Other Multivariate Techniques 475 TABLE 16-7 Acts, Whites Factor Delinquent act Property Offenses Incorrigibility Drugs/Truancy Fighting Factor 1 Factor\" Factor 1/1 Factor IV Broke street light, etc. Broke windows 0.669 0.126 0.119 0.167 Broke down fences, clotheslines, etc. 0.637 0.093 0.077 0.215 Taken things worth $2 to $50 0.621 0.186 0.186 0.186 Let air out of tires 0.616 0.187 0.233 0.068 Taken things worth over $50 0.587 0.243 0.054 0.156 Thrown eggs, garbage, etc. 0.548 -0.017 0.276 0.034 Taken things worth under $2 0.526 0.339 -0.023 0.266 Taken things from desks, etc., at school 0.486 0.393 0.143 0>077 Taken car without owner's permission 0.464 0.232 -0.002 0.027 Put paint on something 0.461 0.172 0.080 0.040 Disobeyed parents 0.451 0.237 0.071 0.250 Marked on desk, wall, etc. 0.054 0.642 0.209 0.039 Said mean things to get even 0.236 0.550 -0.061 0.021 Disobeyed teacher, school official 0.l34 0.537 0.045 0.100 Defied parents to their face 0.240 0.497 0.223 0.195 Made anonymous telephone calls 0.232 0.458 0.305 0.058 Smoked marijuana 0.373 0.446 0.029 0.135 Used other drugs for kicks 0.054 0.064 0.755 -0.028 Signed name to school excuse 0.137 0.016 0.669 0.004 Drank alcohol, parents absent 0.246 0.249 0.395 0.189 Skipped school 0.049 0.247 0.358 0.175 Beat up someone in afight 0.101 0.252 0.319 0.181 Fought-hit or wrestled 0.309 0.088 0.181 0.242 0.266 0.070 }0.843 0.602 Percent ofvariance 67.2 13.4 10.9 8.4 SOUf(e: Morris A. Forslund, Patterns ofDelinquency Involvement:An Empirical Typology, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Western Association of Sociologists and Anthropologists,Lethbridge,Alberta,February 8, 1980The table above is adapted from page 10. vandalism and theft. It is also interesting to This example shows that factor analysis is an note that drugs, alcohol and truancy fall in the efficient method of discovering predominant same factor. patterns among a large number of variables. In- stead of being forced to compare countless correla- (1980.' 4) tions-simple, partiaL and multiple-to discover those patterns, researchers can use factor analysis Having determined this overall pattern, for this task. Incidentally, this is a good example of Forslund reran the factor analysis separately for a helpful use of computerso boys and for girls. Essentially the same patterns emerged in both cases.
476 Chapter 16: Statistical Analyses 1 Factor analysis also presents data in a form that researcher. Its use should be encouraged whenever can be interpreted by the reader or researcher. For such activity might assist researchers in under- a given factor, the reader can easily discover the standing a body of data. As in all cases, however, variables loading highly on it, thus noting clusters such tools are only tools and never magical of variables. Or, the reader can easily discover solutions. which factors a given variable is or is not loaded highlyon. Let me reiterate that the analytical techniques we've touched on are only a few of the many tech- But factor analysis also has disadvantages. First, niques commonly used by social scientists. As you as noted previously, factors are generated with no pursue your studies, you may very well want to regard to substantive meaning. Often researchers study this subject in more depth later. \\vill find factors producing very high loadings for a group of substantively disparate variables. They Analysis of Variance might find, for example, that prejudice and religios- ity have high positive loadings on a given factor, Analysis of Valiance (ANOVA) applies the logic with education having an equally high negative of statistical significance, discussed earlier. Funda- loading. Surely the three variables are highly corre- mentally, the cases under study are combined into lated, but what does the factor represent in the real groups representing an independent variable, and world? All too often, inexperienced researchers the extent to which the groups differ from one an- will be led into naming such factors as \"religio- other is analyzed in terms of some dependent vari- prejudicial lack of education\" or something simi- able. The extent to which the groups do differ is larly nonsensicaL compared with the standard of random distribu- tion: Could we expect to obtain such differences if Second, factor analysis is often criticized on ba- we had assigned cases to the various groups sic philosophical grounds. Recall that to be usefuL a through random selection? hypothesis must be disprovable. If the researcher cannot specify the conditions under which the hy- We'll look briefly now at two common forms of pothesis would be disproved, the hypothesis is ei- Al\"l\"OVA: one-way analysis of variance and two-way ther a tautology or useless. In a sense, factor analy- analysis of variance. sis suffers this defect. No matter what data are input, factor analysis produces a solution in the One-Way Analysis of Variance form of factors. Thus, if the researcher were asking, \"Are there any patterns among these variables?\" Suppose we want to compare income levels of Re- the answer always would be yes. This fact must also publicans and Democrats to see if Republicans are be taken into account in evaluating the results of really richer. We select a sample of individuals for factor analysis. The generation of factors by no our study, and we ask them (1) which political means ensures meaning. party they identify with and (2) their total income for the last year. We calculate the mean or median My personal view of factor analysis is the same incomes of each political group, finding that the as that for other complex modes of analysis. It can Republicans in our sample have a mean income of, be an extremely useful tool for the social science say, $21,000, compared with $19,000 for the Dem- ocrats. Clearly, our Republicans are richer than our analysis of variance (ANOYA) Method of analysis Democrats, but is the difference \"significant\"? in which cases under study are combined into groups Would we have been likely to get a $2,000 differ- representing an independent variable, and the extent ence if we had created two groups by way of ran- to which the groups differ from one another is ana- dom selection? lyzed in terms of some dependent variable. Then, the extent to whidl the groups do differ is compared ANOVA answers this question through the with the standard of random distribution. use of variance. Most simply put, the variance of a distribution (or incomes, for example) is a
1 Other Multivariate Techniques 477 $50,000 • Each dot represents an individual's income • •• •• • •• • • :•. • •• •~ 8 $25,000f--------~-----------------------------7------------------------------------ . E ::e. _.=.... :.:•.• ••-;-;- Mean =$21,000 .:. - ; - Mean =$21,000 :.':. Mean =$19,000 -I!'- •••••••••••••••••••••• Mean = $19,000-t!- : •••• •• • •••• ••••••• $O~ __ ________________ ______-L______-L________________-L____ ~ ~ Republicans Democrats Republicans Democrats FIGURE 16·9 Two Distribution Patterns of the Incomes of Republicans and Democrats measurement of the extent to which a set of values the same as in part a, both Republicans and Demo- are clustered close to the mean or range high and crats have incomes ranging from very high to very low away from it. low, with considerable overlap in the parties' distri- butions. In technical terms, there is a higher degree Figure 16-9 illustrates these two possibilities. of variance in part b than in part a. On the face of Notice that in both distributions the Republicans it, we'd conclude that part a of Figure 16-9 indi- have a mean income of $21,000 and the Democrats cates a genuine difference in the incomes of Repub- have $19,000. In part a, most Republicans have in- licans and Democrats. With data like those pre- comes relatively close to the mean of $21,000, and sented in part b, we wouldn't be so sure; in this most DemocTats have incomes close to their party's case, there seems more likelihood that the normal mean of $19,000. Part b, however, presents quite a variations produced by random sampling error different picture. Although the group means are
478 Chapter 16: Statistical Analyses could have produced means of S21,000 and social researchers often engage in multivariate SI9,000. analysis. Two-way ANOVA permits the simultane- ous examination of more than two variables. $up- In an actual At'l'OVA, statistical calculations pose, for example, that we suspect that the income rather than impressions are used to make this deci- differences between Republicans and Democrats sion. The observed difference in means is expressed are a function of education. Our hypothesis is that as standardized multiples and fractions of the ob- Republicans are better educated than Democrats served varianceo Because the variance in part a of and that educated people-regardless of party- Figure 16-9 is smaller than the variance in part b, earn more, on average, than people with less edu- $2,000 would represent a larger difference in cation do. A two-way ANOVA would sort out the part a than in part b. The resulting difference of effects of the two explanatory variables in a man- means-standardized by the variance-would ner similar to that of the elaboration model dis- then be checked against a standard statistical table cussed in Chapter 15 and following the same logic showing the theoretical distribution of such values, discussed in the case of partial correlations and as in our earlier discussion of statistical significance. regressionso Ultimately, we'd conclude that the difference was significant at some level of significance. We might Discriminant AnalysiS discover, for example, that sampling error would have produced a difference as large as the one ob- Discriminant analysis offers an interesting twist served only one time in a thousand. Thus, we on several of the techniques we've already exam- would say that difference was \"significant at the ined in this chapteL Its logic is similar to that of .001 level.\" multiple regression, except that the dependent variable can be nominal; regression, you'll recall, In the example just given, I've glossed over the requires interval variableso For an illustration, let's actual calculations in favor of the basic logic of the look at a simple example. procedure. In practice, such calculations are typi- cally performed by computer programs. Figure 16-10 represents six writers. Three of the writers do their writing by hand (vvith a pen- This simplest case is often referred to as a cil), and three write on computers. (Yes, I know \"[·test\" for the difference between two meanso With there are other alternatives, but I said this was more than two groups, the calculations become more complex, because more comparisons must be made. Basically, it's necessary to compare the dif- ferences separating group means with the varia- tions found within each group. The end result of the analysis, as discussed in the simplest case, is ex- pressed in terms of statistical significance-the likelihood of the observed differences resulting from sampling error in random selection. Two-Way Analysis of Variance ~ = Writers who write by hand One-way ANOVA represents a form of bivariate = Writers who use a computer analysis (political party and income were the two variables in our example). As we've seen, however, discriminant analysis Method of analysis similar FIGURE 16-10 to multiple regression, except that the dependent variable can be nominal. Six Writers: Three Who Write by Hand and TIlree Who Use Computers
Other Multivariate Techniques 479 501---------------Y 44 40'---------------~---r e<1nl « 30 25 24 1----------, _o~ _______~__~__~____________~________~____~ o 19 25 30 55 70 80 Income (thousands $/yr) ~ = Writers who write by hand o =Writers who use a computer FIGURE 16-11 £:J. Plotting the Six Writers in Tem1s of Age and Income going to be simple.) Our task is to account for the equate predictor, at least as far as these six writers difference in writing method. Can we find a way of are concerned. Writers earning $30,000 or less all predicting whether a given writer uses a pen or a use pencils, and those earning $30,000 or more all computer? use computers. * Figure 16-11 ex-plores two variables that we Life is seldom that simple, however, even in think will likely affect how the writers write. Age simplified illustrations. $0 let's muddy the water a might make a difference, because the older writers bit. Figure 16-13 presents the six hypothetical writ- might have grown accustomed to writing by hand ers in a somewhat more complicated configuration and might have difficulty adapting to the new tech- in terms of their ages and incomes. Notice that we nology, whereas the younger writers would have cannot draw a line that would separate the pencils grown up with computerso Illcome could make a from the computers, using either age or income. difference, because computers cost more than pen- cils. Figure 16-11 therefore plots each writer on the If you study Figure 16-13 a little more carefully, graph on basis of his or her age and income. See however, you'll discover that we can draw a line if you can reach any conclusion from the graph about what might account for the difference in *If you said, \"Ah, but the relationship might go in the writing method. other direction-how you write determines how much you earn\"-give yourself a pat on the back for an excel- Figure 16-12 further clarifies the conclusion lent insight, and then set it aside for purposes of this illus- you might have dravvn. Income alone seems an ad- tration. For now, let's assume that income causes writing method rather than the other way around.
480 \" Chapter 16: Statistical Analyses ~ = Writers who ~ write by hand I I = Writers who ~ use a computer 19 25 30 55 70 80 Income (thousands $/yr) FIGURE 16-12 Income Alone Is Sufficient to Predict Writing Method ~ = Writers who ~ write by hand I I =Writers who ~ use a computer Income FIGURE 16-13 ASlightly More Complicated Pattern that separates the pencils from the computers. It's of predicting which writers fall on which side of just not perpendicular to either axis of the graph. that line. Figure 16-15 illustrates how this is done. Figure 16-14 shows the line that achieves our aim. To take advantage of the line that separates the By constructing a new line perpendicular pencils from the computers, we need to find a way to the dividing line, we can calculate where each writer would fall on the new, composite
~ =Writers who ~ write by hand o =Writers who G use a computer Income FIGURE 16-14 Separating the Pens from the Computers ~ = Writers who ~ write by hand o = Writers who G use a computer ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ? ~ ? ? ~ ? ~ ~ ~ ? ~ Income ? ? ? ~ ~ FIGURE 16-15 Plotting the Six Writers on the New Dimensions
482 Chapter 16: Statistical Analyses dimension. This calculation would take a form sim- The complexity of this situation is increased if ilar to the regression equations discussed earlier. the explanatory variable is not dichotomous. Sup- The equation would look something like the pose we add moderates to the liberals and conser- following: vatives, or suppose we examine the interactive effects of other explanatory variables such as race New dimension = a + (b X Age) + (e X Income) and religion on the political equation. As you can in1agine, the resulting percentage tables would be- A discriminant analysis computer program would come incredibly complicated. be able to take the values of age and income, ex- amine their relationship to writing method, then Log-linear models offer a potential solution generate an equation that would allow you to use to this complexity. This technique, which involves the ages and incomes of additional writers to pre- rather elaborate logarithmic calculations, is based dict their writing methods. on specifying models that describe the interrela- tionships among variables and then comparing Log-Linear Models expected and observed table-cell frequencies. (The logic here is similar to that for chi square, Suppose we want to know whether political orien- discussed earlier.) R T. Reynolds describes the tation is related to party affiliation. Are liberals, for process: example, more likely than conservatives to be Democrats? By dividing our sample into two At the outset of log-linear analysis, as in most groups-liberal and conservative-we can calcu- statistical procedures, the investigator proposes late the percentage of Democrats in each group. If a model that he feels might fit the data. The we find a higher percentage among the liberals, we model is a tentative statement about how a set conclude that political orientation and party affilia- of variables are interrelated. After choosing the tion are indeed related. model. he next estimates the frequencies ex- pected in a sample of the given size ifrhe model In this example, and in the tabular analyses of were true. He then compares these estimates, F, Chapters 14 and 15, all the dependent variables an- with the observed values. alyzed were dichotomous, that is, composed of two attributes. When the dependent variable is not di- (1977 76-77) chotomous, however, matters become more com- plex. Suppose that besides Democrats and Republi- In specifying the models to be tested in a log- cans our sample includes Independents, Socialists, linear analysis, the researcher will consider direct and Libertarians. It no longer makes sense to ex- relationships between the dependent variable and amine the percentage of liberals and conservatives each independent variable, relationships between who are Democrats, any more than it makes sense pairs of independent variables, and three-variable to look only at the percentages affiliated with any (and more, depending on the total number of vari- one of the other groups. Looking at each group in- ables) relationships similar to those already dis- dependently would result in more tables than cussed in the elaboration model (Chapter 15). We'll could be easily interpreted. consider a three-variable case taken from the pre- ceding example. log-linear models Data-analysis tedmique based on specifying models that describe the interrelation- We might suspect that a person's political party ships among variables and then comparing ex-pected affiliation (\"party\") is a function of political orienta- and observed table-cell frequencies. tion (\"philosophy\") and race. The components of this model. then, include (1) the direct effect of philosophy on party, (2) the direct effect of race on party, (3) the effect of race on philosophy, (4) the effect of race on the relationship between
Other Multivariate Techniques 483 philosophy and party (as in the elaboration model). couched in terms of red (Republican) and blue and (5) the effect of philosophy on the relationship (Democratic) states, and I'm sure you've seen maps between race and party. Though each of these of the distribution of the two. Some researchers components will have some explanatory power. have pointed out that no state was completely red log-linear analysis provides a means of identifying or blue, and they added purple for those fairly which are the most important and which can, as evenly divided in their support for the two major a practical matter, be ignored. Although the parties. calculations involved in log-linear analysis are many and complex, computer programs can per- Other researchers have pointed out that coun- form them all handily If you find references in the ties are a more appropriate unit of analysis in this research literature to logic, probh, or lIluhi-way fre- case, displaying the political diversity within a quem}' analysis (MFA), those analyses are using given state. As a general pattern, Republicans did this modeL better in rural counties, Democrats did better in the urban ones. Robert Vanderbei (2004) used GIS Log-linear analysis has two main shortcomings. mapping to display 2004 presidential voting pat- First, its logic makes certain mathematical assump- terns in a way that reflected all these concerns. The tions that a particular set of data might not satisfy, unit of analysis in Figure 16-16 is the county. The but this issue is far too complex to be pursued here. relative tilt toward the Republicans or Democrats is Second, as with other summary techniques dis- indicated by shading, and the height of each cussed, the results of log-linear analysis do not per- county column reflects the number of voters per mit the immediate, intuitive grasp possible in square mile: the higher the colunm, the more ur- simple comparisons of percentages or means. Be- ban the county. cause of this, log-linear methods would not be ap- propriate-even if statistically justified-in cases If you're interested in pursuing the possibilities where the analysis can be managed through simple of this analytical technique, you might try a web percentage tables. It's best reserved for complex search for \"GIS\" or \"Geographic Information Sys- situations in which tabular analyses are not power- tems.\" By the time you read this paragraph, newer ful enough. applications of the technique will have appeared. And you'll find that its use is hardly limited to the Geographic Information United States. Systems (GIS) Ihis completes our discussion of some of the Finally, let's examine a very different analytical analytical techniques commonly used by social technique: Geographic Information Systems scientists. I've merely brushed the surface of (GIS). Much of the aggregated data of interest to each, and there are many other techniques that I social scientists describes geographic units: coun- haven't touched on at aIL My purpose has been to tries, states, counties, cities, census tracts, and the give you a preview of some of the techniques you like. Whereas such data can and often are pre- might want to study in more depth later on, as well sented in statistical tables, the patterns they repre- as to familiarize you with them in case you run sent can often be grasped more readily in a graphi- across them in reading the research reports of cal format. With this in mind, US. Census data are others. increasingly being made available in a mappable format. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Analyti- cal technique in which researchers map quantitative lvluch of the analysis of the 2000 and 2004 data that describe geographic units for a graphical presidential elections in the United States was display.
