- and 3rd-person dual forms results from internal sandhi between the stem vowel a and the endings -itham and -itàm. The easiest way to issue a negative command is to use the imperative with mà (cf. ne, mh/ ): mà gaccha. Don't go! There are other ways to give a negative command, which will be covered later. You have already seen one of them: alam with a verbal noun in the instrumental case (enough with...): alaü ÷okena. Enough with grief! Don't grieve! Vocabulary

Memorization Vocabulary àde÷aþ command eka pronoun, adjective: one, alone ÷okaþ salilam grief siddhi f. water accomplishment, success anugam (I), anugacchati follow, attend experience, undergo anubhå (I), anubhavati cause to see, show dç÷ caus. dar÷ayati venerate, worship say politely, request, vand (I) vandate entreat, beg vij¤à caus. vij¤àpayati Reading Vocabulary a¤calaþ border [of dress] àve÷aþ attack (of emotion) kàryam affair, business tapasvin m. ascetic tãrtham ford, sacred bathing place dçóha firm pataþ cloth, robe pratij¤à promise, assertion Màdhavyaþ proper name sarpaþ snake s_àvadhàna careful svãkaraõam marrying anurudh (IV), adhere to, comply with anurudhyate (acc.) utveùñ, caus. udveùñayati unwrap, open [a letter] tvar (I), tvarate hurry caus. tvarayati nigraþ (IX), nigçhõàti repress, restrain paritrai (I), paritràyate rescue, save paripàl (X), paripàlayati guard, preserve, keep in tact paribhraü÷ (IV), fall, drop, slip paribhra÷yate past participle paribhraùña fan vãj (X), vãjayate make firm, sustain, samstambh (IX), compose saüstabhnàti, absol. saüstabhya svairam gently

Exercise 2 1. pa÷ya Màdhavasyàvasthàü (pa÷ya Màdhavasya avasthàm). 5. muhårtamupavi÷ata (muhårtam upavi÷ata). 9. gacchatàü bhavantau. 10. bhostapasvin cintayannapi na khalu svãkaraõamatrabhavatyàþ smaràmi. (bhoþ tapasvin, cintayan api na khalu svãkaraõam atrabhavatyàþ smaràmi). 11. sakhe Màdhavya dçdhapratij¤o bhava (sakhe Màdhavya, dçdha:pratij¤aþ bhava). 14. nanu bhavatyaþ pañàncalairvatsau vãjayadhvaü (nanu bhavatyaþ paña-ancalair vatsau vãjayadhvam). 18. svairaü svairaü gacchantu bhavatyaþ. 19. paritràyatàü suhçdaü mahàràjaþ. 26. devi saüstabhyàtmànamanurudhyasva bhagavato Vasiùñhasyàde÷amiti vij¤apayàmi (devi, saüstabhya àtmànam anurudhyasva bhagavataþ Vasiùñhasya àde÷am iti vij¤àpayàmi). 1. Look, your Excellencies. 3. She stands gazing. 4. This lady must hurry. 8. May you have success in your affairs. 9. Keeping the seal intact, open [it] and show [me]. 11. Restrain [dual] your attack- of-grief and follow me. 15. Citralekhà, get Urva÷ã to hurry. 21. [It] slipped from your friend's wife at the ford-of-øacã as she was worshipping the water. 22. Be careful, dear child. 24. Noble Jàjali, you too go back with-the-servants: Bhàguràyana alone shall attend me. Day 3 Stem-Forms in Composition; Abstract Nouns; Exclamations In compounds, words often show forms that differ from their dictionary entries. Coulson's discussion of these forms can be reduced to the following chart: Dictionary or Learned Compounded Form Examples Form middle stem (of 3) Consonant stems (e.g.): or weaker stem (of 2) nàma- nàmàn-, nàma-, namn- bhagavat- bhagavant-, bhagavat- dictionary/neuter form dhani- dhanin-, dhani- Pronouns: retains long a mat-, asmat-, tvat-, aham, vayam, tvam, yuùmat-, yat-, tat-, kim-, yuyam, yaþ, saþ, kaþ, idam-, adas- ayam, enam, asau mahànt mahà- The final element of a compound usually retains its original stem and inflection. But there are a few exceptions: ahan, ràjan, ratrã, sakhã > short a -aha, -ràja, -ràtra, -sàkha Coulson also notes that Sanskrit-speakers were uncomfortable with forms of the nadã type on the end of exocentric compounds, and so the suffix -ka is sometimes added: sa_patnã~ka with one's wife [adjective] In Coulson's shorthand, the tilde (~) signifies that the suffix pertains to the entire compound. While we are on the subject of world-building, recall that abstract nouns can be created by raising the grade of the root vowel to vçddhi and adding a neuter termination:

Original Noun Abstract Formation Meaning paõóitaþ (teacher) pàõóityam learning Many other abstract nouns are formed simply by adding a suffix, such as tvam (cf. German -tum, English -dom) and tà (cf. Latin -tas): Original Noun Abstract Formation Meaning paõóitaþ (teacher) pàõóitatvam learning, being a pundit pàõóitatà These suffixes may be added to entire compounds (e.g. niù_paõóita~tvam, the state of being without a pundit). Sanskrit resembles modern English in its tolerance for abstract nouns as 'actors' in a sentence. In Classical Latin, it would be odd to say 'the desire to learn makes me persistent'. Rather, one would say, 'I persist because I want to learn,' or 'I persist from my zeal for learning' (studio discendi persevero). In other words, people act on things--not the other way around. But Sanskrit has no problem with a sentence such as this: prayojana-÷u÷råùà màü mukharayati. Learning-desire causes me to be persistent. Coulson puts the matter succinctly when he says that the style of Sanskrit is nominal, rather than verbal. This means that in many cases, translating Sanskrit is a matter of 'denominalizing' it. The following chart offers a few examples: tatidànãü ràjàrthatàmàpadyate (tat That now achieves king-property-hood. idànãm ràja-artha~tàm àpadyate). That now becomes the property of the king. tasyànekavidhatvaü dar÷ayati He shows by the plural the several- bahuvacanena (tasya aneka:vidha~tvam sortedness of it. dar÷ayati bahuvacanena). He shows by the plural that it is of several sorts. ramaõãyo bàlànàü kusumàvacayaþ. Pleasant is the children's flower-picking. (ramaõãyaþ bàlànàm kusuma-avacayaþ). It is pleasant for children to pick flowers. Since a single noun may stand for an entire phrase or clause, the various cases acquire adverbial meanings, such as 'because...,' 'in order to....' , etc. suhçt-saüpàdita~tvàt (ablative) from being brought about by [my] friend Màlatã-mukha-avalokana-vihasta~tayà (instrumental) because you, my friend, brought it about by clumsiness through gazing on nçpa-dar÷anàya (dative) kula-kùaye (locative) Malati's face kula-kùaye api because I was clumsy through gazing on Malati's face for seeing the king in order to see the king upon the destruction of the family when the family is destroyed despite the destruction of the family

Speaking of functional shifts of the parts of speech, English gives us several examples of pronouns and adverbs that switch from their usual function to pure exclamation: Oh! What duplicity! How clever she is! In Sanskrit, the cognate of oh! is aho. The focus then shifts to the central idea, expressed as a noun in the nominative case: aho saüvaranam. (Oh!) What duplicity! aho vaidagdhyam. Oh! The cleverness! How clever she is! aho di÷àm vyabhratà Oh! The cloudlessness of the skies! How cloudless the skies are! Finally, a couple of odds and ends. Coulson makes a brief mention of the pronoun enam, which occurs only in these forms: Case Masculine Neuter Feminine Singlular enam enat enàm Accusative Singular enena enena enayà Instrumental Dual Accusative enau ene ene Dual enayoþ enayoþ enayoþ Genitive/Locative Plural Accusative enàn enàni enàþ This pronoun is enclitic and generally means 'him, her, it', etc. Finally, we have one of the more unusual Sanskrit idioms. The word gharba (womb) can be used in exocentric compounds to mean 'containing': dhana:gharbaü bhàõóaü . Money-wombed is the box. The box contains money. Keep in mind that this is an exocentric compound, and there will be no womb for error! Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary enam him, her, it, etc. nçpaþ king pauraþ citizen bhakti f. devotion, loyalty bahu many mati f. thought, wit samàdhi m. concentration, [religious] meditation strã woman

cint (X), cintayati reflect, think things over sàüpratam now, at once Reading Vocabulary surpassing decrying ati÷aya not negligent, vigilant apavàdin intentness, preoccupation a:pramàdin portion, article abhiyogaþ enthusiasm avayavaþ conciliation utsàhaþ besieging [of] upagrahaþ teacher uparodhanam doing upàdhyàyaþ king kàrin swift-acting, precipitate kùitipati m. -wombed, containing kùipra:kàrin emperor :garbha hole, chink cakravartin m. sharp liquid, poison chidram poison-giving, poisoner tãkùõa:rasaþ attractive tãkùõa:rasa-dàyin cardinal point, region [of dar÷anãya sky]; pl. sky, skies di÷ [dik] f. irritable vile duþ:÷ãla proper name dur:àtman pitiless Nandanaþ row, line nir_daya lord [of] païkti f. attendant, servant pati m. ant parijanaþ precaution, pipãlikà countermeasure against pratividhànam (gen.) reverse, annoyance pratyavàyaþ prompt, ready pratyutpanna ready-witted pratyutpanna:mati numerous prabhåta food bhaktam wall bhitti f. fearful bhãru proper name Madayantikà sweet madhura valuable mahàrghya barbarian mlecchaþ devil rakùas n.