484 \" Chapter 16: Statistical Analyses FIGURE 16-16 GIS Display of 2004 US Presidential Election. White = Republican; blue = Democratic Source: Robert Vanderbei,\"Election 2004 Results\" (http://wwwprinleton.edu/-rvdb/JAVA/election2004/). MAIN POINTS \" Many measures of association are based on a proportionate reduction of error (PRE) model. Introduction This model is based on a comparison of (1) the \" Sratistics is the applied branch of mathematics number of errors we would make in attempting to guess the attributes of a given variable for especially appropriate to a variety of research each of the cases under study-if we knew analyses. nothing but the distribution of attributes on that variable-and (2) the number of errors Descriptive Statistics we would make if we knew the joint distri- \" Descriptive statistics are used to summarize bution overall and were told for each case the attribute of one variable each time we data under study. Some descriptive statistics were asked to guess the attribute of the other. summarize the distribution of attributes on a These measures include lambda (A), which is single variable; others summarize the associa- appropriate for the analysis of two nominal tions between variables. variables; gamma (y), which is appropriate for \" Descriptive statistics summarizing the relation- ships between variables are called measures oj association.
Main Points 485 the analysis of two ordinal variables; and Pear- • A frequently used test of statistical significance son's product-moment correlation (r), which is in social science is chi square (Xl). appropriate for the analysis of two interval or ratio variables. • The level of significance of an observed associa- tion is reported in the form of the probability \" Regression analysis represents the relationships that the association could have been produced between variables in the form of equations, merely by sampling error. To say that an associ- which can be used to predict the values of a de- ation is significant at the .05 level is to say that pendent variable on the basis of values of one an association as large as the observed one or more independent variables. could not be expected to result from sampling error more than 5 times out of 100. \" Regression equations are computed on the basis of a regression line: that geometric line repre- • Social researchers tend to use a particular set of senting, with the least amount of discrepancy, levels of significance in connection with tests of the actual location of points in a scattergram. statistical significance: .05, .01, and .OOL This is merely a convention, however. • Types of regression analysis include linear re- gression analysis, multiple regression analysis, \" Statistical significance must not be confused partial regression analysis, and curvilinear re- with substantive significance, the latter mean- gression analysis. ing that an observed association is strong, im- portant, meaningful, or worth writing home to Inferential Statistics your mother about. • Inferential statistics are used to estimate the \" Tests of statistical significance, strictly speaking, generalizability of findings arrived at through make assumptions about data and methods the analysis of a sample to the larger popula- that are almost never satisfied completely by tion from which the sample has been selected. real social research. Despite this, the tests can Some inferential statistics estimate the single- serve a useful function in the analysis and in- variable characteristics of the population; oth- terpretation of data. ers-tests of statistical significance-estimate the relationships between variables in the Other Multivariate Techniques population. \" Path analysis is a method of presenting graphi- \" Inferences about some characteristic of a popu- cally the networks of causal relationships lation must indicate a confidence interval and a among several variables. It illustrates the pri- confidence level. Computations of confidence mary \"paths\" of variables through which inde- levels and intervals are based on probability the- pendent variables cause dependent ones. Path ory and assume that conventional probability- coefficients are standardized regression coeffi- sampling techniques have been employed in cients that represent the partial relationships the study. between variables. \" Inferences about the generalizability to a popu- \" Time-series analysis is an analysis of changes in lation of the associations discovered between a variable (e.g., crime rates) over time. variables in a sample involve tests of statistical significance, which estinlate the likelihood that \" Factor analysis, feasible only with a computer, an association as large as the observed one is an analytical method of discovering the gen- could result from normal sampling error if no eral dimensions represented by a collection of such association exists between the variables actual variables. These general dimensions, or in the larger population. Tests of statistical sig- factors, are calculated hypothetical dimensions nificance are also based on probability theory that are not perfectly represented by any of the and assume that conventional probability- empirical variables under study but are highly sampling tedmiques have been employed in associated with groups of empirical variables. A the study. factor loading indicates the degree of association
486 Chapter 16: Statistical Analyses between a given empirical variable and a given REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES factor. 9 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is based on com- L In your own words, explain the logic of propor- paring variations between and within groups tionate reduction of error (PRE) measures of and determining whether between-group dif- associations_ ferences could reasonably have occurred in simple random sampling or whether they likely 2_ In your own words, explain the purpose of re- represent a genuine relationship between the gression analyses._ variables involved_ 3. In your own words, distinguish between mea- 9 Discrinlinant analysis seeks to account for vari- sures of association and tests of statistical ation in some dependent variable by finding a significance_ hypothetical, composite dimension that sepa- rates categories of the dependent variable_ It re- 4. Find a study that reports the statistical sults in an equation that scores people on the Significance of its findings and critique the clar- basis of that hypothetical dimension and allows ity with which it is reported. us to predict their values on the dependent variable_ 5. Use InfoTrac College Edition to locate a study that uses factor analysiS and summarize the 9 Log-linear models offer a method for ana- findings_ lyzing complex relationships among several nominal variables having more than two attri- ADDITIONAL READINGS butes each_ Babbie, Earl. Fred Halley, and Jeanne Zaino. 2000. 9 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) map Advel1lures in Social Research_ Newbury Park, CA: quantitative data that describe geographic units Pine Forge Press. This book introduces the for a graphical display. analvsis of social research data through SPSS for Windows. Several of the basic statistical tech- KEY TERMS niques used by social researchers are discussed and illustrated. The following terms are defined in context in the chapter and at the bottom of the page where the term Blalock, Hubert M., Jr. 1979. Social Statistics. New is introduced, as well as in the comprehensive glossary York: McGraw-HilL Blalock's textbook has been at the back of the book a standard for social science students (and fac- ulty) for decades. Tad Blalock's death was a loss analysis of variance nonsampling error to all of social science. (ANOVA) multiple regression curvilinear regression analysis Frankfort-Nachmias, Chava, and Anna Leon- analysis partial regression Guerrero. 2000. Social Statistics for a Diverse 50- descriptive statistics analysis cierv. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge discriminant analysis path analysis Pr~ss. A comprehensive textbook on social sta- factor analysis proportionate reduction tistics that makes particularly good use of graph- Geographic Information of error (PRE) ics in presenting the logic of the many statistics Systems (GIS) regression analysis commonly used by social scientists. inferential statistics statistical Significance level of significance Healey, Joseph E 1999. Statistics: A Tool for Social Re- linear regression analysis tests of statistical search. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth An effective log-linear models Significance introduction to social statistics. time-series analysiS Mohr, Lawrence B 1990. Understanding Sigllifi- callce Testing_ Newbury Park, CA: Sage. An excellent and comprehensive examination of the topic: both the technical details of testing statistical Significance and the meaning of such tests.
Online Study Resources 487 SPSS EXERCISES hac College Edition search terms, Social Research in Cyberspace, GS5 Data, Web Li/1ks, and primers for using See the booklet that accompanies your text for exer- various data-analysis software such as SPSS and cises using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social T\\'Vivo. Sciences). There are exercises offered for each chapter, and you'll also find a detailed primer on WEB LINKS FOR THIS CHAPTER using SPSS. Please realize that the Internet is an evolv- Online Study Resources ing entity, subject to change. Nevertheless, these few websites should be fairly stable. SociologyiNow'\": Research Methods Also, check your book's website for even more Web Links. These websites, current at the time of this book's 1. Before you do your final review of the chapter, publication, provide opportunities to learn about sta- take the SociologyNo1V: Research Methods diagnos- tistical analyses. tic quiz to help identify the areas on 'which you should concentrate_ You'll find information on Harvard Summary of Survey Analysis Software this online tool. as well as instructions on how http://wwwJas.harvard.edu /- stats/survey-soft / to access all of its great resources, in the front of Here are links to a large number of programs appro- the book. priate to the analysis of survey data, including those with complex sampling deSigns. 2. As you review, take advantage of the Sociology Now Research hlethods customized study plan, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, based on your quiz results. Use this study plan Putting Points with its interactive exercises and other re- http://www.stat.uiucedu/-statl OO/java/guess/ sources to master the materiaL PPApplet.html Correlation and regression are illustrated graphically 3. When you're finished with your review, take as you enter points on a scattergram and see the statis- the posttest to confirm that you're ready to tical results. move on to the next chapter. HyperLearning Center, Linear Regression WEBSITE FOR THE PRACTICE http://cne.gmu.edu/modules/dau/stat/regression/ OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 11TH EDITION linregsn/linregsn_frmJ1tml Here's an extensive discussion of linear regression, Go to your book's website at http://sociology with examples of its practical uses\" .wadsworth.com/babbie_practicelle for tools to aid you in studying for your exams. You'll find Tllto- Rudy Rummel, Understanding Factor Analysis rial Quizzes with feedback. Internet Exercises, Flashcards, http://vvwvv.hawaiLedu/powerkills/ UFA.HTM and Chapter Tutorials, as well as E\\1ended Projeas, Illfo- This excellent introduction to factor analysis has been created by a political scientist who has used it in nu- merous situations_
Reading and Writing Social Research Introduction Evaluating the Quality of Internet Materials Organizing a Review Citing Internet Materials of the Literature Writing Social Research Journals versus Books Some Basic Considerations Evaluation of Research Organization of the Report Reports Guidelines for Reporting Analyses Using the Internet Wisely Going Public Some Useful Websites Searching the Web Sociology@Now\"': Research Methods Use this online tool to help you make the grade on your next exam. After reading this chapter, go to the \"Online Study Resources\" at the end of the chapter for instructions on how to benefit from SodologyNow: Research Metlzodso
Organizing a Review of the literature 489 Introduction might discover, as I just did, 8,735 newspaper refer- ences and 5,489 periodical references to capital Meaningful scientific research is inextricably wed punishmenL In such situations, InfoTrac College to communication, but it's not always an easy or Edition is indexed to allow narrowing the search, comfortable marriageo Scientists-social and and I soon discovered 249 entries for \"public opin- other-are not necessarily good at communicating ion\" on capital punishment. Some of the entries their methods and findings. Thus, it is often hard to were bibliographic citations and some were full- read and understand the research of others, and text articles I could read online. you may also find it difficult to vvrite up your own research in ways that communicate your ideas ef~ Another resource available to everyone is the fectively. This final chapter addresses these two Library of Congress, easily accessed online at problems. http://catalog.loc.gov/ . Clicking on \"Basic Search\" or \"Guided Search\" will open up a vast resource We'll begin with reading social research, then for you. When I specified the keyword as \"capital we'll turn to writing iL Although my guidance on punis!mlent\" and limited the search to English- both topics will be helpfuL you'll find that doing language books published between 2000 and each well lies in practice. The more you read social 2005, the site listed 3,674 entries, such as the science research, the easier it gets, and the same is foUovving: true of vvriting it. • Abolition of the death penalty: SAHRDC's sub~ Organizing a Review mission to the National Commission for the Re- of the literature view of the Working of the Constitution. With the exception of some grounded theory • An1erica's experiment with capital punis!m1ent; methodologists, most social researchers begin the reflections on the past, present, and future of design of a research project with a review of the lit- the ultimate penal sanction / [edited by] James erature, as indicated in Chapter 4. Most original re- R Acker. search is seen as an extension of what has previ- ously been learned about a particular topic. A • Beyond repair? : America's death penalty / review of the literature is the way we learn what's edited by Stephen P. Garvey. already known and not known, • Capital punishment: a bibliography / C. Cliff, In most cases, you should organize your search editor. of the literature around the key concepts you wish to study; alternatively, you may want to study a • Death penalty: influences and outcomes / certain population: Iraqi War veterans, computer edited by Austin Sarat. hackers, Catholic priests, gay athletes, and so forth. In any case, you'll identify a set of terms that repre- Sometimes a simple web search is a useful way sent your core interests. to begin. Use a search engine such as Google, Hot~ Bot or Yahoo to look for web resources on \"capital Your college or university library nill probably punishment\" or \"death penalty.\" Be sure to use have several search routines you can use at the quotation marks to look for a phrase rather than library or online. Let's say you're interested in two separate words. You might also add \"public designing a study of attitudes toward capital opinion\" to the request to narrow the field of pos- punishment. If your library provides access to Info~ sible resources. In generaL online searches tend to Trac College Edition or a similar program, you turn up huge numbers of entries, most of which vvill not help you much. You'll need some time to separate the wheat from the chaff. Later in this chapter, I'll give you more-detailed guidelines for searching the web.
490 :; Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research No matter how you start the literature review whether X causes y, social researchers willingly process, you should always consider a technique give away the punch line in the abstracL akin to snowball sampling, discussed in Chapter 7. Once you identify a particularly useful book or The abstract serves two major functions. First, it article, note which publications its author cites. gives you a good idea as to whether you'll want to Some of these will likely be usefuL In fact. you'll read the rest of the article. If you're reviewing the probably discover some citations that appear again literature for a paper you're writing, the abstract and again, suggesting that they're core references tells you whether that particular article is relevant. ,vithin the subject matter area you're exploring. Second, the abstract establishes a framework This last point is important, because the literature ,vithin which to read the rest of the article. It may review is not about providing \"window dressing\" in raise questions in your mind regarding method or the form of a few citations. Rather, it's about dig- conclusions, thereby creating an agenda to pursue ging into the body of knowledge that previous re- in your reading. (It's not a bad idea to jot those searchers have generated-and taking advantage questions down, to be sure you get answers of that knowledge as you design your o\\'vn inquiry. to them.) Once you've identified some potential re- After you've read the abstract. you might go sources, you must read them and find anything of directly to the summary and/or conclusions at the value to your project. Here are some guidelines for end of the article,. That will give you a more de- reading research publications. tailed picture of what the article is all about. (You can also do this with detective and spy novels; it Journals versus Books makes reading them a lot faster but maybe not as much fun.) Jot down any new questions or obser- As you might have guessed, you don't read a social vations that occur to you. research report the way you'd read a noveL You can, of course, but it's not the most effective ap- Next. skim the article, noting the section head- proach. Journal articles and books are laid out ings and any tables or graphs. You don't need to somewhat differently, so here are some initial study any of these things in your skimming, guidelines for reading each. though it's okay to dally with anything that catches your attention. By the end of this step, you should Reading aJournal Article start feeling familiar ,vith the article. You should be pretty clear on the researcher'S conclusions and In most journals, each article begins ,vith an have a general idea of the methods used in reach- abstract. Read it first. It should tell you the pur- ing them. pose of the research, the methods used, and the major findings. When you now carefully read the whole article, you'll have a good idea of where it's heading and In a good detective or spy novel, the suspense how eacl1 section fits into the logic of the whole builds throughout the book and is resolved in some article. Keep taking notes. Mark any passages you kind of surprise ending. This is not the effect most think you might like to quote later on. scholarly writers are going for. Social research is purposely anticlimactic Rather than stringing the After carefully reading the article, it's a good reader along, dragging out the suspense over idea to skim it quickly one more time. This way you get back in touch with the forest after having abstract A summary of a research article. The ab- focused on the trees. stract usually begins the article and states the purpose of the research, the methods used, and the major If you want to fully grasp what you've just read, findings. find someone else to explain it to. If you're doing the reading in connection with a course, you should have no trouble finding someone willing to listen. If you can explain it coherently to someone who has no prior contact ,vith the subject matter, however, you'll have an absolute lock on the material.
Organizing aReview of the literature 491 Reading aBook research reports you read and alert you to potential problems in them. The approach for articles can be adapted to read- ing a book-length report, SOmetin1es also called a Theoretical Orientations research monograph. These longer research re- ports cover the same basic terrain and roughly the Is there a theoretical aspect to the study, or same structure. Instead of an abstract, the preface does it lack any reference to theory? and opening chapter of the book layout the pur- Can you identify the researcher'S chief para- pose, method, and main findings of the study. The digm or theoretical orientation? Authors cited preface tends to be written more informally and to in the report's review of the literature and else- be easier to understand than an abstract. where may offer a clue. On the other hand, is the author attempting to As ,vith an article, it's useful to skim through refute some paradigm or theory? the book, getting a sense of its organization; its use Is a theory or hypothesis being tested? of tables, graphs, and other visuals; and so forth. In what way has the theoretical orientation You should come away from this step feeling some- shaped the methodology used in the study, what familiar ,vith the book. And as I suggested in such as the data-collection technique and connection with reading an article, you should take the choice of which data were collected and notes as you go along, writing dovvn things you ob- which ignored? serve and questions that are raised. Is the methodology used appropriate to the theoretical issues involved? As you settle in to read the book more care- fully, you should repeat this same process with Research DeSign each chapter. Read the opening paragraphs to get a sense of what's to come and then skip to the con- o What was the purpose of the study: exploration, cluding paragraphs for the summary. Skim the description, explanation, or a combination? chapter to increase your familiarity with it. and then read more deliberately, taking notes as you go. o Who conducted the research? Who paid for it, if anyone? What motivated the study? If the It's sometimes okay to skip portions of a schol- study's conclusions happen to correspond to arly book, unlike the way you were taught to read the interests of the sponsor or researcher, this and appreciate literature. This all depends on your doesn't disqualify the conclusions, but you'll purpose in reading it in the first place. Perhaps want to be especially wary. there are only a few portions of the book that are relevant to your purposes. However, realize that if o What was the unit of analysis? Was it appropri- you're interested in the researcher's findings, you ate to the purpose of the study? Are the con- must pay some attention to the methods used clusions drawn from the research appropriate (e.g., who was studied, how, when?) in order to to the unit of analysis? For example, have the judge the quality of the conclusions offered by researchers studied cities and ended up ,vith as- the author. sertions about individuals? Evaluation olResearch Reports o Is this a cross-sectional or a longitudinal study? Be especially wary of longitudinal assertions In this section, I've provide sets of questions you might ask in reading and evaluating a research re- research monograph A book·length research re- porL I've organized these questions to parallel POrt, either published or unpublished. This is distin- some of the preceding chapters in this book, to fa- guished from a textbook, a book of essays, a novel. cilitate your getting more details on a topic if neces- and so forth. sary. Although hardly exhaustive, I hope these sets of questions ,'\\ill help you grasp the meanings of
492 Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research What population does the researcher want to draw conclusions about? being made on the basis of cross-sectional observations. What is the researcher's purpose? If it's statisti- If loncitudinal data have been collected, have cal description, then rigorous probability sam- comp:rable measurements been made at each pling methods are called for. point in time? In the case of survey data, have the same questions been asked each time? If If a probability sample has been selected, the report compares, say, crime or poverty what sampling frame has been used? Does it rates, are they defined the same way each appropriately represent the population that in- time? (Definitions of poverty, for example, terests the researcher? What elements of the change frequently.) population have been omitted from the sam- If a panel study has been conducted, how pling frame, and what extraneous elements many people dropped out over the course of have been included? the study? What specific sampling techniques have been Measurement employed: simple random sampling, systematic sampling, or cluster sampling? Has the re- What are the names of the concepts under searcher stratified the sampling frame prior to study? sampling? Have the stratification variables Has the researcher delineated different dimen- been chosen wisely? That is, are they relevant sions of the variables? Do the analysis and re- to the variables under study? porting maintain those distinctions? What indicators-either qualitative or quanti- How large a sample was selected? What per- tative-have been chosen as measures of those centage of the sample responded? Are there dimensions and concepts? Is each indicator a any likely differences between those who valid measure of what it's intended to measure? responded and those who didn't? What else could the indicator be a measure of? Is it a reliable measure? Has the reliability Even assuming that the respondents are repre- been tested? sentative of those selected in the sample, what What is the level of measurement of each vari- sampling error do you expect from a sample of able: nominaL ordinaL intervaL or ratio? Is it this size? the appropriate level? Have composite measurements (indexes, scales, Has the researcher tested for representative- or typologies) been used? If so, are they appro- ness: comparing the gender distribution of priate to the purpose of the study? Have they the population and of respondents, for ex- been constructed correctly? ample, or their ages, ethnicity, education, or income? Sampling Ultimately, do the studied individuals (or other Was it appropriate to study a sample, or should units of analysis) represent the larger popula- all elements have been studied? Remember, it's tion from whicl1 they were chosen? That is, do not always feasible to select a random sample. conclusions drawn about the sample tell us If sampling was called for, were probability anything about meaningful populations or sampling methods appropriate, or would a about life in general? purposive, snowball, or quota sample have been appropriate? Has the appropriate sample If probability sampling and statistical represen- design been used? tation were not appropriate to the study-in a qualitative study, for example-have subjects and observations been selected in such a way as to provide a broad overview of the phenome- non being examined? Has the researcher paid special attention to deviant or disconfirming cases?
Organizing a Review of the literature 493 Experiments • If open-ended questions were asked, how have the answers been categorized? Has the re- What is the primary dependent variable in the searcher guarded against his or her own bias experiment? What effect is the experimenter creeping in during the coding of open-ended trying to achieve, for example? responses? What is the experimental stimulus? • Are all the questions clear and unambiguous? Could they have been misinterpreted by re- What other variables are relevant to the experi- spondents? If so, could the answers given mean ment? Have they been measured? something other than what the researcher has assumed? How has each variable been defined and mea- sured? What potential problems of validity and • Were the respondents capable of answering the reliability do these definitions and measure- questions asked? If not they may have an- ments raise? swered anyway, but their answers might not mean anything. • Has a proper control group been used? Have subjects been assigned to the experimental and • Are any of the questions double-barreled? control groups through random selection or by Look for conjunctions (e.g., and, or). Are re- matching? Has it been done properly? Has the spondents being asked to agree or disagree with researcher provided any evidence of the initial two ideas, when they might like to agree with comparability of experimental and control- one and disagree with the other? group subjects? Do the questions contain negative terms? If so, • Have there been pre- and posttest measure- respondents may have misunderstood iliem ments of the dependent variable? and answered inappropriately. • What is the chance of a placebo (or \"Haw- Is there a danger of social desirability in any of thorne\") effect in the experiment? Has any the questions? Is any answer so right or so attention been given to the problem? Does wrong that respondents may have answered on the study employ a double-blind design, for the basis of what people would think of them? example? How would you yourself answer each item? As • Are there any problems of internal validity: his- a general rule, test all questionnaire items by tory, maturation, testing, instrumentation, sta- asking yourself how you would answer. Any tistical regression, selection bias, eX'Perimental difficulty you might have in answering might mortality, ambiguous causal time-order, diffu- also apply to others. Then, try to assume differ- sion or imitation of treatments, compensation, ent points of view (for example, liberal and compensatory rivalry, or demoralization? conservative, religious and unreligious) and ask how the questions might sound to someone Are there issues of external validity? How has with each point of view the experimenter ensured that the laboratory findings will apply to life in the real world? Has the researcher conducted a secondary analysis of previously collected data? If so, de- Survey Research termine the quality of the research that pro- duced the data originally. Also, are the data • Does the study stand up to all the relevant available for analysis appropriate to the current questions regarding sampling? purposes? Do the questions originally asked reflect adequately on the variables now being • What questions were asked of respondents? analyzed? What was the precise wording of the ques- tions? Be wary of researcher reports that pro- The National Council on Public Polls has cre- vide only paraphrases of the questions. ated a list of 20 questions to ask about polls. You'll find these questions in Appendix G of this book. • If closed-ended questions were asked, were the answer categories provided appropriate, exhaustive, and mutually exclusive?
494 Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research Field Research Content Analysis El What theoretical paradigm has informed the e What are the key variables in the analysis? researcher's approach to the study? Are they appropriate to the research question being asked? El Has the research set out to test hypotheses or generate theory from the observations? Or is e What is the source and form of data being ana- there no concern for theory in the study? lyzed? Are they appropriate to the research questions being asked? El What are the main variables in this study? How have they been defined and measured? Do you e Is the time frame of the data being analyzed ap- see any problems of validity? propriate to the research question? El How about reliability? Would another re- El What is the unit of analysis? searcher, observing the same events, classify El If a quantitative analysis has been conducted: things the same way? (1) has an appropriate sample been selected El Is there any chance that the classification from the data source and (2) have the appro- of observations has been influenced by the way priate statistical techniques been used? those classifications will affect the research findings and/or the researcher's hypotheses? e If a qualitative analysis has been conducted, (1) has an appropriate range of data been El If descriptive conclusions have been drawn- examined and (2) are the researcher's con- for example, \"the group's standards were clusions logically consistent vvith the data quite conservative\"-what are the implicit presented? standards being used? Analyzing Existing Statistics El How much can the study's findings be general- ized to a broader sector of society? What claims El Who originally collected the data being re- has the researcher made in this regard? What analyzed? Were there any flaws in the data- is the basis for such claims? collection methods? What was the original pur- pose of the data collection? Would that have El If people have been interviewed, how were affected the data that was collected? they selected? Do they represent all appropriate types? El What was the unit of analysis of the data? Is it appropriate to the current research question e How much did the researcher participate in the and the conclusions being dra\"vn? Is there a events under study? How might that participa- danger of the ecological fallacy? tion have affected the events themselves? El When were the data collected? Are they still e Did the researcher reveal his or her identity as a appropriate to present concerns? researcher? If so, what influence could that revelation have had on the behavior of those El What are the variables being analyzed in the being observed? present research? Were the definitions used by the original researchers appropriate to present El Does the research indicate any personal feel- interests? ings-positive or negative-about those being observed? If so, what effect might these feelings Comparative and Historical Research have had on the observations that were made and the conclusions that 'vvere dravvn from e Is this a descriptive or an explanatory study? them? Does it involve cross-sectional comparisons or changes over time? El How has the researcher's own cultural identity or background affected the interpretation of El What is the unit of analysis in this study (e.g., what has been observed? country, social movement)?
Organizing a Review of the Literature 495 e What are the key variables under study? If it's e Has the researcher undertaken all relevant an explanatory analysis, what causal relation- analyses? Have all appropriate variables been ships are examined? identified and examined? Could the correlation observed between two variables have been El Does the study involve the use of other re- caused by a third, antecedent variable, making search techniques, such as existing statistics, the observed relationship spurious? content analysis, surveys, or field research? Use the guidelines elsewhere in this section to as- e Does a particular research finding really mat- sess those aspects of the study. ter? Is an observed difference between sub- groups, for example, a large or meaningful El Is the range of data appropriate to the analy- one? Are there any implications for action? sis-for example, the units being compared or the number of observations made for the pur- e Has the researcher gone beyond the actual find- pose of characterizing units? ings in dravving conclusions and inlplications? e If historical or other documents are used as a e Are there logical flaws in the analysis and inter- data source, who produced them and for what pretation of data? purposes? What biases might be embedded in them? Diaries kept by members of the gentry, e Have the empirical observations of the study re- for example, will not reflect the life of peasants vealed new patterns of relationships, providing of the same time and country. the bases for grounded theories of social life? Has the researcher looked for disconfirming Evaluation Research cases that would challenge the new theories? e What is the social intervention being analyzed? e Are the statistical techniques used in the analy- How has it been measured? Are there any sis of data appropriate to the levels of measure- problems of validity or reliability? ment of the variables involved? e Have the appropriate people (or other units of e If tests of statistical significance were used, have analysis) been observed? they been interpreted correctly? Has statistical significance been confused with substantive e How has \"success\" been defined? Where would significance? the success be manifested-in individuals, in organizations, in crime rates? Has it been mea- Reporting sured appropriately? e Has the researcher placed this particular project e Has the researcher judged the intervention a in the context of previous research on the topic? success or a failure? Is the judgment well Does this research add to, modify, replicate, or founded? contradict previous studies? e Who paid for the research, and who actually e In generaL has the researcher reported the conducted it? Can you be confident of the re- details of the study design and execution fully? searcher's objectivity? Did the sponsor interfere Are there parts of the report that seem particu- in any way? larly vague or incomplete in the reporting of details? Data Analysis e Has the researcher reported any flaws or short- e Did the purpose and design of the study call for comings in the study design or execution? Are a qualitative or a quantitative analysis? there any suggestions for improving research on the topic in the future? e How have nonstandardized data been coded? This question applies to both qualitative and I hope this section vvill prove useful to you in quantitative analysis. To what extent were the reading and understanding social research. The ex- codes (1) based on prior theory or (2) gener- ercises at the end of this chapter will walk you ated by the data?