Vasiùñþaþ proper name viddhà kind, sort -viddha such as vivekaþ discrimination vyagra engrossed, intent ÷ayanam repose, sleeping ÷ayana-gçham bed-chamber ÷arad f. autumn ÷ånya empty, devoid of ÷obhà brilliance, beauty samayaþ occasion, season saübandhaþ union saübhçta assembled, prepared; augmented sahabhå inherent, natural sàünidhyam presence avalok (X), avalokayati see àkulayati denominative confuse, disturb utpad caus. utpàdayati cause to arise, cause khel (I), khelati play dah caus. dàhayati make burn, cause to be fired parituù, caus. paritoùayati make satisfied, tip, reward pratyas (prati + as, IV), cast aside pratyasyati prasthà (I), pratiùñhate set forth bha¤j (VII), bhanakti break, shatter past participle bhagna mudrayati denominative stamp, seal visçj caus. visarjayati release, dismiss ataþ from this -tà, -tvam abstract noun suffixes Exercise 3 3. idaü tatpratyutpanna:mati~tvaü strãnàü (idam tat pratyutpanna:mati~tvam strãnàm). 4. aho dar÷anãyànyakùaràni (aho dar÷anãyàni akùaràni). 7. anubhavatu ràjàpathyakàritvasya phalam (anubhavatu ràja-apathya-kàri~tvasya phalam). 12. aho nirdayatà duràtmanàü paurànàü aho Ràmasya ràj¤aþ kùiprakàrità (aho nir_daya~tà dur:àtmanàm paurànàm--aho Ràmasya ràj¤aþ kùipra:kàri~tà). 15. bhagnotsàhaþ kçto'smi mçgayàpavàdinà màdhavyena (bhagna:utsàhaþ kçtaþ asmi mçgayà-pavàdinà Màdhavyena). 20. tatrabhavataþ kulapaterasàmnidhyàdrakùàüsã nastapovighnamutpàdayanti (tatrabhavataþ kulapateþ asàmnidhyàt rakùàüsã naþ tapaþ- vighnam utpàdayanti). 21. bhadra anayà mudrayà mudrayainam (bhadra, anayà mudrayà mudraya enam). 22. ÷atruprayuktànàü ca tãkùõarasadàyinàü pratividhànaü pratyapramàdinaþ parãkùitabhaktayaþ kùitipatipratyàsannà niyuktàþ puruùàþ (÷atru prayuktànàü ca tãkùõa:rasadàyinàm pratividhànaü prati apramàdinaþ parãkùita:bhaktayaþ kùitipati-pratyàsannà niyuktàþ puruùàþ). 23. saüprati madayantikàsaübandhena nandanopagrahàtpratyasta÷aïkàþ khalu vayam (saüprati Madayantikà-saübandhena Nandana-upagrahàt pratiyasta:÷aïkàþ khalu

vayam). 24. bhàvinamenaü cakravartinamavagacchatu bhavàn (bhàvinam enam cakra-vartinam avagacchatu bhavàn). 2. What valuable jewels! 6. Being-king has many annoyances. 7. It is from this [that] men-such-as- you are great. 10. How devoid-of-discrimination is the barbarian! 12. It is preoccupation-with- affairs, dear child, that is disturbing us, and not [na punar] the irritability towards pupils natural- in-a-teacher. 14. How sweet is the sight of these [girls]! 16. The gods [do] have this fearfulness-of- the-meditations-of-others. 18. At once let our-forces set forth to-beseige-Kusumapara. 20. Priyaüvadikà, we have no interest in snakes. So tip him and dismiss him. 23. Because [my] mind is engrossed-in-affairs and my agents numerous, [I had] forgotten. 25. How surpassingly-lovely the skies are, their-wealth-of-beauty-augmented-by-the-autumn-season. 26. Then, seeing a line of ants emerging from a [eka] hole-in-the-wall carrying [use gçhita] particles-of-food, [he] grasping- the-fact [gçhit:artha] that [iti] the chamber had-men-in-it, caused that same bed-chamber to be fired. Chapter 11 Day 1 Nouns in -è, -Tra; Passive Voice You may have noticed that English has a number of nouns with the suffix -er, and they usually fall into one of two types. The larger group consists of agent nouns, designating the performer of an action (tinker, singer, baker, etc.). But -er is also the characteristic suffix for the names of relatives (father, mother, brother, sister). Both types come to English from the Indo-European parent language, and we find analogous forms in Latin (actor, pater), Greek (path/r), and Sanskrit. An example of the agent-noun type in Sanskrit is kartç (maker). The 'kindred' formation is represented by pitç (father; cf. pater). Singular Nominative kartà (m.) pità (m.) Vocative kartar pitar Accusative kartàram pitaram Instrumental kartrà pitrà Dative kartre pitre Ablative kartuþ pituþ Genitive kartuþ pituþ Locative kartari pitari Dual Nominative kartàrau pitarau Vocative kartàrau pitarau Accusative kartàrau pitarau Instrumental kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm Dative kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm Ablative kartçbhyàm pitçbhyàm Genitive kartroþ pitroþ Locative kartroþ pitroþ Plural Nominative kartàraþ pitaraþ Vocative kartàraþ pitaraþ Accusative kartén pitén