496 Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research through the reading of two journal articles: one For now, let me mention just a few generally qualitative and one quantitative, As I said earlier, useful websites that you might like to check out: you'll find that your proficiency in reading social research reports will mature with practice. €I General Social Survey http://webapp.icpsr.umich.edu/GSS/ Before discussing how to go about creating so- cial research reports for others to read, let's look at €I GSS Resource materials, Queen's College how to read and evaluate data from an increasingly http://www50c.qc.edu/QC_Software/ popular source of information-the Internet. GSS.html Using the Internet Wisely €I US. Bureau of the Census http://vvww.census.gov/ In the closing decade of the twentieth century, the World Wide Web developed into a profoundly €I USA Statistics in Brief valuable tool for social research. Clearly, it will http://www.census.gov/statab/www/ continue to evolve as an ever more powerful entity. brieLhtml As with gunpowder and television, however, there are no guarantees that it \"'rill always be used €I Statistical Resources on the Web, University of wisely. As I write this, a substantial number of fac- Michigan ulty still prohibit their students from using web http://wwvv.lib.umich.edu/govdocs/ materials. I've opted to encourage use of the web stats.html rather than opposing it, but I'm mindful of the problems that make many of my colleagues €I Social Sciences Virtual Library more cautious. http://www.clas.ufLedu/users/gthursby/ socsci/ In this section of the chapter, I address the ma- jor problems inherent in using the web and suggest €I Yahoo Social Sciences ways to avoid them. http://dir. yahoo.com/SociaLScience I Some Useful Websites €I QUALPAGE: Resources for Qualitative Research http://www.qualitativeresearch.uga.edu/ The website associated with this book has up-to- QualPage/ date links to useful social research websites. I've placed the materials on the web instead of in an ap- €I Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis pendix, so they can be revised and updated before Software, University of Surrey, England the next textbook revision. Nevertheless, I want to http://caqdas.soc.surrey.ac.uk/ mention a few key websites here and, more impor- tantly, offer advice on how to search the web. Now, let's assume you need some information that you suspect is somewhere on the web, but you The first website I'll mention is the one created don't know where. Here are some ideas about be- to support this textbook and mentioned at the end coming a web detective. of each chapter. You should consider it as an exten- sion of the book. It can be found at http://sociology Searching the Web .wadsworth.com/babbie_practice11e. In addition to tutoring you on this book and coaching you in I won't estimate the number of pages of information your research methods course, the website also on the World Wide Web; its growth curve is so dra- provides numerous links that vvill take you to other matic that any number I might give now would be useful resources to aid you in both learning and do- embarrassingly low by the time you read this. Let's ing social research. just say there are millions and millions of pages. Es- timating the number of \"facts\" or pieces of data on the web would be impossible, but most of the fac- tual questions you might have can be answered on the web. Finding them involves skill, however. Let's say you want to know who was the thir- teenth president of the United States. That's easily learned in several ways. The most straightforward
Using the Internet Wisely 497 Millard Fillmore - Thirteenth President of the United States Biographical fast facts about Millard Fillmore, the thirteenth President of the United States. americanhistory,aboutcom/library/fastfacts/blffpresI3.htm - 28k - Cached - Similar oaoes Millard Fillmore - Thirteenth President of the United States Learn all about Millard Fillmore, the Thirteenth president of the United States. americanhistory.about.com/od/millardfillmorel - 16k - Cached - Similar Dages Amazon.com: Millard Fillmore: Thirteenth President of the United .. ' Amazon.com: Millard Fillmore: Thirteenth President of the United States (Encyclopedia of PreSidents): Books by Jane Clark Casey. www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-1051601353X?v=glance - 53k - Cached - Similar oaaes President Ronald R. Thomas. Thirteenth President of the University ... The University of Puget Sound is honored to welcome Ronald R. Thomas as its thirteenth preSident, and only its fifth since 1913.... www2.ups.edulinaugura!ionlinaugurationPresidenthtml-11k- Cached - Similar paaes Wilson. Woodrow Wilson, [Thomasl Woodrow (1856-1924), thirteenth president of Princeton, was bom December 29,1856, in Staunton, Virginia, the son of Joseph Ruggles Wilson .,' etc. princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/wilson_woodrow.html-13k - Cached - Similar oaaes The New ASU Story: Leadership John W Schwada was ASU's thirteenth president, serving from 1971 to 1981. He presided over one of the largest grow1h periods in university history, .., www.asu.edullib/archives/asustory/pages/18Iead.htm-4k - Sep 14, 2005 - Cached - Similar pages Millard Fillmore, Thirteenth President Of The United States reference - author, title, language for ISBN051601353X Millard Fillmore, Thirteenth President Of The United States. my..linkbaton.comlisbn/051601353X - 3k· Cached - Similar aages Thirteenth President of the United States Millard Fillmore - Books .. , journal articles on: Thirteenth President of the United States Millard Fillmore Take Millard Fillmore, who gave tlis\".money, our thirteenth president. __ , www.questia.com/search/Thirleenth-President-of-the-United-States-Millard-Fillmore - 41 k - Cached - Similar oaaes The Library of ConGress Shoo> Presidents. First Ladies> Millard ... Millard Fillmore, Thirteenth President of the United States, Millard Fillmore, Thirteenth President of the United States Click on image to enlarge ... www.loc.gov/shoplindex.php?action=cCatalog,showltem&cid=33&scid=229&iid=1019 -12k - Sep 14, 2005 - Cached - Similar pages FIGURE 17-1 Finding the Thirteenth President ©200S Google. Downloaded September 15, 2005, 12:25 P.M, would be to open one of the many search engines we want to know something more about him, No- available to you; let's say you use Google, found at tice that we've gotten the same answer from five http://www.google.com. When I searched for \"thir- different websites-each adding to our confidence teenth president,\" my responses began with those that we found the right answeL Notice also that shown in Figure 17-1. (Realize that if you replicate some of the answers reflect the ambiguity of our re- this procedure, you may get somewhat different quest in not specifying president of \"what\" responses, because the content of the web is con- tinuously evolving,) search engine A computer program designed to locate where specified terms appear on websites The first response in the list gives us the answer: throughout the World Wide Web, Millard Fillmore. In this case, it's not even necessary to follow up on any of the web links given, unless
498 Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research Here's a more elaborate example. Let's say you that finding data on the web is relatively easy. Eval- want to examine differences in the infant mortality uating what you've found is a bit more difficult, rates of countries around the world. You may al- however. I've already alluded to the matter of qual- ready know some websites that are likely to have ity, but there's much more to be said on the topic that information, but let's assume you don't.. In fact, many other people have said many other things about it.. What do you suppose is your best Let's go back to Google or another search en- source of such advice? If you said, \"The web,\" gine. Search for \"infant mortality rate.\" If you put you got it. your request inside quotation marks, as I did, the search engine will look for that exact phrase in- Open up a search engine and ask it to find stead of reporting websites that happen to have all websites having to do with or \"evaluating websites\" three words. Figure 17-2 presents the initial results or \"evaluating \"veb sites.\" Figure 17-4 gives you I received. some idea of the extent of advice available to you. Notice that several of the web links are proba- As you can tell from the \".edu\" in the addresses bly more specific than we want-one deals only of most of these sites, this is a topic of concern for with Cuba, another gives data on the United States. colleges and universities. Although each of the vari- Often an effective web search requires more than ous sites takes a different approach to the topic, the one attempt In this case, I added the word world to guidance they offer has some elements in cornman. the request: world \"infant mortality rate.\" You would do well to study one or more of the sites in depth. In the meantime, here's an overview of Like many other search engines, Google inter- the most cornman questions and suggestions for preted this as a request to find websites that contain evaluating the data presented on websites. the word world plus the exact phrase infant mortality rate. Figure 17-3 presents the first set of results. 1, Who/what is the author ofthe website? The two biggest risks you face in getting information The first web link is to the World Factbook, by the from the web are (1) bias and (2) sloppiness. CIA, which draws on data from a variety of sources. The democratic beauty of the web sterns from The second and third sources in this extract are its accessibility to such a large proportion of the commercial data sources, and Wikipedia is a free en- population and the lack of censorship. These cyclopedia compiled by the web community. Realize pluses also present dangers, however, in that that Figure 17- 3 only presents the first few websites just about anyone can put just about anything returned by the Google search. Google reported that on the web. The first thing you should note, it had found about 1,630,000 websites that seemed therefore, is who the author of the website is: to have the information we were seeking. either an organization or an individual. Conducting this search on your own and visit- 2. Is the site advocating a particular point ofview? ing the web links that result is a useful exercise. Many of the sites on the World Wide Web have You'll find that some of the sites are discussions of been created to support a particular political, the topic rather than tables of data. Others present religious, nationalistic, social, or other point of a limited set of data (\"selected countries\"). Thus, view. This fact does not necessarily mean that compiling a list of web links like this is a step along the data they present are false, though that's the way to obtaining relevant data, but it's not the sometimes the case. Beyond outright lying, final step. however, you can be relatively sure that the website will only present data supporting its Evaluating the Quality particular point of view. You can usually tell ollnternet Materials whether a website is reasonably objective or has an ax to grind, and you should be wary of There are other tricks to conducting effective web those that go overboard to convince you of searches, but you now know enough to begin something. learning through experience. You'll quickly learn
Map & Graph: Countries by Health: Infant mortalitv rate OUf infant mortality rate is driven by our high accidental death rate and ... But our relatively high infant mortality rate relative to per capita income is ... www.nationmaster.com/graptl-T/hea_inCmocrat- 99k - Sep 13, 2005 Cached - Similar oaaes GeoaraphylO - World Atlas - Rankinas - Infant mortality rate (All ... Worldwide Infant mortality rate (All Ascending) ranking information. www geographyiq.com/ranking/ranking_lnfant_Mortality_Rate_aalLhtm - 94k- Cached - Similar oaaes United Nations Statistics Division - Millennium Indicators Indicator. 14. Infant mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO) ... MDG, 1230, Infant mortality rate (0-1 year) per 1000 live births (UNICEF estimates) - View data ... milienniumindicators\"un.org/unsd/mi/mUndicator_xrxx.asp?ind_code=14 - 16k - Cached - Similar DaGeS CIA - The World Factbook - Rank Order- Infant mortality Infant mortality rate (deaths/1000 live births). Date of Information. 1. Angola, 187A9, 2005 est 2., Afghanistan, 163.07, 2005 est. ... www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2091rank.html- 92k - Cached - Similar DaGeS State Rankings-Statistical Abstract of the United States Infant ... rankings of states for infant mortality rate.... INFANT MORTALITY RATE - 2001. [When states share the same rank, the next lower rank is omitted.... www.census. gov/statab/ranks/rank17.html- 15k - Sep 14, 2005 - Cached - Similar RaGes Human Develooment Reports Infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births) The probability of dying between birth and exactly one year of age, expressed per 1000 live births.... www.undp.org/hdr2003/indicator/indic_289.html- 83k - Cached - Similar Danes Health. Cuba Reports Record Low Infant Mortality Rate: Cuba News ... Health, Cuba Reports Record Low Infant Mortality Rate: Cuba News, Cuba Travel, cultural, business news.., Cuba Travel eXPlorer. www.cubaxp. com/modules/news/article-447.html- 45k - Cached - Similar RaGes Infant mortality rate - deaths oer 1000 live births - Flaas. Maps ... Infant mortality rate - deaths per 1000 live births - Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, .. _ www.ptlotius. com/wfb1999/rankingslinfanUnortality_0.html- 52k Cached - Similar oaaes FIGURE 17-2 Search for \"Infant Mortality Rate\" ©2005 Google Downloaded September 15,2005, 12:30 P,M.
500 Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research CIA - The World Factbook - Rank Order - Infant mortality rate Top banner The World Factbook Banner ... Infant mortality rate (deaths/1000 live births). Date of Information. 1. Angola, 187.49,2005 est. ... www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2091 rankNml- 92k- Cached - Similar Dages CIA - The World Factbook - United States Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, ... Infant mortality rate:. Definition - Field Listing - Rank Order ... www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/usNml - 101 k - Sep 13, 2005 - Cached - Similar Dages Global Geografia - World, Demographic statistics: Infant Mortality ... www.globalgeografia.com • Website about geography. www.globalgeografia.com/worldlinfant_mortality_rate.htm - 6k - Cached - Similar Daoes GeographvlQ - World Atlas - Rankinas - Infant mortality rate (All ... Worldwide Infant mortality rate (All Ascending) ranking information. www. geographyiq.com/ranking/ranking_lnfanCMortality_Rate_aalLhtm - 94k - Cached - Similar paoes GeographylQ - World Atlas - Rankings - Infant mortality rate ... Worldwide Infant mortality rate (Bottom 25) ranking information. www.geographyiq.com/ranking/ranking_lnfant_Mortality_Rate_bottom25. htm . 28k- Cached - Similar Dages Infant mortality - Wikipedia. the free encyclopedia World infant mortality rate declined from 198 in 1960 to 83 in 2001. However, IMR remained higher in LDCs. In 2001, the Infant Mortality Rate for Less ... en.wikipedia. org/wikilinfanCmortality_rate - 20k - Cached - Similar pages List of countries by infant mortality rate (2005) - Wikipedia, the ... This is a list of countries by infant mortality rate, based on The World Factbook, 2005 estimates.[1]. The infant mortality rate (IMR) is reported as number ... en .wikipedia.org/wiki/LisCoCcountries_by_infanCmortality_rate_(2005) - 35k- Cached - Similar pages FIGURE 17-3 Search for \"World 'Infant Mortality Rate'\" ©2005 Google.Downloaded September 15,2005,12:33 P.M. 3. Does [he website give accurate and complete refer- data, do the authors provide you with suffi- eJZces?When data are presented. can you tell ciently detailed descriptions of their research where they corne from-how they were cre- methods? If they present the data without such ated? If the website is reporting data collected clarifications, you should leave the information by someone else. does it give you enough infor- there and move on. mation to locate the original researchers? Or. if the website authors themselves compiled the 4. Are the data IIp-to-date.? Another COI11I11on prob- lem on the web is that materials may be posted
Evaluating Web Pages: Techniques to Applv & Questions to Ask Includes checklist form (PDF) that can be used to analyze web sites and pages www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/lnternetlEvaluate.html- 46k • Cached - Similar Dages Kathy Schrock's Guide for Educators - Critical Evaluation Surveys ... ........a great site which looks at the different types of pages; Evaluating Web Sites ...a rubric and ... Evaluating Web Sites: What Makes a Web Site Good? ... schooLdiscovery.com/schrockguide/eval.html- 42k - Cached - Similar paaes Evaluating Web Sites The User Context: The most important factor when evaluating Web sites is your search, your needs. What are you using the Web for? Entertainment? ... wwwJibrary.comeILedu/olinuris/ref/research/webeval.html-11k - Sep 13,2005- Cached - Similar pages Five criteria for evaluating Web pages Evaluation of Web documents, How to interpret the basics. 1. Accuracy of Web Documents. Who wrote the page and can you contact him or her? ... www.library.comell.edu/okuref/research/webcrit.html- 7k - Cached - Similar pages Evaluating Web Sites Lesley is a multi-site University with more than 150 locations throughout the continental United States. www.lesley.edu/library/guides/research/evaluating_web.html- 25k - Sep 13, 2005- Cached - Similar Dages Evaluation Criteria from \"The Good. The Bad & The Ugly: or. Why ... A easy to use guide for web evaluation. Lists evaluation criteria with links to actual pages that illustrate each point. The Examples page can be used by ... lib. nmsu.edulinstruction/evalcrithtml- 10k - Cached - Similar Dages Evaluating Web Sites for Educational Uses This site contains a list of articles from librarians and other information specialists on Web evaluations. In addition, a checklist for evaluating a Web ... www.unc. edu/citlguides/irg-49.html- 14k - Cached - Similar Dages Evaluating Web Sites for Accessibility Goals for evaluating Web sites vary, and require different approaches to meet those goals:. Preliminary review can:. identify general kinds of barriers on a ... www.w3.org/WAI/eval/Overview.html- 31 k - Cached - Similar Daaes FIGURE 17-4 Search for \"Evaluating Web Sites\" ©2005 Google. Downloaded September 15,2005, 12:45 P.M..
502 Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research and forgotteno Hence, you may find data re- As with so many things, your effective use porting crime rates, chronicles of peace negoti- of the web will improve with practice. Moreover, ations, and so forth that are out-of-dateo Be the web itself will be evolving alongside your sure that the data you obtain are timely for use of it your purposes. Citing Internet Materials 50 Are the data official? It's often a good idea to find data at officiaL government research sites, such If you use materials from the web, you must pro- as the Bureau of the Census (http://vvvvw vide a bibliographic citation that allows your reader .censusogov/), the Bureau of Labor Statistics to locate the original materials-to see them in (http://vvwwoblsogov/home.htm), the National context. This also protects you from the serious Center for Health Statistics (http://vvvv\\vocdc problem of plagiarism, discussed a little later in this ogov/nchs/), and otherso FedStats (http://www chapter. Jedstatsogov/) is a good launching point for finding data among some 100 federal research There are many standardized formats for biblio- agencieso As we saw in Chapter 11, data pre- graphie citations, such as those established by the sented by official agencies are not necessarily Modern Language Association, the American Psy- \"The Truth,\" but they are grounded in a com- chological Association, and the American Sociologi- mitment to objectivity and have checks and cal Association. Web materials, unfortunately, don't balances to support them in achieving that goaL fit any of those familiar formats. 6. Is if a university research site? Like government re- Fortunately, each of these organizations and search agencies, university research centers and many others have risen to the challenge of web ci- institutes are usually safe resources, committed tations. If you don't believe me, go to your favorite to conducting professional research and having search engine and look for \"web citations.\" You'll checks and balances (eogo, peer review) to sup- find plenty of guidance. port their achieving that Throughout this book, I've mentioned the General Social Sur- Your instructor may prefer a specific format for vey http://webappjcpsLumicludu/GSS/, con- web citations. However, here are the elements ducted regularly by the National Opinion Re- commonly suggested for inclusion: search Center at the University of Chicagoo You could trust the data presented there, using EI The URL or web addresso For example, them vvith confidence in their legitimacy and http://www.fedstats.gov/qflstates/50000.html knowing that your instructor will not question provides demographic data for comparing Ver- your use of that resourceo mont with the United States as a whole. So if I tell you that Vermont grew 8.2 percent during 70 Do the data seem consistent ll'ith data from other the 1990s, you can go directly to the source sites? Verify (cross-check) data wherever pos- of my data. sible. We've already seen that a web search is likely to turn up more than one possible source EI The date and time when the site was accessed. of data. Take the time to compare what they Many, like the one just cited, do not change, present If several websites present essentially but many others doo It may be useful for the the same data, you can use any of those reader to know when you visited the site in sources with confidence. question. URL Web address, typically beginning with EI If you're citing text materials, there may very ''http://''; stands for \"uniform resource locator\" or well be an author and title, as well as publish- \"universal resource locator.\" ing informationo These should be cited the same way you would cite printed materials: for example, John Doe. 2003. \"How I Learned to Love the Web.\" joumal of Web Worship 5 (3): 22-45.
Writing Social Research 503 EI Sometimes, you'll use the web to read a pub- Some Basic Considerations lished journal article, locating it with InfoTrac College Edition or another vehicle. Such mate- Despite these general guidelines, different reports rials may be presented in a print format, with serve different purposes. A report appropriate for page numbers. If so, cite the appropriate page one purpose might be wholly inappropriate for an- number. Lacking that. you may be able to cite other. This section deals with some of the basic the section where the materials in question ap- considerations in this regard. peared. The goal in all this is to help your reader locate the original web materials you're Audience usingo Although you sometimes cannot give a precise location in an article posted to a web- Before drafting your report, ask yourself who you site, most browsers allow users to search the hope will read it. Normally you should make a dis- site for a specified word or phrase and thus lo- tinction between scientists and general readers. If cate the materials being citedo the report is written for the former, you can make certain assumptions about their existing knowledge Writing Social Research and therefore summarize certain points rather than explain them in detail. Similarly, you can use more Unless research is properly communicated, all the technical language than would be appropriate for a efforts devoted to the various procedures discussed general audience. throughout this book will go for naught. This means, first and foremost. that good social report- At the same time, remain aware that any sci- ing requires good English (or Spanish or whatever ence has its factions and cults. Terms, assumptions, language you use). Whenever we ask the figures and special techniques familiar to your immediate \"to speak for themselves,\" they tend to remain colleagues may only confuse other scientists. The mute. Whenever we use unduly complex termi- sociologist of religion writing for a general sociol- nology or construction, communication suffers. ogy audience, for example, should explain previous findings in more detail than he or she would if ad- My first advice to you is to read and reread (at dressing an audience of sociologists of religion. approximately three-month intervals) an excellent small book by William Strunk, Jr., and E. B. White, Form and Length ofReport The Elements ofStyle (1999; see also Birchfield 1998) 0 If you do this faithfully, and if even 10 per- My comments here apply to both written and oral cent of the contents rub off, you stand a good reports. Eacl1 form, however, affects the nature of chance of making yourself understood and your the report. findings appreciated. It's useful to think about the variety of reports Next, you need to understand that scientific re- that might result from a research project To begin, porting has several functions. First. your report you may wish to prepare a short research note for should communicate a body of specific data and publication in an academic or teclmical journaL ideas. You should provide those specifics clearly Such reports are approximately one to five pages and with sufficient detail to permit an informed long (typed, double-spaced) and should be concise evaluation by others. Second, you should view and direct In a small amount of space, you can't your report as a contribution to the general body of present the state of the field in any detail, so your scientific knowledgeo While remaining appropri- methodological notes must be abbreviated. Basi- ately humble, you should always regard your re- cally, you should tell the reader why you feel your search report as an addition to what we know findings justify a brief note, then tell what those about social behavior. Finally, the report should findings are. stimulate and direct further inquiry. Often researchers must prepare reports for the sponsors of their research. These reports can vary greatly in length. In preparing such a report, you
504 E! Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research should bear in mind its audience-scientific or A book, of course, represents the most presti- lay-and their reasons for sponsoring the project gious form of research report. It has the length and in the first place. It is both bad politics and bad detail of a working paper but is more polished. Be- manners to bore the sponsors with research find- cause publishing research findings as a book lends ings that have no interest or value to them. At the them greater substance and worth, you have a spe- same time, it may be useful to summarize how the cial obligation to your audience. Although some research has advanced basic scientific knowledge colleagues may provide comments, possibly leading (if it has). you to revise your ideas, other readers may be led to accept your findings uncritically. Working papers are another form of research re- porting. In a large and complex project especially, Aim of the Report you'll find comments on your analysis and the in- terpretation of your data useful. A working paper Earlier in this book, we considered the different constitutes a tentative presentation with an implicit purposes of social research projects. In preparing request for comments. Working papers can also your report, keep these different purposes in mind. vary in length, and they may present all of the re- search findings of the project or only a portion of Some reports focus primarily on the exploration them. Because your professional reputation is not of a topic As such, their conclusions are tentative at stake in a working paper, feel free to present and incomplete. If you're writing this sort of report, tentative interpretations that you can't altogether clearly indicate to your audience the exploratory justify-identifying them as such and asking for aim of the study and present the shortcomings evaluations. of the particular project. An exploratory report points the way to more-refined research on the Many research projects result in professional pa- topic. pers, or those delivered at professional meetings. Often, these serve the same purpose as working pa- Most research reports have a descriptive ele- pers. You can present findings and ideas of possible ment reflecting the desniptive purpose of the interest to your colleagues and ask for their com- studies they document. In yours, carefully distin- ments. Although the length of professional papers guish those desniptions that apply only to the varies, depending on the organization of the meet- sample and those that apply to the population. ings, it's best to say too little rather than too much. Give your audience some indication of the prob- Although a working paper may ramble somewhat able range of error in any inferential descriptions through tentative conclusions, conference partici- you make. pants should not be forced to sit through an oral unveiling of the same. Interested listeners can al- Many reports have an e},.'Planatory aim: point- ways ask for more details later, and uninterested ing to causal relationships among variables. De- ones can gratefully escape. pending on your probable audience, carefully de- lineate the rules of explanation that lie behind your Probably the most popular research report is computations and conclusions. Also, as in the case the article published in an academic journaL Again, of description, give your readers some guide to the lengths vary, and you should examine the lengths relative certainty of your conclusions. of articles previously published by the journal in question. As a rough guide, however, 25 typed If your intention is to test a hypothesis based in pages is a good length. Student term papers should theory, you should make that hypothesis clear and follow this model as welL As a general rule, a term succinct. Specify what will constitute acceptance or paper that would make a good journal article also rejection of the hypothesis and how either of those makes a good term paper. (You'll learn more on reflects on the theoretical underpinnings. the structure of the journal article, on which the organization of a report is primarily based, a bit Finally, some research reports propose action. later on in this chapter.) For example, if you've studied prejudice, you may suggest in your report how prejudice can be re- duced on the basis of your research findings. This
Writing Social Research 505 suggestion may become a knotty problem for you, Review of the literature however, because your values and orientations may have interfered with your proposals. Although it's Next, you must indicate where your report fits in perfectly legitimate for such proposals to be moti- the context of the general body of scientific knowl- vated by personal values, you must ensure that the edge. After presenting the general purpose of your specific actions proposed are warranted by the data. study, you should bring the reader up-to-date on Thus, you should be especially careful to spell out the previous research in the area, pointing to gen- the logic by which you move from empirical data eral agreements and disagreements among the pre- to proposed action. vious researchers. Your review of the literature should lay the groundwork for your mvn study, Organization of the Report showing why your research may have value in the larger scheme of things. Although the various forms and purposes of re- ports somewhat affect the way they are organized, In some cases, you may wish to challenge pre- knowing a general format for presenting research viously accepted ideas. Carefully review the studies data can be helpfuL The following comments apply that have led to the acceptance of those ideas, then most directly to a journal article, but with some indicate the factors that have not been previously modification they apply to most forms of research considered or the logical fallacies present in the reports as well. previous research. Purpose and Overview When you're concerned with resolving a dis- agreement among previous researchers, you should It's always helpful if you begin vl'ith a brief state- summarize the research supporting one view, then ment of the purpose of the study and the main summarize the research supporting the other, and findings of the analysis. In a journal article, as then suggest the reasons for the disagreement. we've seen, this overview sometimes takes the form of an absrract. Your review of the literature serves a biblio- graphic function for readers, by indexing the previ- Some researchers find this difficult to do. For ous research on a given topic. This can be over- example, your analysis may have involved consid- done, however, and you should avoid an opening erable detective work, with important findings re- paragraph that runs three pages, mentioning every vealing themselves only as a result of inlaginative previous study in the field. The comprehensive bib- deduction and data manipulation. You may wish, liographic function can best be served by a bibliog- therefore, to lead the reader through the same ex- raphy at the end of the report, and the review of citing process, chronicling the discovery process the literature should focus only on those studies with a degree of suspense and surprise. To the ex- that have direct relevance to the present one. tent that this form of reporting gives an accurate picture of the research process, it has considerable Avoiding Plagiarism instructional value. Nevertheless, many readers may not be interested in following your entire re- Whenever you're reporting on the work of others, search account, and not knowing the purpose and you must be clear about who said what. That is, general conclusions in advance may make it you must avoid plagiarism: the theft of another's difficult for them to understand the significance of words and/or ideas-whether intentional or acci- the study. dental-through the presentation of those words and ideas as your mvn. Because this is a common An old forensic dictum says, \"Tell them what and sometimes unclear problem for college you're going to tell them; tell them; and tell them what you told them.\" You would do well to follow plagiarism Presenting someone else's words or this dictum. thoughts as though they were your own, constitut- ing intellectual theft.
506 Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research students, especially in regard to the review of the Systems Tend 10 Expand To Fill literature, we'll consider the issue here. Realize, of The Known Universe course, that these concerns apply to everything (Gall 1975: 12-14) you write. Now let's look at some of the acceptable ways you Here are the ground rules regarding plagiarism: might make use of Gall's work in a term paper. €I You cannot use another writer's exact words €I Acceptable: John GalL in his work Systemal1tics, without using quotation marks and giving a draws a humorous parallel between systems complete citation, which indicates the source of and infants: \"Systems are like babies: once you the quotation such that your reader could lo- get one, you have it. They don't go away. On cate the quotation in its original context. As a the contrary. they display the most remarkable general rule, taking a passage of eight or more persistence. They not only persist; they grow.\" * words without citation is a violation of federal copyright lawso €I Acceptable: John Gall warns that systems are like babies. Create a system and it sticks €I It's also not acceptable to edit or paraphrase an- around. Worse yet, Gall notes, systems keep other's words and present the revised version as grovving larger and larger.t your ovvn work. €I Acceptable: It has also been suggested that sys- €I Finally, it's not even acceptable to present an- tems have a natural tendency to persist even other's ideas as your own-even if you use to- grow and encroach (Gall 1975: 12). tally different words to express those ideas. Note that the last format requires that you give The follovving examples should clarify what is a complete citation in your bibliography, as I do in or is not acceptable in the use of another's work. this book. Complete footnotes or endnotes work as welL See the publication manuals of various orga- The Original Work nizations such as the APA or the ASA, as well as the Chicago lvlanual ofStyle, for appropriate citation Laws ofGrowth formats. Systems are like babies: once you get one, Here now are some unacceptable uses of the you have it. They don't go away. On the con- same materiaL reflecting some common errors. trary, they display the most remarkable persis- tence. They not only persist; they grow. And as €I Unacceptable: In this paper. I want to look at they grow, they encroach. The growth potential some of the characteristics of the social systems of systems was explored in a tentative, prelimi- we create in our organizations. First systems nary way by Parkinson, who concluded that are like babies: Once you get one, you have it. administrative systems maintain an average They don't go away. On the contrary, they dis- growth of 5 to 6 percent per annum regardless play the most remarkable persistence. They of the work to be done. Parkinson was right so not only persist; they grow. [It's unacceptable far as he goes, and we must give him full hon- to directly quote someone else's materials ors for initiating the serious study of this impor- without using quotation marks and giving tant topic. But what Parkinson failed to per- a full citation.] ceive, we now enunciate-the general systems analogue of Parkinson's Law. €I Unacceptable: In this paper, I want to look at some of the characteristics of the social systems The System Itself Tends to Grow At 5 To 6 Percent Per Annum *John Gall, Sysremalllics: HolV Systems Work and Especially How They Fail (New York: Quadrangle, 1975), 12. Again, this Law is but the preliminary to t John GalL Systemantics. How Sysrems Work and Especially the most general possible formulation, the Big- HolV They Fail (New York: Quadrangle, 1975), 12. Bang Theorem of Systems Cosmology.