Instrumental kartçbhiþ pitçbhiþ Dative kartçbhyaþ pitçbhyaþ Ablative kartçbhyaþ pitçbhyaþ Genitive karténàm piténàm Locative kartçùu pitçùu The two types of -ç nouns decline analogously, but in the 'strong' form of agent nouns the stem vowel is bumped up to the vçddhi grade (kartç > kartàram; cf. Latin factor > factºrem), while in 'kindred' nouns the guõa grade is usually sufficient (pitç > pitaram; cf. patr-> pate/ra). But three of these nouns do show the vçddhi grade; they are naptç (grandson, cf. nepos), bhartç (husband), and svasç (sister, cf. soror). Thus we have svasàram (cf. sorºrem). In general, these paradigms follow the -an type (cf. ràjan), but here and there the influence of other declensional types can be seen. Note the genitive singular kartuþ/pituþ (kartur/pitur in certain positions, according to the sandhi rules). The accusative plural kartén/pitén and the genitive plural karténàm/piténàm were not inherited from Indo-European, but were created by analogy with a÷vàn and a÷vànàm. Feminine nouns of the agent-type end in -rã (e.g., netrã, leader), and follow the pattern of nadã. Feminine nouns for relationships agee with the masculine forms, except for an accusative plural in -éþ (matéþ , analogous with senàþ). The suffix -[t]ç indicates agency (who performs an action); the related suffix -tra points to instrumentality (with what an action is performed). Thus the verb pà (drink) gives rise both to pàtç (drinker) and pàtram (vessel, cup). Note the analogous Latin forms: arare [to plough], arator [ploughman], and aratrum [plough]. It may seem strange to say that Sanskrit-speakers had to invent a passive voice, but the same may be said about English. English passives are all cobbled together from combinations of the verbs to be and to have with the past participle: Tense Example Present Simple He is loved. Present Progressive He is being loved. Past Simple He was loved. Present Perfect He has been loved. We have seen that Sanskrit also relies heavily on this construction (e.g., tad mayà kçtam, It was done by me, I did it). But in the present indicative and the imperative we also see another formation, which was derived from the middle voice of Class IV verbs. In brief, passive forms can be created by adding the suffix ya to the verbal root and using middle endings: Person/Number Passive Indicative Passive Imperative 1st Singular nãye (I am led) nãyai (let me be led) 2nd nãyase nãyasva 3rd nãyate nãyatàm 1st Dual nãyàvahe nãyàvahai 2nd nãyethe nãyethàm 3rd nãyete nãyetàm 1st Plural nãyàmahe nãyàmahai 2nd nãyadhve nãyadhvam

3rd nãyante nãyantàm These forms can be confused with ordinary middle forms (naye, etc.). The difference is that the suffix is built directly on the verbal root, not on the present stem. Coulson notes a few exceptions, wherein the verbal root undergoes a change before the suffix: Root Form Passive kç (do) kriyate (it is done) smç (remember) smaryate (it is remembered) vac (speak) ucyate (it is utttered) It is not necessarily to memorize these rules, as dictionaries usually list the passive form. (You can also access them for each form on Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site.) When the passive is built on a derived stem, the old derivational suffix is dropped. Thus, causative forms change -ayati to -yate. corayati (he causes to remove, he steals) coryate (it is stolen) nàyayati (he causes x to lead) nàyyate (he is caused to lead) The passive indicative is common, especially when the agent is unknown or deliberately not stated. Even more common is the passive imperative: ÷råyatàm let it be heard sukhaü sthãyatàm let it be stood pleasantly stand at your ease English usage often requires us to translate Sanskrit passive imperatives with 'should' 'must', etc., and to convert them to the active voice: tatkimanyadanuùñhãyatàm (tat kim anyat Then what else should be done? anuùñhãyatàm?). What else do you want done? There is also a passive participle built on this stem with the middle suffix -màna (e.g., nãyamànaþ, being led). Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary duhitç f. daughter prànàþ m. pl. breaths; life prabhu m. master bhràtç m. brother avekù (ava+ãkù), avekùate watch, watch over dà (III), dadàti give Reading Vocabulary adhikàraþ authority, office abhipràyaþ intention, inclination abhã÷u rein, bridle