Writing Social Research 507 we create in our organizations. First systems rather short space, without omitting anything re- are a lot like children: once you get one, it's quired for the reader's evaluation of the study, yours. They don't go away; they persist. They not only persist. in fact: they grow. [It's unac- AnalYSis and Interpretation ceptable to edit another'S work and present it as your ovvn.] Having set the study in the perspective of previous research and having described the design and exe- €I Unacceptable: In this paper, I want to look at cution of it. you should then present your data. some of the characteristics of the social systems This chapter momentarily will provide further we create in our organizations. One thing I've guidelines in this regard. For now, a few general noticed is that once you create a system, it comments are in order. never seems to go away. Just the opposite, in fact: They have a tendency to grow. You might The presentation of data, the manipulation of say systems are a lot like children in that re- those data, and your interpretations should be inte- spect [It's unacceptable to paraphrase someone grated into a logical wholeo It frustrates the reader else's ideas and present them as your o'Yvn.] to discover a collection of seemingly unrelated analyses and findings with a promise that all the Each of the preceding unacceptable examples is loose ends will be tied together later in the report. an example of plagiarism and represents a serious Every step in the analysis should make sense at the offense. Admittedly, there are some \"gray areas.\" time it's taken. You should present your rationale Some ideas are more or less in the public domain, for a particular analysis, present the data relevant not \"belonging\" to anyone person. Or you may to it interpret the results, and then indicate where reach an idea on your own that someone else has that result leads next. already put in Writing. If you have a question about a specific situation, discuss it with your instructor Summary and Conclusions in advance. According to the forensic dictum mentioned earlier, I've discussed this topic in some detail because, sunm1arizing the research report is essentiaL Avoid although you must place your research in the con- revie\\ving every specific finding, but review all the text of what others have done and said, the im- significant ones, pointing once more to their gen- proper use of their materials is a serious offense. eral significance. Learning to avoid plagiarism is a part of your \"com- ing of age\" as a scholar. The report should conclude \\vith a statement of what you have discovered about your subject mat- Study DeSign and Execution ter and where future research might be directed., Many journal articles end with the statement, \"It is A research report containing interesting findings clear that much more research is needed.\" This and conclusions will frustrate readers if they can't conclusion is probably always true, but it has little determine the methodological design and execu- value unless you can offer pertinent suggestions tion of the study. The worth of all scientific findings about the nature of that future researcho You depends heavily on the manner in which the data should review the particular shortcomings of your were collected and analyzed. own study and suggest ways those shortcomings might be avoided. In reporting the design and execution of a sur- vey, for example, always include the following: the Guidelines for Reporting Analyses population, the sampling frame, the sampling method, the sample size, the data-collection The presentation of data analyses should provide a method, the completion rate, and the methods of maximum of detail without being cluttered. You can data processing and analysis. Comparable details accomplish this best by continually examining your should be given if other methods are used. The ex- report to see whether it achieves the following aims. perienced researcher can report these details in a
508 ll! Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research If you're using quantitative data, present them impedes the reader, however. As a general rule, it's so the reader can recompute them. In the case of best to (1) describe the purpose for presenting the percentage tables, for example, the reader should table, (2) present it, and (3) review and interpret it. be able to collapse categories and recompute the percentages. Readers should receive sufficient in- Draw explicit conclusions~ Although research formation to permit them to compute percentages is typically conducted for the purpose of dravving in the table in the direction opposite from that of general conclusions, you should carefully note the your own presentation. specific basis for such conclusions. Othervvise you may lead your reader into accepting unwarranted Describe all aspects of a quantitative analysis in sufficient detail to permit a secondary analyst to conclusions~ replicate the analysis from the same body of data. This means that he or she should be able to create Point to any qualifications or conditions war- the same indexes and scales, produce the same ranted in the evaluation of conclusions. Typically, tables, arrive at the same regression equations, ob- you know best the shortcomings and tentativeness tain the same factors and factor loadings, and so of your conclusions, and you should give the reader forth~ This vvill seldom be done, of course, but if the the advantage of that knowledge. Failure to do so report allows for it, the reader vvill be far better can misdirect future research and result in a waste equipped to evaluate the report than if it does not. of research funds. Provide details~ If you're doing a qualitative As I said at the outset of this discussion, re- analysis, you must provide enough detail that your search reports should be written in the best pos- reader has a sense of having made the observations sible literary style~ Writing lucidly is easier for some with you. Presenting only those data that support people than for others, and it's always harder than your interpretations is not sufficient; you must also writing poorly. I again refer you to the Strunk and share those data that conflict vvith the way you've White book. Every researcher would do well to fol- made sense of things. Ultimately, you should pro- low this procedure: Write. Read Strunk and White. vide enough information that the reader might Revise. Reread Stnmk and White. Revise again. reach a different conclusion than you did-though This vvill be a difficult and time-consuming en- you can hope your interpretation vvill make the deavor, but so is science~ most sense. The reader, in fact, should be in posi- tion to replicate the entire study independently, A perfectly designed, carefully executed, and whether it involves participant observation among brilliantly analyzed study vviIl be altogether worth- heavy metal groupies, an eX\"periment regarding less unless you can cOI1U1mnicate your findings to jury deliberation, or any other study formal. Recall others. This section has attempted to provide some that replicability is an essential norm of science. A guidelines toward that end. The best guides are single study does not prove a point; only a series of logic, clarity, and honesty. Ultimately, there is no studies can begin to do so. And unless studies can substitute for practice. be replicated, there can be no meaningful series of studies. Going Public Integrate supporting materials. I've previously Though I have written this chapter v\\'ith a particu- mentioned the inlportance of integrating data and lar concern for the research projects you may be interpretations in the report. Here is a more specific called on to undertake in your research methods guideline for doing this. Tables, charts, and figures, course, you should realize that graduate and even if any, should be integrated into the text of the re- undergraduate students are increasingly presenting port-appearing near that portion of the text dis- the results of their research as professional papers cussing them~ Sometimes students describe their or published articles. analyses in the body of the report and place all the tables in an appendix. This procedure greatly If you would like to explore these possibilities further, you may find state and regional associa- tions more open to students than national associa- tions are, although students may present papers to
Main POints 509 the Anlerican SOCiological Association, for ex- television, I trust you'll have the tools to explore ample~ Some associations have special sessions and your world with a social Scientific eye~ programs for student participants. You can learn more about these possibilities by visiting the associ- MAIN POINTS ations' websites to learn of upcoming meetings and the topics for which papers are being solicited. Introduction (& Meaningful scientific research is inextricably Typically, you'll submit your paper to someone who has agreed to organize a session with three to wed to communication; knovving how to read five papers on a particular topic. The organizer and write it requires practice. chooses which of the submissions vvill be accepted for presentation. Oral presentations at scholarly Organizing a Review of the Literature meetings are typically 15-20 minutes long, vvith (& Social researchers can access many resources, the possibility of questions from the audience. Some presenters read a printed paper, whereas including the library and the Internet, for or- others speak from notes. Increasingly, presenters ganizing a review of the literature. use computer slide shows, though such presenta- tions are still in the minority. Reading Social Research (& Reading scholarly literature is different from To publish an article in a scholarly journaL you would do well to identify a journal that publishes reading other works, such as novels. articles on the topic of your research. Again, the (& In reading scholarly literature, one should be- journals published by state or regional associations may be more accessible to student authors. Each gin by reading the abstract. skimming the piece, journal vvill contain instructions for submitting ar- and reading the conclusion to get a good sense ticles, including instructions for formatting your ar- of what it's about. ticle. Typically, articles submitted to a journal are (& Readers of social science literature should form circulated among three or so anonymous review- questions and take notes as they go along. ers, who make comments and recoI1U11endations to (& The key elements to note in reading a research the journal's editor. This is referred to as the \"peer report include theoretical orientation, research review\" process. Sometimes manuscripts are ac- design, measurement methods, sampling (if cepted pretty much as submitted, some are re- any), and other considerations specific to the turned for revision and resubmission, and still oth- several data-collection methods discussed in ers are rejected~ The whole process from submission this book. to a decision to publish or reject may take a few months, and there vvill be a further delay before Using the Internet Wisely the article is actually published. (& The Internet is a powerful tool for social re- To meet the costs of publication, a journal vvill searchers, but it also carries risks . sometimes require that authors pay a small fee on (& Not everything you read on the web is neces- acceptance. Typically, authors receive extra copies of their article-called \"reprints\"-to give to sarily true. friends and family and to satisfy requests from pro- (& Original sources of data are preferred over fessional colleagues. those that take data from elsewhere~ This chapter, and indeed this book. has pro- (& In evaluating a web source, one should ask the vided what I hope vvill be a springboard for you to engage in and enjoy the practice of social research. following: The next time you find yourself pondering the Who or what is the author of the website? cause of prejudice, or observing a political rally, Is the site advocating a particular point of view? or just plain curious about the latest trends in Does the site give accurate and complete references? Are the data up-to-date?
510 Chapter 17: Reading and Writing Social Research ® Official agencies usually serve as a good source REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES of data, although the data are subject to error. 1. Analyze a quantitative research report: ® The reader of a report should verify (cross- Stanley Lieberson, Susan Dumais, Shyon Bau- check) data wherever possible. mann, \"The Instability of Androgynous Names: The Symbolic Maintenance of Gender Bound- ® Web citations, like other bibliographic refer- aries,\" American Journal of Sociology 105 (5, ences, should be complete-allowing the March 2000): 1249 (can be accessed in print reader to locate and review the materials cited. or online through InfoTrac College Edition, for example). Use the following questions as your Writing Social Research guide: ® Good social research writing begins with good a.. What are the theoretical underpinnings of writing, which means, among other things, the study? writing to communicate rather than to impress. ® Being mindful of your audience and purpose in b. How are some of the key variables such as writing the report is importanL androgynous, racial, and gender segregation ® Avoiding plagiarism-that is, presenting some- conceptualized and operationalized? one else's words or thoughts as though they were your own-is essential. Whenever using c What data is this research based on? someone else's exact words, you must be sure to use quotation marks or some other indica- d. Are there controlling variables? tion that you're quoting. In paraphrasing some- one else's words or ideas, you must provide a e. What is the unit of analysis? full bibliographic citation of the source. ® The research report should include an account L What type of analysis was done? of the study design and execution. ® The analysis of a report should be clear at each g. What did the authors find? step, and its conclusion should be specific but not overly detailed. h. What are the strengths and weaknesses of ® To write good reports, researchers need to pro- this study? vide details, integrate supporting materials, and draw explicit conclusions. 2. Analyze a qualitative research report: Dingxin ® Increasingly, students are presenting papers at Zhao, \"State-Society Relations and the Dis- professional meetings and publishing articles in courses and Activities of the 1989 Beijing Stu- scholarly journals. dent Movement,\" American Journal of Sociology 105 (6, May 2000): 1592 (can be accessed in KEY TERMS print or online through InfoTrac College Edi- tion, for example). Use the following questions The following terms are defined in context in the as your guide: chapter and at the bottom of the page where the term is introduced, as well as in the comprehensive glossary a. What is the author'S main research at the back of the book. question? abstract search engine b. What theoretical frameworks does he refer plagiarism URL to, and which ones did he use? research monograph c What methodology is the author using? What type of data collection did he choose? What is the unit of analysis? d. Does the author have a hypothesis? If so, what is it? e. How does the author conceptualize key terms such as state, state-society, traditiol1alism? What new ideal types of states does he bring to the field? L What are his findings? g. What is the significance of this study? Were you convinced by the author, or do you see weaknesses in the study?
Online Study Resources 511 ADDITIONAl. READINGS based on your quiz results . Use this study plan with its interactive exercises and other re- Alexander, Jan, and Marsha Ann Tate. 1999. Web sources to master the materiaL Wisdom. Nlahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. A guide to the evaluation of web materials. 3.. When you're finished with your review, take the posttest to confirm that you're ready to Birchfield, R W. 1998. The NelV Fowler's Modern EIl- move on to the next chapter. glish Usage. 3rd ed . New York: Oxford University Press. H W. Fowler's concise and witty lvlodem WEBSITE FOR THE PRACTICE English Usage has been the chief resource and OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 11TH EDITION final word on \"proper\" English since it was first published in 1926. The third edition ensures Go to your book's website at http://sociology that the advice is \"modern.\" .wadsworthcom/babbie_practicelle for tools to aid you in studying for your exams. You'll find Tuto- Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. 1999. The Ele- rial Quizzes with feedback, Intemer Exercises, Flashcards, meWs of Style. 4th ed. New York: Macmillan. This and Chapter Tutorials, as well as Extmded Projects, Info- marvelous little book provides specific guidance hac College Editioll search terms, Social Research ill Cyber- regarding grammar and spelling, but its primary space, GSS Data, Web Links, and primers for using vari- power is its ability to inspire good writing. ous data-analysis software such as SPSS and I\\'Vivo. Walker, Janice R, and Todd Taylor. 1998. The ColllI/l- WEB LINKS FOR THIS CHAPTER bia Guide 10 Online Style. New York: Columbia University Press. A guide to citing web materials Please realize that the Internet is an evolv- in a scholarly report. ing entity, subject to change. Nevertheless, these few websites should be fairly stable. SPSS EXERCISES Also, check your book's website for even more Htb Lillks. These websites, current at the time of this book's See the booklet that accompanies your text for exer- publication, provide opportunities to learn about read- cises using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sci- ing and writing social research. ences). There are exercises offered for each chapter, and you'll also find a detailed primer on using SPSS. Social Research Online http://vvww.socresonline.org.uk/ Online Study Resources An online journal published by the Universities of Surrey and Stirling, Sage Publications, Ltd., and the Sociology~ Now'\": Research Methods British Sociological Association. L Before you do your final review of the chapter, The Qualitative Report take the SociologyNolV Research lvlethods diagnos- http://ww\\v.nova.edu/ssss/QR/index.html tic quiz to help identify the areas on which you An online journal published by Nova Southeastern should concentrate. You'll find information on University. this online tool, as well as instructions on how to access all of its great resources, in the front of Scholarly Journals Distributed via the book. the World Wide Web http://info.lih.uh.edu/wj/webjour.htm1 2. As you review, take advantage of the Sociology An online bibliography from the University of Now Research iHethods customized study plan, Houston Libraries.
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Using the Library Introduction volumes offer a guide to the information that's available. We live in a world filled with social science research reports. Our daily newspapers, magazines, profes- Books in Print sional journals, alumni bulletins, club newsletters- virtually everything we pick up to read may carry TIllS volume lists all the books currently in print in reports dealing vvith a particular topic For formal the United States-listed separately by author and explorations of a topic, of course, the best place to by title. out-of-print books can often be found in start is still a good college or university library. To- older editions of Books in Print day. there are two major approaches to finding li- brary materials: the traditional paper system and Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature the electronic route. Let's begin with the traditional method and then examine the electronic option. This annual volume vvith monthly updates lists ar- ticles published in many journals and magazines. Getting Help Because the entries are organized by subject matter, this is an excellent source for organizing your read- When you want to find something in the library, ing on a particular topic Figure A-I presents a your best friend is the reference librarian, who is sample page from the Readers' Guide. specially trained to find things in the library, Some libraries have specialized reference librarians-for In addition to these general reference volumes, the social sciences, humanities, government docu- you'll find a great variety of specialized references. ments, and so forth. Find the librarian who special- Here are just a few: izes in your field. Make an appointment. Tell the li- brarian what you're interested in. He or she will Sociological Abstracts probably put you in touch with some of the many Psychological Abstracts available reference sources. Social Science Index Social Science Citation Index Reference Sources Popular Guide to Government Publications New York Times Index You've probably heard the expression \"information Facts on File explosion.\" Your library is one of the main battle- Editorial Research Reports fields. Fortunately, a large number of reference Business Periodicals Index Monthly Catalog of Government Publications Public Affairs Information Service Bulletin
128 READERS' GUIDE TO PERIODICAL LITERATURE MUSIC-eJn!. Drugs and musicians Rock musicians Study and teaching MUSKE, CAROL, 1945- Skid [poeml Th, New Yorker 63:38 F 8 '88 StY also MUSLIMS Guitar-Study and teaching S~'r;? also Islam Themes, motives, etc, Afghanistan St'C also Beyond the Afghan stalemate, L. Komisar, il The NiH' Leader 71:5·6 Automobiles in music Ja 11-25 '88 Middle East Theory The Islamic resurgence: a new phase? R \\Vrighr. bibl f CUrn'nt His· SN£I/S0 torr 87:53·6+ F '88 AtonLility MUTATION Sc!t;.' alsiJ Japan The Japanese and \\Vestern music L. Futoransky iI Tire Courier (Ull~ Transposons MUTUAL FUNDS Sa Investment trusts em.') 40:38+ D '87 MUTUALISM (BIOLOGY) Su Symbiosis MUZIEKTHEATER (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) MUSIC, AMERICAN See Opera houses St'e also MYASTHENIA GRAVIS Jazz music Suzanne Rogers: \"'I looked at my face and thought. '\\Vho'd hire a freak?\" A. W. Petrucelli. pars Redbook 170:104+ F '88 MUSIC, ELECTRONIC MYCOBACTERIAL DISEASES S2e also See also Computers-Musical use Tuberculosis MYCOTOXINS See Toxins and antitoxins Musical instruments, Electronic N MUSIC AND STATE N. W. AYER & SON, INC. Viewpoint {government subsidies of operaJ 1. L Poole. Opera News Ayer to the throne [Burger King ad campaign1 B, Kanner. i1 Nr:tv York 21:24+ F 29 '88 52:4 F 13 '88 NADIS, STEVEN J. Soviet Union Robot observatories, iI Omni (Sew York. N Y.) 10:24+ Ja 'S8 Gorbachev sets the beat for Soviet rock iI Us. Nt\"wS & World Rt~porl NAEP 5c!c National Assessment of Educational Progress 104:8-9 F 8 '88 NAKAGAMI, KENJI, 1946- MUSIC AND THE BLIND about Call him Doc [D, \\Vatson] F. 1. Schultz il pors Cou11lry JounzaI15:44- Two contemporary writers, D.. Palme. The Courier (U1USCO) 40:44 D 53 F '88 'S7 NAKED SHORT SELLING See Securities-Shan seIling MUSIC AND THE HANDICAPPED NANDINA Set' also Nandina does the unexpected. iI Sourhem Lh-illg 23:50 Ja '88 NAPLES (ITALY) Guitarists, Handicapped Music MUSIC CORPORATION OF AMERICA See .\\ICA Inc. Sec? also MUSIC CRITICS AND CRITICISM S,'Opera-Italy Sec also NARCOTIC ADDICTS Drug abuse NARCOTICS LAWS AND REGULATIONS Opera reviews 5r:e also MUSIC FESTIVALS Boats in narcotics regulation Robots in narcotics regulation Austria Bregenz, R Koegler. iI Opera N,\"H\"S 52:38 F 13 '88 Austria A five-year penalty call [Czech hockey legend J BubIa serving Germany (West) Bayreuth. J. H. Sutcliffe,. il Dpaa NC:H\"S 52:36 Ja 30 '88 prison sentence for smuggling heroin] J\" Holland. il por AfacJeall's 101:6 F 8 '88 Great Britain Colombia Buxton. E. Forbes. Opera N,'ws 52:40-1 F 13 '88 Banling the drug lords [Anorney General C. Hoyos murdered] Italy E. Tolmie. iI Maclealls 101:26 F 8 '\"88 Torre del Lago (PUCcini Festival) M, Hamlet~i\\lets. Opc:m NeH\"S 52: 38- Day of the assassins [Attorney General C Hoyos murdered] J\\.L S 40 F 13 '88 Serrill. il par Tillie 131 :42 F 8 '88 How cocaine rules the law in Colombia [assassination of Attorney Pennsylvania General C. Hoyos) C. A. Robbins. il U.S. Nt'wS & World Report Philadelphia [American ;\\lusic Theater FestivalJ R Baxter, Opaa 104:28-9 F 8 '88 Murderers of Medellin [assassination of Colombia's Attorney Gen· Nt'ws 52:34 Ja 30 '88 eral C. Hoyosl F. Willey. iI Newsweek III :33 F 8 '88 NARCOTICS TRADE MUSICAL COMEDIES, REVUES, ETC. See ;>.lusicals, revues, etc. See also MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRONIC Boats in narcotics regulation Narcotics laws and regulations It's alive with the sound of-well. just about everything (Synclavier Robots in narcotics regulation synthesizer) L. Helm. iI Business Wcyk p75 F 8 '88 Teen drug dealers: uncovering the real story. \\V White and K. Dick~ erson. it 'Tall 32:36~9+ F '88 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS INDUSTRY See ..Iso Panama The dictator in the dock [M. A. Noriega] N, Cooper\" il par Newsweek Ne\\\"\" England Digital Corporation 111:33F22'88 MUSICALS, REVUES, ETC Drugs, money and death [cover story,. special section] iI pars map Choreography Newswak 111:32·6+ F 15 '88 More bad news for Noriega. N, Cooper. iI par Newsweek 111:37 F 8 Sct' Choreography '88 Reviews Noriega'·s money machine [aides testify before Senate subcomrnit· Single works teel M. S. Serrill iI Time 131:39·40 F 22 '88 Anything goes Dance Maqa=:ine il62:52-7 Ja '88 1.. Gruen ~ Cabaret Dmz,:.: Magazine 62:73.4 Ja '88, H, .\\1, Simpson The chosen Tht\" Nmion 246:176 F 6 '88. T. M Disch Into the woods Dane,' Maga:::inc: 62:64 Ja '88. K. Grubb Oil City Symphony TlzeNation 246:175~6 F 6 ·88. T. 1\\1. Disch The phantom of the opera Lire ill1:88-92 F '88. .\\1. Stasio ,\\{adealls il 101:51 F 8 '88, L. Black Ne\\\\-' York i121:89~90 F 8 '88. 1. Simon The New Yorka 63:97~8 F 8 '88. M. Kramer N,-It'sln.'ck iI par 111:68~70+ F 8 '88.1. KrolJ Rolling Stone iI p26 F 25 '88. D. Handelman Time il 131 :83·4 F 8 '88 IV, A Henrv Stage setting and scenery High~tech magic: follow that gondola [Phantom of the opera] J Kroll. iI Ncwsm:d.: 111:70 F 8 '88 Writing Changing the face of Broadway [A. Lloyd \\Vebber] M, Stasio, iI pors LIfe 11 :88-92 F '88 MUSICIANS Sa also FIGURE A-l APage from the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature
A4 Appendix A: Using the Library 1 /3 2 \\,,\\ \\ .:;'DOLESCENCE ~ I -dJil 301.43 Eagan, .:;.ndrea Boroff 7?Y' , ,E :·.'hy am I so misera~le if ~hese are che best: years or my llIe? A survival guide for che young woman; \\'iith an incroduccion by Ellen Frankfort. Lippincott 19'76 6 ~2S1P illus 45 o FIGURE A-2 Sample Subject Catalog Card Source: Lilian LShapiro, Teaching Yourselfin Ubraries (New York: H. WWilson, 1978), 3-4. Used by permission. e Education Index The Card Catalog e Applied Science and Technology Index e A Guide to Geographic Periodicals In the traditional paper system, the card catalog is e General Science Index the main reference system for finding out where e Biological and Agricultural Index books are stored. Each book is described on three e Nursing and Applied Health Index separate 3-by-S cards. The cards are then filed in III Nursing Studies Index three alphabetical sets. One set is arranged by au- III Index to Little Magazines thor, another by title, and the third by subject III Popular Periodical Index matteL III Biography Index III Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report If you want to find a particular book. you can III Library Literature look it up in either the author file or the title file. III Bibliographic Index If you only have a general subject area of interest, you should thumb through the subject catalog. Fig- Using the Stacks ure A-2 presents a sample card in the card catalog. Notice the follOwing elements: Serious research usually involves using the stacks, where most of the library's books are stored. This L Subject heading (always in capital letters) section provides information about finding books in 2. Author's name (last name, first name) the stacks. 3. Title of the book 4. Publisher 5. Date of publication 6. Number of pages in the book plus other infor- mation (such as whether the book contains illustrations)
Using the Stacks AS 7. Call number needed to find a nonfiction book H SOCIAL SCIENCES on the library shelves; fiction is generally found in alphabetical order by the author'S name H62.B2 The Practice ofSocial Research HE-HJ Economics and business HM-HX Sociology Library at' Congress Classification J POLmCAL SCIENCE Here's a useful strategy to use when you're re- JK United States searching a topic. Once you've identified the call IN Europe number for a particular book in your subject area, go to the stacks, find that book, and look over the JQ Asia, Africa other books on the shelves near it. Because the books are arranged by subjeCT matter, this method JX International relations will help you locate relevant books you didn't know K LAW about. L EDUCATION Alternatively, you may want to go directly to the stacks and look at books in your subject area. In M MUSIC most libraries, books are arranged and numbered according to a subject matter classification devel- N FINE ARTS oped by the Library of Congress. (Some follow the Dewey decimal system.) The following is a selected NA Architecture list of Library of Congress categories. NB Sculpture NC Graphic arts ND Painting NE Engraving NK Ceramics, textiles P LAt'l\"GUAGE AND LITERATURE PE English language PG Slavic language Library at' Congress ClaSSifications PJ-PM Oriental language (partial) PN Drama, oratory, journalism PQ Romance literature A GENERAL WORKS PR English literature PS American literature B PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY. RELIGION PT Germanic literature Q SCIENCE B-BD Philosophy BF Psychology QA Mathematics QB Astronomy BL-BX Religion C HISTORY-AUXILIARY SCIENCES QC Physics D HISTORY (except America) QD Chemistry QE Geology DA-DR Europe DS Asia QH-QR Biology R MEDICINE DT Africa E-F HISTORY (America) RK Dentistry E United States RT Nursing S AGRlCULTURE-PLANT AND ANIMAL ESl-99 Indians of North America E18S Negroes in the United States INDUSTRY FlOl-1140 Canada T TECHNOLOGY F1201-3799 Latin America TA-TL Engineering G GEOGRAPHY-ANTHROPOLOGY TR Photography U MILITARY SCIENCE G-GF Geography GC Oceanology and oceanography V NAVAL SCIENCE GN Anthropology Z BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LIBRARY GV Sports, amusements, games SCIENCE
A6 Appendix A: Using the library AU Kinloch-Graham-c' TI The Changing Definition and Content of Sociology in Introductory Textbooks, 1894-1981. SO International Review of Modern Sociology. 1984, 14, 1,spring, 89-103. DE Sociology-Education; (081 0300).Textbooks; (0863400). AB An analysis of 105 introductory sociology textbooks published between 1894 & 1981 reveals historical changes in definitions of the discipline & major topics in relation to professional factors & changing societal contexts. Predominant views of sociology in each decade are discussed, with the prevailing view being that of a \"scientific study of social structure in order to decrease conflict & deviance, thereby increasing social control.\" Consistencies in this orientation over time, coupled with the textbooks' generally low sensitivity to social issues, are explored in terms of their authors' relative homo- geneity in age & educational backgrounds. 1 Table, 23 References. Modified HA. FIGURE A-3 AResearch Summary from Sociological Abstracts Computerized library Files search by limiting, for instance, language or period of the publication. Once you identify the articles Increasingly, library materials are cataloged elec- you're interested in, the computer will print out tronically. While there are different computerized their abstracts. library systems, here's a typical example of how they work Of particular value to social science researchers, the publications Sociological Abstrads and Psychologi- Sitting at a computer terminal-in the library, cal Abstrads present summaries of books and ar- at a computer lab, or at home-you can type the ticles-often prepared by the original authors-so title of a book and in seconds see a video display of that you can locate a great many relevant refer- a catalog card. If you want to explore the book fur- ences easily and effectively. As you find relevant ther. you can type an instruction at the terminal references, you can track down the original works and see an abstract of the book and see the full details. The summaries are avail- able in both written and computerized forms. Alternatively, you might type a subject name and see a listing of all the books and articles written Figure A-3 contains the abstract of an article on that topic. You could skim through the list and obtained in a computer search of Sociological Ab- indicate which ones you want to see. strads. I began by asking for a list of articles dealing with sociology textbooks. After revievving the list, I Many libraries today provide access to periodi- asked to see the abstracts of each of the listed ar- cals and books via the World Wide Web. Your li- ticles. Here's an example of what I received seconds brary's computerized system should allow you to later: an article by sociologist Graham C. Kinloch, see which materials are available online. Some- published in the International Review ofModem times whole dissertations or books can be down- Sociology. loaded. Most likely. your largest local library pro- vides document delivery services to its members. In case the meaning of the abbreviations in Fig- ure A- 3 isn't in1IDediately obvious, I should explain Many college libraries now have access to the that AU is author; TI is title; SO is the source or lo- Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC). cation of the original publication; DE indicates This computer-based system allows you to search classification codes under which the abstract is ref- through hundreds of major educational journals to erenced; and AB is the abstract. The computerized find articles published in the subject area of your availability of resources such as Sociological Abstrads interest (within the field of education). As a rule, provides a powerful research tool for modern social each library website should have a list of the data- scientists. You'll have the option to download or bases by discipline that you can visit, which may print, with or without the abstract. any title you help you limit the number of titles related to a find through the library's browsers. specific keyword. Make sure you narrow your
Additional Readings A7 If a document is not available in the library it- Contains a step-by-step guide for writing self or via the web, you always have the resource of research papers; chapters on periodicals, interlibrary loans, which often are free. Libraries abstract and indexing services, bibliographies, don't own every document or multimedia material bibliographical aids, and other secondary (CD-ROM, videocassettes, laser disks, films), but sources; and a complete guide to government many have loan agreements that can serve your and nongovernment sources of data. Special needs. You need to be aware of the time you can section on sex roles and women's studies. expect between your request and actually receiving the book or article. In the case of a book that is lo- Li, Tze-chung. 1990. Social Science Reference Sources. A cated in another library close by, for example, it Practical Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. may be smarter for you to get it directly yourself. Lists and describes all types of reference materi- The key to a good library search is to become well als, induding databases and archives as well as informed. So start networking with librarians, fac- published sources. Organized into two parts: so- uIty, and peers! cial sciences in general and by diScipline. ADDITIONAL READINGS Richlin-Klonsky, Judith, and Ellen Strenski. eds. 1998. A Guide to Writing Sociology Papers. New Bart, Pauline, and Linda FrankeL 1986. The Student York: St. Martin's Press. This is a great little book Sociologist's Handbook. New York: Random House. with good advice on doing research. It's particu- A survival kit for doing sociological research. larly useful for those who are new to sociology or other social science disciplines and have to learn about the most rudimentary aspects of research.