ardhaþ half (portion) Jànakã proper name Parate÷varaþ proper name màtç f. Vasumdharà mother Vairodhakaþ proper name yamaja proper name ÷làghya twin[-born] laudable, virtuous àhve (I), àhvayati summon, call pass. àhåyate às (II), àste sit, stay, remain; joùam às, remain silent nivç, caus. nivàrayati ward off, drive off parirakù (I) parirakùati protect, save, spare vimuc (VI), vimu¤cati release, loose vi÷ram (IV), vi÷ràmyati rest, cease, take a rest vãkù (vi+ãkù, I), vãkùate discern, spy stu (II), stauti praise Exercise 1 1. katham iyaü sà kaõvaduhità ÷akuntalà (katham, iyaü sà Kaõva-duhità øakuntalà?) 4. priye màlati iyaü vãkùyase (priye Màlati, iyam vãkùyase). 5. vi÷ramyatàü parijanena. 8. parirakùyantàmasya prànàþ (parirakùyantàm asya prànàþ). 9. bho ràjan kimidaü joùamàsyate (bho ràjan, kim idaü joùam àsyate?) 10. tadanuùñhãyatàmàtmano'bhipràyaþ (tat anuùñhãyatàm àtmanaþ abhipràyaþ). 11. kiü càtisçùñaþ parvate÷varabhràtre vairodhakàya pårvaprasti÷ruto ràjyàrdhaþ (kim ca àtisçùñaþ Parvate÷varabhràtre Vairodhakàya pårva:prasti÷rutaþ ràjya-ardhaþ). 18. bhagavati Vasuüdhare, ÷làghyàm duhitaram avekùasva Jànakãm (bhagavati Vasuüdhare, ÷làghyàm duhitaram avekùasva Jànakãm). 19. kathaü, nivàryamàno'pi sthita eva (kathaü, nivàryamànaþ api sthitaþ eva?) 1. Give him an answer. 2. We are twin brothers. 3. Masters do not summon [those] holding- [vant]-office without-a-purpose. 4. Stop right there. 6. Loose the reins. 8. Hurry, my good fellows, hurry. 12. Ha, dear child [f.]! You are thus praising yourself. Day 2 Locative Absolute; Numerals We have already encountered the Sanskrit 'absolutive' form (e.g., dç÷tvà, having seen). Sanskrit also has a construction called the locative absolute, which corresponds to the ablative absolute in Latin and the nominative absolute in English: His dictis, ad rem procedamus. That said, let's get to business. Deo volente, sanscriticum discemus. God willing, we will learn Sanskrit. In Sanskrit, this construction contains a participle and a substantive [noun or pronoun] or two substantives. Both elements are in the locative case, which expresses attendant circumstance: kàle ÷ubhe pràpte an auspicious time having arrived

evaü samatikràmatsu divaseùu the days passing thus Candragupte ràjani Candragupta [being] king Impersonal passives also come into this construction: tathànuùñhite (tathà anuùñhite) [it] having been performed thus this done Like the Latin construction, the locative absolute is often used as a substitute for clauses expressing time, cause, or concession: tasmin dahyamàne as it was burning evam ukte because it was said thus evam ukte'pi (evam ukte api) because this was said although this was said The locative absolute is generally NOT used if one its elements can be related grammatically to the rest of the sentence (hence the term 'absolute', which means 'detached'). Thus, 'having seen his friend, the king goes to the forest' would normally be rendered with the absolutive (vayasyam dç÷tvà, nçpo vanaü gacchati), because the one who sees is also the subject of the sentence. But the locative absolute would naturally occur in a sentence such as this: Candraguptge Candragupta [being] king, there is no ràjanyaparigraha÷chalànàm welcome for errors. (Candraguptge ràjani aparigrahaþ chalànàm The locative absolute occurs less frequently than its Latin counterpart, because one can often say the same thing using an exocentric compound or an abstract noun: ÷oka-saüvigna:mànasaþ whose-mind-is-overwhelmed-with-grief his mind overwhelmed with grief ràkùasasyàgrãtatve (Ràkùasasya in the not-taking of Ràkùasa agçãtatve) Ràkùasa not having been taken Sanskrit also has a genitive absolute construction, but it is far less common. It occurs mostly with the present participle, and it has the added connotation of inneffectuality: pa÷yatastasya (pa÷yataþ tasya) him looking on as he looked on (helplessly) Coulson chooses this moment to introduce numerals. Fortunately, complicated numbers rarely appear in literary texts, and so we may be content with the list given on page 245 (of the PDF on the course website; p. 286 of the 1976 hard copy). Here are cardinal numbers, 1-10: eka one dvi two tri three catur four pa¤ca five ùaù six

sapta seven aùña eight nava nine da÷a ten Many of these forms have obvious cognates in Latin, Greek, and English. In fact, the Proto-Indo- European numbers persisted in all branches of the family, but various sound changes obscure this fact. For example, the PIE name for the number five was probably penkwe. The consonant kw was retained in Latin, but changed in Greek to t (pe/nte) and in Sanskrit to c (pa¤ca). Moreover, kw and its variants became interchangeable with p (probably because both p and w are labials), with the result that Latin doubled the kw sound (quinque), while Proto-Germanic doubled the p (pompa). The Germanic p, in turn, became aspirated (ph) and then 'fricated' (f), producing f›nf in German and five in English. The numbers 11-19 are formed in Sanskrit in pretty much the same way as in Latin: ekàda÷a 'one-ten', eleven (cf. undecim) dvàda÷a twelve trayoda÷a thirteen caturda÷a fourteen pa¤cada÷a fifteen ùoóa÷a sixteen saptada÷a seventeen aùñàda÷a eighteen navada÷a nineteen ånaviü÷ati 'one from twenty' Multiples of ten have the suffixes -÷at, iü÷at, and -ti (cf. Latin -inta, English -ty): viü÷ati twenty triü÷at thirty catvàriü÷at forty pa¤cà÷at fifty ùaùñi sixty saptati seventy a÷ãti eighty navati ninety In numbers such as forty-two, the multiple of ten goes at the end: dvà catvàriü÷at two and forty, forty-two The higher numbers are as follows: ÷atam one hundred sahasram one thousand lakùam one hundred thousand koñi ten million Multiples of one hundred can be expressed in as in English (dve ÷ate, two hundreds) or with a

compound (dvi:÷atam). øatam, the Sanskrit word for one hundred, resembles the Persian word satem. Linguists use the terms 'Satem-languages' and 'Centum-languages' to distinguish the two major branches of the Indo-European family. English, with 'hund-red', belongs to the centum group. Cardinal numbers are adjectival modifiers, and so they agree with nouns in gender, number, and case. But the numbers 5-19 are not distinguished for gender, and the numbers 20 and above agree with nouns only in case: tisçbhir nadãbhiþ (tisçbhiþ nadãbhiþ) with three rivers ùoóa÷abhir nadãbhiþ with sixteen rivers ÷atena nadãbhiþ with a hundred rivers See Coulson, page 247 (287), for more information on the inflection of numbers. The numbers 20 and above are, in fact, singular collective nouns, and so they may also be construed with a 'partitive' genitive: ÷atena nadãnàm with a hundred of rivers with a hundred rivers One may also resort to a nominal compound: nadã÷atena with a river-century with a hundred rivers Finally, it is useful to know the most common ordinal numbers in Sanskrit. These also will remind you of forms in Latin, Greek, and English: prathama first dvitãya second tçtãya third caturtha, turãya, turya fourth pa¤cama fifth ùaùñha sixth saptama seventh aùñama eighth navama ninth da÷ama tenth navada÷a nineteenth viü÷a, viü÷atitama twentieth triü÷a, triü÷attama thirtieth ÷atatama hundredth The ordinals are all inflected like the adjective kànta. They agree with nouns in gender, number, and case. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary

garbhaþ womb dãpikà lamp prasàdhaþ favor làbhaþ profit sahasram a thousand àrabh (I), àrabhate undertake, begin upanã (I), upanayati bring Reading Vocabulary abhivyakta manifest, visible arthotsargaþ (artha- expenditure (of money) utsargaþ) kalatraü (n.!) wife kalikà bud Ku÷aþ proper name candrikà moonlight cåtaþ mango-tree tarkaþ conjecture para pron. adj. other, another praci (V), pracinoti accumulate (the passive corresponds to the English pravçtti f. intransitive) Priyaüvadakaþ news bhaïgaþ proper name breaking, plucking; Vàlmãki dispersal vikretç m. m. proper name vicitra vendor làbhaþ variegated, various Lavaþ profit -saübhava proper name saüvyvahàraþ arising from, offspring of suvarnaþ transaction gold, gold piece anuiù (I), anveùate look for, search prohibit, cancel nisidh (I), niùedhati hand over samç, caus. samarpayati mçùà vainly Exercise 2 7. devenaivaü niùiddhe'pi madhåtsave cåtakalikàbhaïgamàrabhase (devena evam niùiddhe api madhu-utsave, cåta-kalikà-bhaïgam àrabhase?) 14. priyaüvadaka j¤àyatàü kà velà vartata iti (Priyaüvadaka, j¤àyatàü 'kà velà vartate' iti). 15. àrya vaihãnare dãyatàmàbhyàü vaitàlikàbhyàü suvarõa÷atasahasram(àrya Vaihãnare, dãyatàm àbhyàm vaitàlikàbhyàm suvarõa÷ata-sahasram).

16. vçùala kimayamasthàna eva mahàn arth-otsargaþ kriyate?(Vçùala kim ayam asthàne eva mahàn artha-utsargaþ kriyate?) 17. bhoþ ÷reùñhin api pracãyante saüvyavahàrànàü làbhàþ? (bhoþ ÷reùñhin, api pracãyante saüvyavahàrànàm làbhàþ?) 20. bhagavan vàlmãke upanãyetàmimau sãtàgarbhasaübhavau ràmabhadrasya ku÷alavau(bhagavan Vàlmãke, upanãyetàm imau Sãtà-garbha-saübhavau Ràma:bhadrasya Ku÷a:Lavau). 24. atha tasmàdaraõyàtparityajya nivçtte lakùmaõe sãtàyàþ kiü vçttamiti kàcidasti pravçttiþ (atha tasmàt araõyàt parityajya nivçtte Lakùmaõe Sãtàyàþ kim vçttam? iti kà cit asti pravçttiþ?). 9. The moonlight [being] visible, what point in a redundancy-of-lamps? 10. Làtavya, call Urva÷i. 13. Reward the vendor and accept it. 15. Have him come in. 16. Why vainly search with conjecture [speculate]? 19. Hand over Ràkùasa's family--enjoy for a long time [to come] the- king's-favor with-its-various-advantages. 20. Protect, at the cost of [instrumental] another's-wife, your own wife and your life. Day 3 Relative Pronoun, Adverb Formations; Màtra; Iti In English, relative clauses are frequently employed. They are introduced by pronouns such as who, which, and that, and their basic function is to modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause. The latter is called the antecedent of the relative pronoun: You can trust your car to the man who The clause modifies man (the antecedent of wears the star. who). There is a further wrinkle, however: relative clauses can be restrictive, non-restrictive, or afterthoughts: Sanskrit is the language that haunts my The relative clause restricts the sense of the dreams. language: it's not the only language, but the one that haunts my dreams. Sanskrit, which is the language of the Upanishads, haunts my dreams. This clause does not restrict the sense of the antecedent, Sanskrit; it merely supplies Sanskrit haunts my dreams--which were additional information. strange enough already. The clause is non-restrictive and is added as an afterthought. In Sanskrit, relative clauses are less common, because the function of describing nouns and pronouns can be done by compounds (e.g., dream-haunting). But they do show up in afterthoughts and in sentences where the restrictive function is emphasized: kumara ya àryastaü pçccha. (Kumara, Prince, ask the one who is noble. yaþ àryaþ tam pçccha). The Sanskrit relative pronoun/adjective is yaþ (neuter yat). It is declined in the same way as saþ (tat). There are a few things about Sanskrit relative clauses that seem odd to speakers of English. First, Sanskrit relatives are usually coordinated with demonstrative pronouns. This is also a feature of archaic and archaizing Latin:

ya àryastaü pçccha (yaþ àryaþ tam Who is noble, him ask. Ask the one who is noble. pçccha). cf. Latin: Qui nobilis est, eum interroga. The main clause can also be placed first (in which case, eùaþ or ayam is often used instead of saþ): imaü pçccha ya àryaþ. Him ask, who is noble. Ask the one who is noble. Occasionally, the demonstrative is left out. This is particularly likely to happen if the antecedent is negative or indefinite, or if the relative clause is a kind of afterthought or explanation: apyasti tavàpatyam, yasmintàü Do you have any offspring, to whom I dar÷ayàmi (api asti tava apatyam, [may] show her? yasmin tàm dar÷ayàmi?). There is a Goddess there named Karàla-- astyatra Karàla nàma Càmuõóà yà kila one who is fond of the sacrifice of living jãvopahàrapriyà (asti atra Karàla nàma creatures. Càmuõóà, yà kila jãva-upahàra:priyà). The second suprise is that when the antecedent is expressed, it is often found in the relative clause. The relative pronoun then functions as an adjective: yo nara àryastaü pçccha (yaþ naraþ àryaþ Which man is noble, ask him. tam pçccha). Ask the man who is noble. Third, the relative clause is never embedded in the main clause, as it frequently is in English (e.g., 'I asked the upholsterer who came yesterday for his estimate'). Rather, it occurs before or after the main clause: English Order Sanskrit Order Which upholsterer came yesterday, him I I have asked the upholsterer who came yesterday for his estimate. have asked for his estimate. This may seem confusing, but notice that Sanskrit has a distinct advantage. In the English sentence, 'for his estimate' is a dangling prepositional phrase. We cannot be sure whether it explains why the upholsterer came yesterday or what I asked him to supply. English often tolerates this kind of ambiguity in order to keep the antecedent and the relative pronoun close together. Sanskrit, on the other hand, can afford to separate them, because agreement in the gender and number of the pronouns (yaþ...tam) is sufficient to show that they relate to each other. Of course, the case may change: ya àryastaü pçccha (yaþ àryaþ tam Who is noble [subject], him ask [object]. pçccha). Ask [the man] who is noble. yà vanaü gacchati, tàm pçccha. Who goes to the forest, ask her. Ask [the woman] who goes to the forest. The fourth and final wrinkle is that unlike English, Sanskrit does not insist that relative pronoun occur at the beginning of a relative clause: English Order Sanskrit Order I have asked the upholsterer who came to To look at the sofa which upholsterer came

look at the sofa yesterday for his estimate. yesterday, him I have asked for his estimate. The freedom of Sanskrit in this respect can lead to ambiguity, but it allows for greater flexibility in emphasis. Coulson points out that Sanskrit grammarians used relative clauses to analyze exocentric compounds: vidità:varttebhyaþ paurebhyaþ from-learned-newsed citizens =vidità varttà yaistebhyaþ paurebyaþ =by whom the news was learnt, from (yaiþ vidità varttà tebhyaþ paurebyaþ) those citizens The addition of ka÷cit (kaþ cit) to the relative has a generalizing force (whoever, whichever): yaþ ka÷cidàryastaü pçccha (yaþ kaþ cit Whoever is noble, him ask. àryaþ tam pçccha). Ask anyone who is noble. Adverbial clauses (where, when, if, etc.) are also typically set up in the style of relative adjective clauses: yatra nçpastiùñhati, tatra tiùñhàmaþ (yatra Where the king stands, there we stand. nçpaþ tiùñhati, tatra tiùñhàmaþ) We stand with the king. On page 149 (176), Coulson places a table showing the correlative relationship between interrogative, relative, and demonstrative forms. Some of these are pronouns/adjectives, others are adverbs. Here is a simplified version of his table: Interrogative Relative Demonstrative kaþ who? yaþ who saþ he kva where? yatra where tatra there kutaþ from where? yataþ from where tataþ from there kadà when? yadà when tadà then kãdç÷a of what kind? yàdç÷a of which kind tàdç÷a of that kind kiyant how much? yàvant as much as tàvant so much yàvat as long as tàvat so long kiyacciram yadi tat kiyantaü kàlaü cet then for how long? if yadyapi tathàpi kàmaü punar even if, granted that even so, nevertheless This should be sufficient to demonstrate the pattern in Sanskrit correlatives. Demonstratives, of course, vary according to the proximity of the referent to the speaker. Thus, one can say atra (here) rather than tatra (there). See Coulson's chart for other variants. Modern and Classical Indo-European languages show analogous patterns and many of the same forms: e.g. Latin quantum (how much, as much) and tantum (so much), Slavonic kogda (when) and