GSS Household Enumeration Questionnaire The National Opinion Research Center (NORC) at interviewers in collecting basic demographic data the University of Chicago is one of the primary so- about households selected in the sample. Question- cial science research centers in the world. Its Gen- naires such as these are an important part of the eral Social Survey (GSS), moreover, has become a scientific equipment used by social scientists. Just major source of social science data for researchers. as a microscope is an appropriate instrument for You may have noticed that many of the examples observing cells and molecules and a telescope for in this book have been taken from the GSS. It is observing distant planets and stars, a questionnaire fitting, therefore, that we turn to the GSS for an such as this one is often the best instrument for ob- example of an interview questionnaire. The fol- serving the subject matter of social science. lowing pages present the questionnaire used by AS
GSS INTERVIEltlER NA..ME AMERICA'S INTERVIEWER ID# ~_ _ _ _\" \" \" I I SOCIAL LJ . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ SURVEY 5325 NORC JA.1.'mARY 1990 HOUSEHOLD ENUMERATION FOLDER HEF COMPLETE SAMPLING REPORT INTRODUCTION: Hello, I'm (YOUR N.z\\NE) from the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago (SHOW ID CARD) . (\\']e recently sent you a letter explaining that) Your household has been selected to take part in this year IS GSS: .:::.'.lTlerica I s Social Survey\" ~le've,been conducting this study allover the country for more than fifteen years, ~earnlng about how people feel about issues like schools, crime, govern.rnent soend- lng, and the military\" This year several households in vour cOITl1l1unitv will be- oar- ticipating in this important research\" - -- Firs~1 I'd like to make sure that I have your street address described correctly. Is it. (READ FROH ASSIG:r:-TNENT LABEL OR BOX BELO~'l: STREET Nljl·1BER }1.ND N.?:..NE, F~PARTr.1ENT NUl1BER OR OTHER DESCRIPTION OF HU.) IF EX.qCTLY THE Sl;l1E, CHECK BOX: O(GO TO Q.1, P.2) IF DIFFEHENT IN )ll\\IY t·l.?:...Y, EX2-\\HINE SEGHENT PRINTOUT Al\\JD RECONCILE. EXPLAIN THE DIF- fERENCE HERE: I ASSIGNM~:JTIF DIFFERENCE C.~.N/T BE RESOLVED, C~~.LL YOUR FIELD HP:..NAGER BEFORE CONTII:ftJING. INTERVIEWER, STICK L.;BEL HERE IF THIS IS A CASE YOU'RE ADDING (CASE # ) 01-06/ TO YOUR ASSIGN11ENT AS .\". I1ISSED HU, (PSU) 07-09/ COPY INFOP1,r..\".TION FROI1 ORIGINAL LABEL (SEG) 10-12/ SURVEY .5325 CASE# ( PT') 13/ (LINE iI) 14-23/ PSU (A, 3, or C) (X or Y) 24/ 1SEG PT LINE BLK (INTID) 25/ 26-31/ LOCALITY HU ADDRESS HU DESCRIPTION ~B' ORC X OR Y
1. Only one member of your household will be eligible for this survey. In order to TIME 11M scientifically select that person, first I need to list ti1e names of the people who BEGIIN: PM usually live here. 2. Please l:ell me the names of the people \\-Jho usuiJll y 9, Arc any of the people we have listed ll.ve lI1 thi:::; household. Let's st{)xt wi.til the head of staying !30mewhcre p1 Sf' right nO\\·J\"? the hotlsehold. LTS'!' ON L,JNES 01- j 0 BELOW. If: NO, CHECK BOX AND SKIP '!'O Q. 12 0 U' YES, GO TO Q, ]0 BELOW, 3. Have W0 forgotten anyone: :-::;uch uS babies 01\" smuLl childreni roolllcJ:Sj people 1,-Jho usuillly 1 Lve here, !Jut 5. (> • '1 B, 0, 11. arc aVJay tempoJ:Lll:Jly-on business trips, vacatlons, Who is at schoo'\\, temporarJ.ly 111 a hasp.Ltal, and so on? !Wildt is CODE SEX 1I0w oJd rrUY.!l..2QE staYl.ng i l ll\\lili. £QJ3. BIICII pEHSON CHECKED (PEH.SON) , [; (;\\SK IF or,DER l\\lili.; somc- Yes 0 [,IS'[' i\\Dr~l'l'lONAL PEH.80NS ON LINES NOT \\·,,,s (IIEADI Is (PEHSONI no\\'l \\vhere J11 Q.\" J..Q.: No 0 01-10 IlEI.oI'i. reJat.io.nsllip OBVIOUS) llI.:Irried, else Wher'c .1.S (PERSON) stLlyj ng l-.1.Uht Lo (IIEA[) OF PEHSONI widowed, now: Is (PERSON) stLlying at GO TO Q. 'I. 1i0USEIIOLDI? on (his/ divorced, right separated, or now? another household; J~-3 (he/she) II. Are there dny people cllI:rently Sl~LlYl11g here- herl last has Ihelshel trdvc.l ing; l!\":l (he/she) .I.n sOllie birtllday? never been CHECK visttors, friends or relatLv12::i-YLlill ill !.1..!2t. l.lli.!J..iJ.l. Inst.i tul: lon or donnJ tory-l_i ke Indl:r1.ed'? I'll at college, or ill a 1l0f:;pltal or lIve IlF\"n\"\"? Na W, D1 Sc NM L,INE OF someth Illg; 0[' what '? Yes 0 L,IS'!' VTS[TOHS ON LINES lI-l4 BELOW, 53 EACH ICTHCI,!': CODE, FOLLOW JNSTHUC'1'TONS No 0 GO '1'0 Q.5. PERSON Another 'I'raVel.-llnS~j Otllcr WIIO [S IIFTEH QS, 1-4, ASK <)S, 5 - B 1'01{ EliCH PEHSON, 1I0w:;e- .I.n~l tut.lon DK IIVIIIY. iJole! IN F First N,-\\Jnc Last name ::;0 49 51-52 54 55 CROSS 4* IIEAIl OU'I' L.EIIVE CROSS IN OU'!, 56 5'1 58-59 60 61 62 CROSS LEAVE CROSS 4* 02 OU'1' IN OUT G3 6'1 G5-G6 67 60 69 CROSS LEAVE CHOSS 4* 03 OUT IN OU'I' ~ BEGIN DECK 03 0'/ OB 09-10 t1 I ~ 2 13 ~::::J I 0'1 CROSS LEAVE clmss '1'\" (f) OUT IN OU'1' ::::J 05 1.'1 l5 16-17 IB 19 LEAVE Cl{OSS 2(l 25 CHODS IN (lG 21 7,7. 23-7.'1 32 lJU'I' OUT '1'\" /. I,EiIVE 0'/ 2B 7.9 30-3 3:.1 26 IN CHOSS ').'/ 46 CHOSS OUT OB 35 36 J?-3B 53 OU'I' LEIlVE 'I * 2 60 IN CHOSS 09 67 33 DU'I' 34 112 '13 '14 -iJ. 5 Ll CHOSS LEAVE '1* 10 2 Hl OU'!' IN CI{OSS OU'I' 41 11 BEGIN DECK 04 49 50 51-52 40 L,EAVE 4* CHOSS I.N CI{OSS pc; 56 57 f.JH-59 OU'[' DIJ'I' '11l 2 LEIlVE 'I * o 4'1 IN CHOSS 63 64 ()5-6G CROSS OU'!, 5S E-I I 17. 7. OIJ'!, LEAVE 4* IN CHOSS H 07 08 09-10 5/j OU'!' 62 Cf) CROSS 2 H 1'1 15 1.6-1'1 OUT LI,IIVE CHOSS I} \". OU'I' :> 61 IN 69 CROSS 4* 13 CHOSS LEAVE OUT IN 13 14 OUT CROSS 'I * I,EAVE OU'!' IF MOHE TIlIlN 10 USUAL PERSONS AND/OR ~lORE Til AN <1 68 IN 20 VISITORS, USE A BL.ANK liEF FOR ,\\DDI'['IONAL L.IS'I'ING, CHOSS 'I * OUT 12 CHOSS OU'I' 19 CROSS OUT AFTEH Q. 8 FOR * PROBE FOR DE'l'AIL.S AND CHECK IN'!'ERVI EWER LAS'1' PEHSON 1.3 011 OLDER, MIlNUAL, FOH IIEL.I' IF NECESSARY ASK Q.9,
SAMPLING 'l'ABLE 12. Now I'm going to sCientifically select the one person in STEP 3: USE SAMPLING TABLE '1'0 NUMBER OF INT'ERVIEW this household chosen for this study. By interviewing THE RIGHT TO SELEC'l' ELIGIBLE PERSON ON only the person picJ(ed in this way, we can be sure the WHICH ELIGIBLE PERSON PERSONS LINE NUMBEE views we find do accurately represent the views of the '1'0 IN'rERVIEW. country as a whole. LISTED ABOVE :~ ill Al A (f) ~ (JJ t\"lj 1-] TWO ' Z;3 (JJ H THREE nty I~' ;3 j\"':J fDlQ 1_\" ::»: STEP ELIGIBLE PEOPLE: 18 OR OVER FOUR I~ 1:1 en 1:-1 NAME NOT CROSSED OU'l' ON HOUSEHOLD ENUMERATION (P.2) FIVE (JJ ;3 en ;t~J U1 ru i!; IF ONLY ONE ELIGIBLE PERSON, GO TO Q.13 AND MAKE SIX OR MORE !-h :fD:1 td APPOINTMENT '1'0 INTERVIEW THAT PERSON. 0.. ITI '\" 1-; rl\" 'tJ IF MORE THAN ONE, CONTINUE WITH STEPS 2-6 BEL,OW. L~ :c:G: ::r: H \"0 ;3 () , ITI Z o0 ::00 IT] :v1<1-'; 10ill 0, 'D 1-\" (Q 0.. I~' (JJ fD - ::0 ::J ill Q; H t-) ill t'o3 STEP 2: IJIST NAMES OF ELIGIBLE PEOPLE IN SUMMARY BOX, IN 1-' 1-' \"h ORDER OF AGE. I~ 0 0 :r:'J' 'TI ill1<() I~'::1 :t:, o j..J. (JJ (Q rD ,:; (JJ (Jl 1-; (Jl SUMMARY BOX 1-\" H AGE NAMES OF ELIGIBLE PERSONS Ul 0 Z LINE II I OLDEST 1 (Not 2 necessarily STEP 4: CIRCLE SELECTED R'S LINE I IN SUMMAEY BOX. the head) ST'EP 5: PRINT SELEC'!'ED R' S NAME l-IERE: 3 STEP 6: ARRANGE '1'0 INTERVIEW THIS PERSON. REQUEST PHONE AND MAILING INFORMA'rION (Qs.13 AND 14) TO HELP IN I FOLLOW-UP. 4 - 5 YOUNGEST' 6 13. If I have to talk with (SELECTED RESPONDENT), what phone IMMEDIATELY AF'l'ER LEAVING 1'HE HOUSEHOLD, FIL,L, OU'I' A-D BELOW nu~)ers should I use? AND COMPLE'I'E THE SAMPLING REPOR'I'. Telephone number given: AI{EA CUDE NUl,mEH A. Date l-lEF administered: [I] [I] [I] 23-25/ A. Code location of phone: HON'I'II DAY YE!\\H In household ................................. 1 22/ B. Name of HEF i.nformant: __________________ In horne of neighbor .......................... 2 Other (SPECIFY) ...... 3 B. If no number given, code C. List lj~ne number of HE!\"; n formanl- [I] No phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Refused ...................................... 5 from Household Enumerat:lon (10.2, Q.I\\) ... 26-27/ II f non-household informant, 1 ine II = 22) 14. If I have to mail a note to (SELECTED RESPONDENT), what D. Eace of household (by observation) would be the best mailing address to use? II AND STREET / BOX II/FWD If Whi te ...................................... . 28/ Black/Negro ................................. 2 Ameclcan Indian ............................. 3 POS'!' OFFICE, '!'OWN ASiatic, Oriental .... , .. < •• , , •••••••••• , , I}• • < Other, mixed, not able to observe ........... 5 STATE ZIP CODE [ I ]E. L.ist line number of ~;elecLed ,-pspondenl- from Household Enumeration (10.2, Q.1)... 29-30/ THANK I{ESPONDENT FOE THEIR TIME AND HEL.!\". 'l'IME AM HEF PM ENDED: LENGTH MIN OF '!'IME FOR HEF:
HEF-4 HEF-5 NIR NON-INTERVIEW REPORT (NIR) Name (i f known): __________________________ A. Describe your efforts to obtain information about the occupants. Telephone number, (if available) ,________________ 38-39/ please Circle Appropriate Code: 4. IF REFUSED OR BHEAKOFF: HEF not completed\"\" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·l 31/ Did the respondent give the refusal? HEF complete/interview incomplete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Ans.0< • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • A) . . . . 1 40/ 1. Why were you unable to complete HEF/Interview at this No .. \" \" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Ans\" B) .... 2 address? DK. HEF not complete . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Skip to Q.6) .... 8 A. TF YES: Why did the respondent (refuse/breakoff)? NO'!' AN HU: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \" . \" ........ 32 - 33/ Condemned ..... \" .................... \" .. (Ans. Q. 2) . 01 (Report verbatim remarks and reasons.) .. 41-42 Demolished ........................... , (Ans. Q.2) .02 Place of business ..................... (Ans. Q\"2) .03 (SKIP TO Q. 6) No such address/no such HU . . . . . . . . . . . . (Ans. Q.2) .04 Group quarters ........................ (Ans. Q.2) .05 B. TF NO: Why were you unable to speak with 43-44/ vacation cabin ................ 0< •••••• (Ans. Q.2) \"06 the respondent? Not usable as permanent resj.dence ..... (Ans. Q.2) .07 Transient use (less than one month) ... (Ans. Q. 2) .08 (SKIP TO Q.6) Not an HU for other reason . . . . . . . . . . . . (Ans. Q.2) .09 Still under construction .............. (Ans. Q.2) .10 5. IF TEMPOHAIULY UNAVAIL.AHT.E FOR nlE ENTIHE PEHIOD; VACAN'l' . . . . . . (Skip t o Q. 7) .110< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \" • \" . . . REFUSED .... \" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Skip to Q.4) .12 What is the reason for this status? BREAKOFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \" . . . . . . . . . . 1Skip to Q. 4) .13 45-46/ NOT HOME AFTER 4 CALLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Skip to Q.3) .14 RESPONDENT IS UNAVAILABLE FOR ENTIRE A. When will H be available? FIELD PERIOD ...................... (Skip to Q.5) .15 LANGUAGE PROBLEM (SPECIFY LANGUAGE SPOKEN) 47-48/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \" . . . . . . . . . . . . ISKIP '1'0 Q.7) .16 TOO ILL (DESCRIBE SITUATION ON PAGE 7) 6. Was a follow-up letter sent to the respondent? ................................... (Skip to Q.7) .17 O'l'HER (DESCRIBE SITUATION ON PAGE 7) Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \" . \" ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Ans. A) .... 1 49/ .. \" ................................ ISkip to Q\"7) .18 No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Ans. B) .... 2 DK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2. IF NOT AN HU; A. IF YES: Dj.d you speak with R after receipt of letter? Describe the reason for this NIR fully, then go to Q.19. 34 -35/ Yes ............................... ··········\"······150/ No ..... \" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Ans. B) .... 2 3. IF NUl' A'r I·IOME AF'I'ER 1. CALL,S: DK .. \" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Why do you think it has been so hard to find the B. IF NO: why not? occupants of this housing unit at home? ANSWER ~ UNLESS NO'1' AN Htl 36-37/ 7. Were you ever able to talI< with someone at this HU (not necessarily a resident)? yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . \"\" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (GO TO Q.8) .... 1 51/ No ... \"\" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \" . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Ans. A) .... 2 Don't know.\" ....................................... 3 A. Why not? 52-53/ 15. What is your estimate of the age oE the Household Head? 8. On any calls were there people in the HU who did not Under 30 ............... \" \" .......................... 1 63/ answer the door? 30-64 .... \"\" ........................................ 2 65 or older ........................................ 3 Yes, definitely .. \" .................................. 1 54/ Don't know ....... \"\" ................................ 8 Suspect so ......................................... 2 No Leason to think so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 16. Type of structure. ANSWER Qs 9-17 FROM INFOHMATION OBTAINED BY OBSERVA'l'ION 64-65 AND/OH CONTACTS WITH HM MEMBERS, NEIGHBOHS AND OTHEH SOUHCES. Trailer ................................. \" ......... 01 Detached single family house .......... \" ....... \" ... 02 2 family house, 7, units side by side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03 9. What is the estimated income of H's family? (NOTE: IF 7, family house, 2 units one above the other ....... 04 MUL.'I'IpLE FAMILIES AND R NOT DE'I'ERMINED, ESTIMATE FOH PHIMARY FAMILY.) Detached 3-4 family house ......................... 05 Howhouse (3 or more units in an attached row) ..... 06 Low ............ \" .............................. \" .... 1 55/ Apartment house (5 or more units, Medium .......... \" .................................. 2 High ............................................... 3 3 stories or less) .\" ............................ 07 Don't know/unable to observe ...... \" .. , ............. 8 Apartment house (5 or more units, 4 stories or more) ........................... \" .. 08 Apartment j.n a partly commercial structure ........ 09 10. Were you able to complete the household listing? Other (SPECIFY) ......... 10 yes ................ \" ............ (Skip to Q.16) .... 1 56/ 17. Compared to house/apartments in the neighborhood, No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \" (Ans. Qs. 11- 20) .... 2 would you say the house/apartment was . 11. What is the race of the residents? Far above average .................................. 1 66/ Above average ...................................... 2 White .............................. (definitely) .... 1 57/ Average ............................. , .............. 3 White ..... \" ......................... (probably) .... 2 Below average ....... \" .................. \" ........... 4 Black .............................. (defini tely) .... 3 Far below average .................................. 5 Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (probably) ... . /] Hispanic ............................. \" ............. 5 18. ADDITIONAL COMMENTS: Asiatic/Oriental ................................... 6 Other (DESCRIBE) ................................... 7 Could not determine ................................ 8 12. Estimate tl1e number of adults living in the HU. n of adults: IT] 58-59/ 19. Interviewer Name: 13. Estimate the number of adult males living in the HU. 20. Interviewer Number: 21. Enter Supervisor's name. n of adults, IT] 60-61/ I-D 14. Is there a married (or living as married) couple living J.n the tIU? Yes ...... \" \" ........................................ 1 62/
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