togda (then), and Early Modern English whence (from where) and thence (from there). The semantic affinity of adverbs to pronouns was sensible to speakers of Sanskrit, and they sometimes used adverbs where English-speakers would use adjectives or pronouns: Tatra vane ràmaü pa÷yàmi. There in the forest we see Rama. In that forest we see Rama. The overlapping of pronouns and adverbs is evident in kutaþ (from where), swhich shows an ablative ending. Conversely, the suffix -taþ can be added to nouns and pronouns to create adverbs with various meanings, not all of which indicate separation: mattaþ from me vistarataþ in detail prasaïgataþ in passing Okay, now it's Garbage Time. First, Coulson points out that as a general rule, the verb must agree in number with the subject. But if the subject is a series of coordinated items, the verb may agree with the last item. This is especially true if the verb comes first: prabhavati kumàrãnàm janayità daivaü [what] governs girls is their father ca ['begetter'] and their fate Next, iti can be used to isolate a word as a metalinguistic entity: a÷va iti tatra pañhyate [the word] 'horse' is mentioned there Finally, màtra (measure) can be used at the end of a compound to mean '-sized', 'mere...', and 'as soon as...': aïguùñha-màtra thumb-sized jala-màtram mere water, only water dçùta-màtra as soon as seen Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary catur four divya celestial duùkara difficult dvitãya second -màtra measure; mere, only mànuùaþ human being, mortal yàdç÷a of which kind, such as, just as ràjyam kingdom ÷atam a hundred ÷àstram treatise, law-book krã (IX), krãõàti buy

j¤à (IX), jànàti know, learn, find out tathà in that way, thus, so Reading Vocabulary limb [resident] disciple aïgam driving away antevàsin statement, appellation, apanodanam name abhidhànam ornament son alaükaraõam escort (to, + gen.) àtmajaþ loved one ànuyàtrikaþ suitable, appropriate iùña:janaþ festival ucita m. proper name utsavaþ bow Candraketu activity of the mind, càpa m./n. thought citta-vçtti f. triad wife trayam rogue dàràþ (m. pl.!) firmness dhårtaþ bond dhairyam hawker nibandhanam hand paõàyitç m. redundancy pàõi m. in motion paunaruktam mishap pracalita suitor pramàdaþ division, portion, tithe pràrthayitç spring bhàgaþ proper name madhu m. great, vast, numerous Mandàrikà human flesh mahànt my mahàmàüsam proper name màmakãna foolish; m. fool Màlatã fit for sacrifice, sacrificial mårkha procession medhya guard yàtrà jewel rakùitç m. heap ratnam embarrassing rà÷i m. forest-dweller lajjà-kara (f. -ã) sweetheart vane-caraþ thing, matter, subject- vallabhaþ vastu n.

Vàmadevaþ mater vi÷eùaõa:padam proper name distinguishing word, saükulam epithet saüpradàyaþ throng sàdhanam tradition snigdha army hastaþ affectionate hand atisçj (VI), atisçjati bestow anuprahi (V), send, dispatch anuprahiõoti anumantr (X), consecrate with mantras, anumantrayate bless anvi (II), anveti follow, attend abhinand (I), abhinandati rejoice in, prize, greet with enthusiasm avàp (ava+àp, V), obtain, acquire avàpnoti ãh (I), ãhate long for, desire upakëp, caus. upakalpayati equip, assign nirvap (I), nirvapati sprinkle, offer, donate parityaj (I), parityajati leave, abandon prati÷ru (V), prati÷çnoti promise rakù (I), rakùati protect vighañ (I), vighañate become separated past participle vighañita visçj (VI), visçjati discharge, release vyavahç (vi+ava+hç, I), act, behave towards (loc.) vyavaharati conceive, imagine saübhå, caus. sambhàvayati an:antaram immediately ayi ha! ekadà at one time, once kiü ca moreover cirasya after a long time prasaïgataþ in passing madhyàt from the middle of, from among vihàya having left behind, beyond (+ acc.) sarvathà in every way, altogether, totally Exercise 3 2. vatse, yadahamãhe tadastu te (vatse, yat aham ãhe tat astu te). 3. he dhårta lekho nãyate na ca